ALL TEACHERS ARE TEACHERS OF LITERACY The Rhode Island PreK-12 Literacy Policy calls for instruction that is designed to meet individual student needs by being accessible, flexible, and engaging. This instruction incorporates strategies, methods, and resources that ensure literacy success for all. It is critical for all teachers to understand each of the essential elements of literacy and incorporate them into a comprehensive literacy framework. The elements are best taught and learned through an integrated approach within meaningful contexts. “Good reading instruction utilizes research-based instructional strategies and skills that include the five critical components of reading as defined in the National Reading Panel’s report” (Reading: The Foundation Children Need to Succeed: For Policy Makers, The Partnership for Reading, 2003). Acquiring literacy competencies is an on-going process that continues to develop throughout a reader’s life. Therefore, incorporated within this document are applicable techniques/practices that span the grade levels to help provide practical applications for all teachers. Introduction The Many Strands that are Woven into Skilled Reading (Scarborough, 2001) LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE LANGUAGE STRUCTURES VERBAL REASONING LITERACY KNOWLEDGE WORD RECOGNITION PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS DECODING (and SPELLING) SIGHT RECOGNITION Skilled Reading- fluent coordination of word reading and comprehension processes
Transcript
ALL TEACHERS ARE TEACHERS OF LITERACY
The Rhode Island PreK-12 Literacy Policy calls for instruction that is designed to meet individual student needs by being accessible, flexible, and engaging. This instruction incorporates strategies, methods, and resources that ensure literacy success for all. It is critical for all teachers to understand each of the essential elements of literacy and incorporate them into a comprehensive literacy framework. The elements are best taught and learned through an integrated approach within meaningful contexts. “Good reading instruction utilizes research-based instructional strategies and skills that include the five critical components of reading as defined in the National Reading Panel’s report” (Reading: The Foundation Children Need to Succeed: For Policy Makers, The Partnership for Reading, 2003). Acquiring literacy competencies is an on-going process that continues to develop throughout a reader’s life. Therefore, incorporated within this document are applicable techniques/practices that span the grade levels to help provide practical applications for all teachers.
Introduction
The Many Strands that are Woven into Skilled Reading (Scarborough, 2001)
LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE
LANGUAGE STRUCTURES
VERBAL REASONING
LITERACY KNOWLEDGE
WORD RECOGNITION
PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS
DECODING (and SPELLING)
SIGHT RECOGNITION
Skilled Reading- fluent coordination of word
reading and comprehension
processes
The Musts of Literacy
Students must have significant opportunities to integrate oral and written language in the
classroom.
Pre-school and kindergarten instruction must build knowledge of phonemic awareness,
which is the ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds in spoken
words.
Students must write to communicate, to organize thoughts, to make sense of new
knowledge, to express, and to remember and show learning.
In order to read words, readers must figure out the relationship between printed letters (graphemes) and their sounds (phonemes); they must know how print maps to sound –
the alphabetic principle. Phonics
As students move towards high school
graduation by the demonstration of proficiency, they must have multiple
opportunities for content area writing.
Students must receive direct instruction in
high-frequency words. Phonics
Students must understand the mathematics
they are learning.
Fluency must be taught as part of effective
reading instruction.
Content area teachers must provide and
reinforce instruction of skills and strategies that are effective in their subject area.
Vocabulary words that are conceptually
difficult or represent complex concepts not part of students’ everyday experience must
be intentionally taught.
English Language Learners must have
access to the entire curriculum regardless of the amount of English they bring to the
reading experience.
There are key prominent
thinking/comprehension strategies that must be explicitly taught and lead to deeper text
comprehension.
Teachers must explicitly address student motivation as an integral part of lesson
planning.
Evaluation and assessment must be included
as integral parts of a literacy curriculum.
Comprehension strategies, used before, during, and after reading, must be directly
and explicitly taught (separately then in combination) over an extended period of
time.
Teachers must continually monitor reading progress through both formal and informal
assessment.
Teaching text structures must be part of effective comprehension instruction.
In order to produce a literate society, schools
must construct opportunities for family engagement.
Five Essential Areas of Reading Instruction
Understandings About Literacy
Effective comprehension instruction is more than just asking questions to assess student learning. It is instruction which includes helping students to become more strategic, metacognitive readers so they will understand what they read within multiple text structures and across content areas.
Reading with a Purpose Before Reading During Reading After Reading Help students Set a purpose for reading Focus attention Preview the text to:
Activate and build students’ background knowledge Introduce vocabulary Help students make predictions
Help students: Monitor/clarify Repair comprehension (when needed) Stop for reactions, comments, questions, and predictions Avoid too many interruptions
Help students: Determine important
or main ideas and summarize Draw conclusions and
make inferences Evaluate information
and personal use of strategies Assimilate
information into knowledge base
Text Comprehension is the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language. (The RAND Reading Study Group, 2002)
Description/Classification Like For
example Examples
Emotion Words
Colors Numbers
Procedure/policy/process with details Words which engage the readers’ senses
Compare/Contrast However Similarity In contrast Substitute Instead of Where as Even though
Like…as More importantly
Although Think of The second thing But Or Liken Resemble Oppose Despite that Opposite Similes Otherwise Metaphors In
addition to Analogies
Question/Answer Because Even though Despite that Actually For example In spite of Perhaps Look for a question mark ?
Problem/Solution Because Cost The Despite that Resolved Otherwise Result Possibly Clarification Fault Tribulation In conclusion Annoyance Conflict My conclusion Worry Question Distress Puzzle Disturbance Difficulty Perhaps Perplexity Prior history Trouble In reference Malfunction Since If Accordingly In fact A solution Consequence Answer In efforts to Mishap Thus Could be Concerned Argued Problem
Technique/Practice
Before Reading
During Reading
After Reading
Analogy Graphic Organizer Anticipation Guides Brainstorming Prior Knowledge Chapter Tours Character Quotes Concept/Definition Mapping Different Perspectives Discussion Web DR-TA Elaborative Interrogations History Change Frame History Memory Bubbles Inquiry Charts Interactive Reading Guides Jigsaw K-W-L Plus Learning Logs Magnet Summaries Math Reading Keys Mind Mapping Paired Reviews Point-of-View Study Guide Possible Sentences Power Notes Problematic Situations Proposition/Support Outline Pyramid Diagram Question-Answer Relationships Questioning the Author
CUE/ SIGNAL Words
CUE/ SIGNAL Words (continued)
For additional techniques/practices and more detailed information refer to Doug Buehl’s Classroom Strategies for Interactive Learning, 2001; California Department of Education’s Strategic Teaching and Learning, 2000; and the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory at http://www.ncrel.org/litweb/adolescent/strategies.php .
Technique/Practice (continued)
Before Reading
During Reading
After Reading
Question Dissection RAFT (Role/Audience/Format/Topic) Read/ Think Alouds Save the Last Word for Me Science Connection Overview Semantic Feature Analysis SMART (Self- Monitoring Approach to Reading and Thinking)
Story Impressions Story Mapping Structured Note Taking Template Frames Vocabulary Overview Guide Word Family Trees You Ought to Be in Pictures
Cause/Effect Because In the end The results are Produces A cause of It influences Creates Therefore It would induce So Then Another reason From If This meant Why The sequel As a
consequence Since It started when
Sequence First, second To begin
with In the beginning
Last On In conclusion Finally Today It started when Long ago It began on Long, long ago Now Previously Next prior to Before long Not long
after The second thing
Later Look at adverbs and prepositions
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction includes:
• Expanding word knowledge through definitions and context • Actively involving students • Using discussions of words and related concepts to develop word consciousness, learn word meanings, and make
connections between concepts and words • Modeling word-learning strategies by demonstrating how to:
o determine the meanings of words based on their context, o look up words in a dictionary, glossary, thesaurus, etc., and o recognize and use information about word parts.
Not all words need to be taught using this approach. In order to make decisions about the specific words to teach, the teacher must preview the passage/text/theme, list words that might be challenging for that group of students, and prioritize these words by their importance. What does it really mean to know a word?
Students need to have a deep conceptual understanding of words to successfully build a large rich vocabulary. This chart describes how to expand the word knowledge for students.
University of Texas/Texas Education Agency. Texas Teacher Reading Academies Presenter Guide Master: Part III. Texas: Texas Education Agency and Texas Center for Reading and Language Arts, 2002.
Vocabulary refers to the words we must know to communicate effectively. (Armbruster et al., 2001)
Multiple Levels of Understanding
Antonyms
Synonyms
Non-examples
Examples
Reword Definitions /Kid Friendly
Definitions
Discuss multiple meanings
Create sentences or stories using new vocabulary
Contexts
Vocabulary Words
Verbal
Association Level
• everyday use • definitional/single
contexts • wide and varied interactive reading
• learn words as they appear in context
Partial Concept Knowledge • deeper level of understanding
• knowledge of multiple meaning possibilities • explicit strategies for words integral to story’s meaning
• graphic organizers to extend definitional knowledge
Full Concept Knowledge • deep level of understanding that includes knowledge of word families,
multiple meaning, and ways to extend definitions to applications • ability to discriminate word from similar words • ability to extend definition to related concepts
• explicit strategies for connecting and extending words • opportunities for students to integrate word and concept in meaningful use
Allen, J. Words, Words, Words: Teaching Vocabulary in Grades 4-12. Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 1999. Page 13.
Beck and McKeown (2002) generalize vocabulary into three levels/tiers.
Tier One Tier Two Tier Three Explanation
• most basic words • rarely requiring
instruction in school
• high frequency words for mature language users
• instruction can add productively to an individual’s language ability
• words whose frequency of use is quite low
• often limited to specific domains
• best learned when needed in a content area
Examples red mother
run house happy
coincidence absurd
fortunate industrious merchant
Criteria for identification by teacher: • Words that are characteristic of mature
language users • Words that appear in a variety of domains • Words for which students understand the
general concept
plateau isotope
democracy
Beck, I., and M. McKeown. Bringing Words to Life. New York: Guildford Press, 2002.
An Oral Record of Reading Behavior (often referred to as a Running Record™) is a record that provides teachers with a quick and easy assessment in all three dimensions of fluency and the reading behaviors their students exhibit as they are reading. The analysis of the Oral Record of Reading Behavior supplies information on all three of the dimensions of fluency:
• Accuracy; • Automaticity; and, • Prosody.
An analysis of these records also monitors student progress, highlights specific skills and strategies students are using, and provides information for instructional decision making. By using analyses, teachers are then able to address specific needs of individual students, organize student groups with similar needs, and select appropriate level texts.
Accuracy The number of words correctly recognized or decoded in continuous text is calculated using this formula:
(total # of words in the selection - # of errors) / total # of words in the selection X 100 = % of accurate reading Take the total number of words in selection and subtract the number of errors. Divide the difference by the total number of words read. Then multiply that number by 100.
Example: Student read 123 words and had 7 errors 123-7 X 100 = 94 % accuracy
123
Prosody
Fluency is the ability to read text accurately, quickly, and with smoothness and expression. (National Reading Panel, 2000)
National Assessment Educational Progress Fluency Scale Level 4 Reads primarily in larger, meaningful phrase groups. Although some regressions,
repetitions, and deviations from text may be present, these do not appear to detract from the overall structure of the story. Preservation of the author’s syntax is consistent. Some or most of the story is read with expressive interpretation.
Level 3 Reads primarily in three or four word phrase groups. Some smaller groupings may be present. However, the majority of phrasing seems appropriate and preserves the syntax of the author. Little or no expressive interpretation is present.
Level 2 Reads primarily in two word phrases with some three or four word groupings. Some word- by-word reading may be present. Word groupings may seem awkward and unrelated to larger context of sentence or passage.
Level 1 Reads primarily word-by-word. Occasional two word or three word phrases may occur, but these are infrequent and/or they do not preserve meaningful syntax.
Automaticity
Use a timer during the Oral Record of Reading Behavior to record the minutes and seconds it took the student to read the selection. Then divide the number of words read by the minutes. Example: Student read
240 words in 1 minute and 42 seconds. 240/1.7 =141 words per minute.
In developing students’ reading fluency, it is most helpful to utilize multiple approaches: Read Aloud models reading and motivates readers. During read aloud, the student (listener) hears how intonation, expression, phrasing, and pausing are used to create and extend meaning. Supported Reading provides a scaffold for the developing and struggling readers. Using this type of approach, the more proficient reader provides and gradually releases support as the student becomes increasingly independent. Instructional techniques include: Choral Reading, Paired Reading, Recorded Reading, Echo Reading, and Buddy Reading. Repeated Reading is a powerful tool for reading practice. This approach allows students to practice oral reading independently. Instructional techniques include: Repeated Reading through direct instruction, Radio Reading, Say It Like the Character, Mumble Reading, and Cooperative Repeated Reading. Performance Reading provides students with “real life” reading tasks. It requires students to use repeated reading in preparation for their performances, and to read for meaning before and during their performances. Instructional techniques include: Student-Led Read Aloud, Reader’s Theater, Reading and Performing Poetry.
For more detailed information refer to Timothy Rasinski’s The Fluent Reader, 2003.
Phonics is the relationship between the letters (graphemes) of written language and the individual sounds (phonemes) of spoken language. (Put Reading First 2001)
Beginning Letter-Sound Instruction • There are no set rules that govern how quickly teachers should introduce letter-sound relationships. An important factor to
consider when determining the rate of introduction is the performance of specific students. • The order of introduction should be logical and consistent with the rate at which students can learn. • Beginning instruction should introduce two or more single consonants followed by one or two short vowel sounds. The earliest
relationships introduced should be those that enable students to begin working with and reading words as soon as possible.. These relationships should have high utility; for example: the spellings m, a, t, s, p, and h. The following spellings have lower utility: x as in box; gh, as in through; ey as in they; and a as in want.
• Begin instruction for sound-letter relationships by choosing consonants such as f, m, n, r, and s, whose sounds can be pronounced in isolation. These sounds are considered continuous and are easier for students to blend.
• Instruction should separate the introduction of sounds for letters that are: o Auditorally confusing, such as /b/ and /v/ or /i/ and /e/; or o Visually confusing, such as b and d or p and g.
• Use a combination of instructional methods and reinforcement.
Breadth and Progression of Word Work Content Examples Grade Span
Tense (long) vowels bake, rain, seed Single consonants dress, edge, result Tense (long) vowels blow, light, find, shoe R-controlled vowels dear, bird, her Diphthongs spoil, boyfriend, cow, about Short vowel patterns with consonant digraphs caught, thought Consonant blends blink, find, spray Consonant digraphs which, kitchen Silent letters and oddities know, walk, calm, two Homophones two-to-too, plain-plane, their-there
Variant/conditional correspondences
Irregular spellings of high frequency words of, one, enough, said, four, forty
1-3
Closed syllable-when closed in by a consonant the vowel makes its short sound
apple, beverage, candle
Open syllable –when ends in a vowel, the vowel makes its long sound
acorn, before, retreat
Vowel combination- the two vowels together make a sound
awesome, trainer
Consonant-le –at the end of a word beagle, bible, little r- controlled vowel- when the word contains a vowel plus “r” the vowel is changed
sparkle, furnace
Silent e- when the word ends in a vowel consonant e the vowel makes its long sound
complete, suppose
Syllable patterns
Idiosyncratic active, atomic, village, furnace Prefixes anti-, co-, inter-, sub-, trans-, hemi-, un- Affixes Suffixes -s, -es, -ly, -tion, -able Word final /v/ -ve have, give, love Doubling of f, l, & s rule bell, off, guess Doubling final consonant rule running, occurred
Orthographic rules and syllable junctures
Change y to i rule babies, happily
2-5
Adapted from Ulichy, P., and T. Deeney. “Phonics and Word Study.” Coaches Training, Rhode Island Reading First, Providence, RI, December 2004.
Various Spellings for Vowel Sounds
/ō/ oCe note oa boat oe toe o most ow grow ough though ou soul oo brooch ew sew eau beau owe owe au mauve
/ā/ aCe ape ai rain ay say ea steak ey they eigh eight a paper ei vein aigh straight et ballet hei heir aig champaign au gauge
/ī/ iCe kite ie tie i wild igh night y fly eigh height ais aisle ei stein ye dye uy guy ia diamond
/ē/ ee meet ea seat ie chief y funny e she iCe petite i variation ei receive eCe eve ey key
/ū/ uCe mule u pupil ew few ue continue eu feud hu huge eau beauty you you ut debut iew view
/oo/ oo boot ue blue ew new u super ui suit uCe flute ou soup oe shoe o do wo two ough through
/ĕ/ e bed ea bread ai said ie friend ue guess a any ay says
/ǐ/ i in y myth e pretty ie sieve ui build
/er/ er faster ur turn ir girl or work ear learn yr myrtle ar dollar
/ŭ/ u tub ou touch oCe some a about o son oe does oo blood
/aw/ aw lawn au fraud a tall ough fought augh taught oa broad o toss ou cough
/ə/ a about e happen i direct o lesson u circus
/ow/ ow cow ou out ough drought
/oi/ oi soil oy toy
/oo/ oo cook oul would u put
/ǎ/ a cat ai plaid
C = consonant
Various Spellings of Consonant and Consonant Diagraph Sounds /t/ t tab tt mitt bt debt pt receipt th thyme cht yacht ct indict ed talked ght bought
/l/ l lip ll full le sample el label tle castle sl island cl muscle ln kiln
/s/ s sip ss glass c cent ce voice ps psychology st listen z waltz sc science
/sh/ sh fish s sure ti nation ch machine ci special se nauseous si mansion ss tissue t negotiate chs fuchsia
/ng/ ng ring n pink ngue tongue
/k/ k kite c cat ck duck ch chorus lk yolk que opaque cc account cqu lacquer qu liquor sc viscount kh khaki
/b/ b big bb rubber pb cupboard
/w/ w wagon o once ou bivouac
/z/ z zip zz buzz s is ss scissors x xylophone cz czar si business sp raspberry sth asthma thes clothes se choose ze snooze
/h/ h hot wh whole
/g/ g gate gg egg gh ghost gue plague gu guilt
/p/ p hop pp happy ph diphtheria
/v/ v very ve nerve f of lve halve
/d/ d dog dd ladder ed called ld should
/r/ r rat wr write rrh myrrh rps corps rt mortgage rh rhino
/y/ y yes I onion e azalea ll tortilla
/zh/ si vision s pleasure g rouge z azure ti equation ssi scission
/j/ j jet g gentle ge barge dge fudge d graduation dj adjust de grandeur
/ch/ ch cheese t nature tch match c cello che niche te righteous tu nature
/n/ n no nn inner kn know gn gnat pn pneumonia mn mnemonic nd handsome
/f/ f fat ff stuff ph phone gh tough lf calf ft often pph sapphire
/m/ m man mm simmer mb climb mn autumn lm calm gm paradigm
Adapted from Blevins, W. Phonics from A to Z. New York: Scholastic Professional Books, 1998.
Phonemic awareness is the ability to notice, think about, and work with individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken language. (Rhode Island Reading First Application, The “Rhode” to Reading Achievement, 2003)
• Phoneme awareness is necessary for reading success, but not sufficient. • Phoneme awareness needs to be directly taught. • Phoneme awareness does not require extensive teaching time. • Phoneme awareness should be assessed in kindergarten. • Focus majority of phonemic awareness instruction on blending and segmenting
sounds.
Expected Sequence of Skills for Phonological Awareness
Age 3
• Recitation of rhymes • Rhyming by pattern • Alliteration
Age 4
• Syllable counting (50% of children by age 4)
Age 5 • Syllable counting (90% of children by age 5)
Age 6
• Initial consonant matching • Blending 2-3 phonemes • Counting phonemes (70% of children by age 6) • Rhyme identification • Onset-rime division
