The Ministry of Higher and Secondary Special Education of the Republic of Uzbekistan

Karakalpak State University

The Faculty of Foreign Languages

English Department

Theoretical English grammar. docent Yuldashev N.Y.

Nukus

Theoretical English grammar. Lecture 1.

The subject and aims of the theoretical English grammar.

The main purpose of the theoretical course on english grammar is to introduce the student to the many linguistic problems connected with grammatical structures and to the modern methods applied in dealing with them.As there are many outstanding problems in Modern linguistics.One of these concerns the relations between morphology and syntax,on the one hand and paradigmatic and syntagmatic phenomena,on the other hand.Recent discussion on this problem has immediate connection with the treatment of the notion of "sentence". The seminar hours of this course may include,besides analysis of modern texts from the theoretical points of view,reports on the same problems and discussion of views held by various authors. As we mentioned that the purpose of this course is to present a systematic study of the grammatical structure of Modern English. In the course of the history of linguistics many different views of language and languages have been put forward. It is not our task to discuss them here.Suffice it (sн'fais-¤®бв в®з-® бЄ § вм)to say that the treatment of a language as a system was characteristic of the grammarians of the 17th century,for instance,the French "grammaire generale de Port-Royal",a grammar published in 1660.Though this grammar was not a linguistic work in any modern sense. This grammar was based on the assumtion (н'sampsn-ЇаЁ-пвЁҐ,ЇаҐ¤Ї®«®¦Ґ-ЁҐ) that the state of a language at a given period was a system and could be treated as such. This view of language structure was then abandoned (н'bandнn-®вЄ § вмбп ®в)in favour of purely historical outlook until the early years of the 20th century.The Swiss scholar Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) laid the foundation of a new linguistic theory acknowledging the study of a system of a given language as such De Saussure's views were then developed and modified by various schools of modern linguistic thinking. It is on the basis of this view that a theoretical investigation of the grammatical system of a language at a definite point of its history becomes possible and fruitful. Modern linguistics lays a special stress on the systemic character of language and all its constituent parts.It accentuates the idea that language is a system of signs (meaningful units) which are closely interconnected and interde- pendent.Units of immediate interdependencies (classes and subclasses of words,various subtypes of syntactic constructions) form different micro systems within the framework of the global macrosystem of the whole of language. Each system is a structured set of elements related to one another by a common function.The common function of all the lingual signs is to give expression to human thoughts. The nature of grammar as a constituent part of language is better understood the two planes of language,namely,the plane of content and the plane of expression. The plane of content comprises the purely I.B.Ilish.The Structure of Modern English. L. 1971 p.6. semantic elements contained in language, while the plane of expression comprises the material units of

language taken by themselves, apart from the meanings rendered by them.The two planes are connected,so that no meaning can be realised without some material means of expression. The correspondence between the planes of content and expression is very complex and it is peculiar to each language. This complexity is clearly illustrated by the phenomena of polysemy, homonymy and synonymy. The diserimation between two planes, taking it into consideration, you may say that the purpose of grammar as a linguistic discipline is to disclose (®Ў- аг¦Ёў вм, а бЄалў вм) and formulate the regularities of the correspondence between the plane of content and the plane oexpression in the formation of utterances out of the stocks of words as part of the process of speech production. (Blokh.M.Y."A course in theoretical English grammar".M.1983p 11).

GRAMMAR AND PHONOLOGY.GRAMMAR AND LEXICOLOGY. Language incorporates the three constituent parts, each being inherent in it by virtue of its social nature. These parts are phonological system,the lexical system and the grammtical system.Only the unity of these three elements forms a language, without any one of them there is no human language. The phonological system is the subfoundation of language,it determines the material (phonetical)appearence of its significative units.The lexical system is the whole set of naming means of language,that is,words and stable word-gro- ups.The grammatical system is the whole set of regularities determining the combination of naming means in the formation of utterances ('atterнns-ўла ¦Ґ-ЁҐ,ўлбЄ §лў -ЁҐ) as the embodiment of the thinking process. Each of the three constituent parts of language is studied by a particular linguistic discipline. These disciplines, presenting a series of approaches to their particular objects of analysing, give the corresponding "descriptions" of language consisting in ordered expositions of the constituent parts in question. The relations between word -building,grammar and lexicology have not yet been made quite clear, large three views have been expressed: 1.word-building is part of lexicology. 2.word-building is partly at least a matter of grammar. 3.word-building is a special sphere intermediate between lexicology and grammar. According as one or another of these views is endorsed(-Ї®¤вўҐа¦¤ вм,®¤®Ўапвм),word-building is either ignored in a book on grammar, as something lying beyond its sphere or it is treated of in grammar book to some extent at least. The gramatical aspect of word-building, at least in English is rather unimportant. The main penonena of word-building belong to the sphere of lexicology.

Lecture 2 METHODS OF GRAMMATICAL INVESTIGATION.

In classical Greek and Latin the word "grammar"denoted "the methodical study of literature",including textual( -⥪бвг- «м-л©,ЎгЄў «м-л©).and aethetic criticism ( -нбвҐвЁвҐзҐбЄЁ©, -ЄаЁвЁЄ ),etc,besides,the study of greek and latin languages.As it indicates clearly that term was indeed equal to the term "philolgy in the widest modern

sense". In the Middle Ages grammar was the first subject of the "tririum",which included also logic and rhetoric ( -аЁв®-аЁЄ,ЈаҐз-⥮аЁп Ё ЁбЄгббвў® Єа б-®аҐзЁп) Until the 17th century the term grammar in English usage meant the study of Latin-hence ( -®вбо¤ ,б«Ґ¤®ў ⥫м-®) " a grammar school" was originally one in which Latin was taught. (Poole R.Teaching English grammar.New York.1957.p 1-3)

METHODS OF GRAMMATICAL INVESTIGATION AND THEIR APPLICATION TO THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

The last years have seen a rapid development of various new methods of linguistic investigation and there is a great number of views on this problem.Briefly ,there are three main positions in this field: 1.Some scholars think that the new methods now appearing mark the beginnings of linguistics as ascience and that everything that was done earlier in linguistics belongs to a "prescientific age". 2.Other scholars are sceptical about the new methods and think that they tned to lead linguistic science away from its proper tasks and to replace it by something incompatible with its essential character. 3.There is the view that the new methods mark a new period in the development of linguistics that everything done in earlir periods should therefore be considered as valueless and "prescientific" without going into details about this disussion we merely state that the view mentioned last appears to be the most reasonable one. In discussing grammatical categories we often mention oppositions,that is, pairs of grammatical forms opposed to each other in some way. A simple case in point is the opposition between the singular and the plural number in nouns,with their definite meanings: one as against more than one. We often find that of two members of an opposition,one has quite a definite meaning, where as the meaning of the other is less definite.For instance, in the opposition between the forms "was writing" and "wrote".The meaning of the form "was writing" is quite definite, while that of the form "wrote" is hard even to define.The terms usual for such cases are "marked" and "unmarked".The form "was writing" is the marked and the form "wrote" the unmarked member of the opposition. We must keep in our treatment of English grammatical structure many ideas and terms inherited from traditional grammar,such as,the theory of the parts of speech and parts of the sentence and at the same time point out what new light is shed on these problems by recently developed methods and what change the formulation of the very issues should undergo in the light of the new ideas.To say that a considerable number of familiar statements about grammatical facts cannot be upheld without essential modification.

LINEAR GRAMMAR. There were two grammar theories which sought to teach how a sentence is generated.These are the linear grammar and immediate constituent (-ҐЇ®б।б⢥--л©) grammar (IC gammar,phrase grammar). The linear theory taught that a sentence is generated on a very simple model consisting of three elements :S+V+O.

This model is quite familiar to the english teachers who begin their first lessons explaining that in the English sentence subject stands first,then it is followed by a verb (predicate) and then by an object. The linear theory (model) is rather trivial as it has no power to generate different sentence structures but the simplest. It cannot even do this properly as it does not indicate the groupings of the sentence.If a sentence is complex,the linear the ory will fail to construct it although the sentence has but three elements: S-V-O and their groups of the constituents. Besides, passive constructions, exclamatory sentences, negative or interrogative, will all need other models

IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT GRAMMAR. The IC grammar (phrase grammar) says that each linguistic form is to be devided into two immediate constituent.The IC model is stronger than linear model because it shows rules for the generating of the phrases,and the order of sentence generating, including each phrase. The set of rules showing how a sentence is generated are called " rewrite rules". Each rule is numbered and the sign of the arrow means "rewrite": "The man hit the ball". 1. sentence� NP+VP 2. NP�T+N (T is a determiner) 3. VP�V+NP 4. T�the 5. N� man, ball, etc 6. verb�hit,took,etc. given this set consisting of six rules, one can generate an English sentence or a number of sentences changing only "the N" and "the transitive V", in accord -б®Ј« бЁҐ,ў ᮮ⢥вб-вўЁ©. There is another representation of generation of a sentence on the basis of the IC grammar.This is "derivationtree" diagram: SENTENCE NP VP T N VP NP hit T N the man the b SENTENCE я2NP VP T N V NP N The girl aux v t n t

was giving the dog a bone The derivation -Ёбв®з-ЁЄ,б«®ў®®Ўа § ў -ЁҐ,¤ҐаЁў жЁп tree diagram gives less information of how a sentence must be generated than the rewrite rules,became it does show explicitly the order of the generation. The IC model is more powrful than the linear model.Because the IC model indicates the grouping of the IC and it shows the order in which the generating ofa sentence must proceed.

THE TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR. The transformational grammar,a new linguistic theory,appeared in the fifties of this century. The first profounders of the T-grammar were Zellig S.Harris and Noam Chomsky. Both these grammarians belonged to the Desriptive school of American linguistics:thus we may say that T-grammar was borninside the Dsecriptive linguistic trend. T-grammar has two fundamental problems: 1.the establishment of the domain -бдҐа of kernel sentences. 2.the establishment of the set pf transformation rules for deriving all the other sentences as their transforms. A kernel sentence structure gives out a number ,and an even much larger number,of derived transforms. S�NP S�S the work of the machine The machine does work the machine^s work does the machune work? the machine work what works? the working machine the machine does not work. for the machine work the machine didnot work,etc the machines working the machine working the machine works

Lecture 3 MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

The usual definition of morphology, which may be accepted as it stands,is this:morphology is the part of grammar which treats of the forms of words. Asfor the usual definition of syntax, it may be said to be this: Syntax is the part of grammar which treats of phrases and sentences. The definitiens are based on the assumption(ЇаЁ-пвЁҐ - ᥡп) that we can clearly distinguish between words and phrases. The problem becomes more complicated if we take into account such formations as has been often found, where one word "often" comes to stand between two elements of the form of another word "find". Such formations will have to be consi dered both under morphology and under syntax. There is another way of approach(Ї®¤е®¤) to the problem of distinguishing between morphology a syntax. For instance, could you take me in to town? The word take which is used in the sentence can be con sidered from two different view points.

On the one hand, we can consider it in its surroundings in the sentence, namely in its connection with the word "you", which denotes the doer of the action, with the word "me", which denotes the object of the action, etc. This would be analysing the syntagmatic connections of the word "take". On the other hand, we can consider "take" as part of a system including the forms "takes, taking,took,taken",we can observe that this system is analogous,( - «®ЈЁз-л©) both in sound alternation and uin meanings, to the system forsake(Ї®ЄЁ¤ вм) forsakes, forsaking, forsook,forsaken,and in a wider perspektive,to the system write, writes, writing, wrote, written, sing, sings, singing, sang, sung, ets. This would be analysing paradigmatic connektions of "take",and this gradually opens up a broad view into the morphological system of the language. The connection between "took and wrote" is entirely unsyntagmatic, as asequence "took wrote" is unthin kable. It may be said that in a way, morphology is more abstract than syntax, as it does not study connections between words actually used together in sentences, but connections between forms actually found in different sentences and as it were extracted from their natural surroundings. In the another way, morphology would appear to be less abstract than syntax, as it studies units of a smaller and, where as syntax deals with larger units, whose types and varieties are hard to number and exhaust(ЁбзҐаЇлў вм) Analytical verb forms mentioned above such as "have done, will go" ets. They are morphological facts in so far as they belong to the system of the verb in question, as the auxiliary verb adds nothing whatever to the lexical meaning expressed in the infinitive or participle making part of the analytical form. But the same forms are fact of syntax in so far as they consist of two or three or sometimes four alements and occasionally some other word, which does not in any way make part of the analytical form, may come in between them. It is true that in modern English possibilities of such insertions(ўбв ў«Ґ-ЁҐ,¤®Ў ўЄ ) are not very great, yet. They exist and must be taken into account: we will not go into details here and we will only point out that such words as often, never, perhaps,probably ets. They must come between elements of an analytical verb form: has always come, will probably say ets. According to a modern view, the relation between morphology and syntax is not so simple as had been generally assumed. In this view we distinguish between two angles of research(в®зЄ §аҐ-ЁҐ): 1 The elements dealt with; from this point we divide grammatical investigation into two fields: morphology and syntax. 2.These elements are studied: from this view point we distin guish between paradigmatic and syntagmatic study. So we get four divisions: 1. a) paradigmatic morphology. b) syntagmatic morphology. 2. a) paradigmatic syntax. b) syntagmatic syntax. Paradigmatic morphology is what we used to call morphology and syntagmatic syntax is what we used to call syntax. Syntagmatic morphology is the study of phrases: "substantive+substantive"; "adjective+ substantive"; "verb+substantive"; "verb+adverb", ets.

Paradigmatic syntax is a part of grammatical theory which did not appear as such in traditional system. For instance: 1) My friend has come. 2) My friend has not come. 3) Has mt friend come? 4) My friend will come. 5) My friend will not come. 6) Will my friend come? All these are considered as variation of one and the same sentence.

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES IN MODERN ENGLISH. Every grammatical category is th eexpression of some general idea- some lagical category. Thus grammatical category "plural" express "more-than-oneness" and therefore falls under the wider lagical categories of "number" and "quantiti" and the grammatical category "tense" correspound to the logical category "time". (Henry Sweet. A new English Grammar. part 1. Oxford 1955. p10 The number category of english nouns is realised though the opposition of categorial number meanings: plural/non plural (or singular). The plural opposite (member) is marked. It is marked synthetically by inflection or mutation (Ё§¬Ґ-Ґ-ЁҐ). E.g. book/boooks; man/men. The grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorial function constitutes a paradigm. We may speak of a grammatical category if there is a special grammatical form for its expression. E.g. in Russian there are three primary tenses (present,past and future) which are expressed by grammatical form. but the so-called secondary grammatical tenses are absent in Russian, such as Present, past, perfect, Future in the pastin english, because in Russian we have no special grammatical forms for their expression. Grammatical categories are devided into morphological and syntactical ones. Parts of speech with grammatical categories which are displayed in the forms of a word are morphological ones. Syntagmatical categories are those which use combinations of words and sentences. The system of grammatical categories is historical in its nature. In the process of the development of language some grammatical categories may disappear. For example, in old English there were four cases: nominative, genetive, dative and accusative. But in the course of time the original nominative, dative and accusative merged (Ї®Ј«®й вм, ᮥ¤Ё-пвм-бп) into one uninflected form, the common case. The old genetive case is represented in Modern English by the inflected possessive case of nouns (boy's, bird's) and some pronouns (one's, sombody's). Now Modern English has two systems of cases, one for nouns, another for some pronouns. The means of expression of grammatical categories, their meanings and use have also changed. In place of the old case inflections certain prepositions are used in Modern English to convey some of the meanings expressed in other languages by cases.

LECTURE 4 MORFOLOGY MORFEMES

The morfeme is one of the central notions pf grammatical theory, without which no serious attempt at grammatical study can be made.Definition of a morpheme ( -®ЇаҐ¤Ґ«Ґ-Ёt пб-®бвм) has been attempted (Ї®ЇлвЄ , Їлв вмбп, ЇаҐ¤ЇаЁ-Ё- ¬ вм) many times by different scholars.The morphemes are the smallest meaningful units into which aword form writers, it can be divided into three morphemes: 1. writ-expressing the idea agent performing the action indicated by root of the verb. 2.-s indicating number, that is, showing that more than one person of the type indicated is meant. Two additional remarks are necessary here: 1. two or more morphemes may sound the same but we basically different,that is ,they may be homonyms. The morpheme -er , indicating the door of an action as in writer has a homonym -the morpheme -er denoting the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs as in longer. 2. There may be zero morphemes, that is, the absence of a morpheme may indicate a certain meaning. If we compare the forms book and books,both derived from the stem book ,we may say that while books is characterised by the -s morpheme as being a plural form,book is characterized by the zero morpheme as being a singular form. Scholars belonging to the Modern descriptive linguistics approach the problem from this angle: if we compare the four sentences :the student comes,the student come,the ox comes,the oxen come, The meaning and functin of the -en in oxen is the same as the meaning and function of the -s in students.On this account the -s and the -en are said to represent the same morpheme,each of them is a morpheme representing the morpheme, and they are termed allomorphs of the morpheme.In the word goose the form corresponding to students and oxen is geese where nothing is added ,but the root is changed.Thus,the morpheme ,in this case ,has three allomorphs: y-s,y-en, 3. oo�ee,[u:-]�[i:]. WORD AND MORPHEME In studying the morpheme we actually study the word in the necessary details of its composition and functions. It is very difficult to give a rigorous and atthe same time universal definition to the word.This difficulty is explained by the fact that the word is extremely complex and many-sided phenomenon.With in the framework of different lingustic trends and theories the word is defined as the minimal free linguistic form, the elementary component of the sentence, the articulate sound with meaning,the meaningfully integral and immediately identifable lingual unit,etc. American scholars -representatives of Descriptive Linguistics founded by L.Bloomfield-recognized not the word and the sentence, but the phoneme and the morpheme as the basic categories of linguistic description,because these units are the easiest to be isolated in the continual text one to their "physically"minimal,elementary segmental character: a) the phoneme being the minimal formal segment of language.b)

the morpheme, the minimal meaningful segment. According, only two segmental levels were identified in language by Descriptive scholars:the phonemic level and the morphemic level;la- ter on a third level was added to these-the level of morphemic combinations. Summing up what has been said in this paragraph we may point out that that the morpheme is a meaningful segmental component of the word;the morpheme is formed by phonemes; as a meaningful component of the word it is elementary. The word is a nominative unit of language;it enters the lexicon of language as its elementary component; This latter item entails some difficulty,as amorph is shown not necessarily to be material entity,that is phoneme,or a combination of phonemes ,sometimes it may be achange of one phonemeinto another. Similiarity,in the past tense of verbs the morpheme of the past tense has two allomorphs: 1)-ed,-finished,listened. 2.the change of vowel,as{ai}�{ou}-write -wrote; as[i}�[н}-sing -sang,etc. In grammar, we are of course concertned with the grammatical or structural,meaning of morphemes.We do not here study the meaning ofthe root morphemes,which are necessarily lexical,and as to derivation morphemes,which serve to build words.We are only interested in themin so far as they are grammatically relevant and that is the case if they show that the word belongs to acertain part of speech,and if they serve to distinguish one part of speech from another.This ghrammatical significance of derivation morphemesis always combined with their lexical meaning.If we take a pair of words:write-verb writer-noun. The derivation morpheme "-r"a grammatical significance as it serves to distinguish a noun from a verb,it has its lexical meaning,as the lexical meaning of the noun "writer" is different from that of the verb "write" Inflection morphemes have no lexical meaning of function. Ther is no difference in the way of lexical meaning between "live and lived" "house and houses".However an inflection morpheme can acquire a lexical meaning,which the singular form has not;the plural form "colours"has a meaning,"flag",which the singular form 'colours"has a meaning,"flag",which the singular form "colour" has not.Together with other nominative units,the word is used for the formation of the sentence;the sentence is a unit of informationin the ocmmunicative process. In traditional grammar the study of the morphemic structure of the word was conducted in the light of the two basic criteria: 1. positinal (the location of the marginal morphemes in relation to the central ones). 2. Semantic or functional (correlative contributionof the morphemes to the general meaning of the word) .The combination of these two criteria in an integral description hasled to the rational classification of morphemes,that is widely used both in research linguistic work and in practical lingual tuition.

LECTURE.5. THE NOUN OF PARTS OF SPEECH.

Criteria applied in discriminating parts of speech:

a) meaning (semantic). b) form (formal). c) function (functional). d) Ch. Fries's scheme of word classes. The problem of parts of speech is one that canses great controversies both in general linguistic theory and in the analysis of separate languages. The term "part of speech", as well as correspounding terms in Russian, German, French and other languages, though firmly estab lished, is not a very happy one. Part of speech is a type of word differing from other types in some grammatical point or points. The verb is atype of word different fromm all other types in that it alone has the grammatical category of tense. It is perfectly reasonable to ask: "What is the past tense of the word live?" The answer of course is lived. It would make no sence to ask what is the past tense of the word city? The word "city" has not got any past tense or any tense whatever. Tense is one of the distinctive features characterizing the verb as against every other type of word. The theory of parts of speech, though considered by most scholars to be a part of morphology, cannot do without touching on some syntactical problems, namely on phrases, and on syntactical functions of words. To regard (а бᬮваЁў вм) the theory of part of speech as essentially a part of morphology, involving some syntactical points would be scientific one. The words of language, depending on various formed and semantic features are devided into grammatically relevant sets and classes. The frovolitimed grammatical classes of words are called "parts of speech. The word is distingguished not only by grammatical, but olso by semantico-lexemic properties. Scholars reter to parts of speech as lexico-grammatical series of words or as "lexico-grammatical categories". (define-гбв - ў«Ёў вм) (explanatory-®Ўкпб-ЁвҐ«м-л©). The term "part of speech" is purely traditional and convertional, it cannot be taken as in any way defining or explematory. this name was introdused in grammatical teaching of ancient Greece, where the concept of the sentence wasnot yet explicitly identified in destinetion to the general idea of speech. In grammatical teaching of Ancient Greece there was not strict differentiation between the word as a vocabulary unit and the word as a functional element of the sentence. In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of the three criteria: "semantic", "formal", "functional".(д®а¬ в-л©,ў-Ґи-л©,) 1.The semantic criterion presupposes the iralunation of the generalized meaning, which is characteristic of all the subject of words constituting a given part of speech.This meaning is understood as the "categorial meaning of the part of speech". 2.The formal criterion privides for the exposition of the specific inflexional and derivational(word-building) features of allthe lexemic subjcts(Ї®¤ЈагЇЇл) of a part of speech. 3.The functional criterion concerns the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech. These three of categorial characterization of words are conventionally reffered to as "meaning", "form" "and "function". According to the described criteria, words on the upper level of classification are divided into notional and functional parts of speech.

To the notional parts of speech of the English Language belong the noun, the adjective, the numeral, the pronoun, the verb and the adverb. a) The features of noun are the following: 1. The categorial meaning of substance(бгЎбв -жЁп); 2. The changeable forms of number and case; the specific suffixal forms of derivation; 3. The substantive functions in the sentence (subject, object, substantival pridicative), prepositional connections: modification by an adjective. b) The features of the adjective are following: 1.The categorial meaning of property (бў®©бвў®) (qualitative and relaitive); 2.The forms of the degrees of comparision; 3.Adjectival functions in the sentence (attribute to a noun, adjectival predicative). c) The features of the numeral are following: 1.The categorial meanings of number (cardinal and ordinal); 2.The narrow set (д®а¬ )of simple numerals: the specific forms of composition for compound numerals. 3.The functions of numerical attribute and numerical substantive. d) The features of pronoun are following: 1.The categorial meaning of indication (гЄ § -ЁҐ, Ї®Є § --ЁҐ). 2.The narrow sets of varions stoitus (Ї®«®¦Ґ-ЁҐ) with corresponding formal properties changeability and word-building. 3.substantival and adjectival functions for different sets. e) The features of the verb are following: 1.The categorial meaning of process; 2.The forms of the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood;tte opposition of the finite and non-finiteforms; 3.The functionof the finite predicate for the finite verb; the mixed verbal functions for the non-finite verb. f) The features of the adverb are following: 1.The categorial meaning of the secondary property; 2.The forms of the digrees of comparision for qualitative adverbs: the speciffic suffixal of derivations; 3.The functions of various adverbial modifiers. Unchangeable words are traditionally treated under the heading (§ Ј®«®ў®Є) of functional parts of speech. To the functional series of words in English belong the article, the preposition , the conjunction, the particle, the modal word and the interjection. The article expresses the specific limitation (®Ја -Ёз-ЁҐ) of the substantive (ўҐйҐб⢥--ле) functions. The preposition expresses the dependencies and interdepen dencies of substantive referonts. The conjunction expresses connections of phenomena (пў«Ґ--ЁҐ,дҐ-®¬Ґ-). The particle unites (ᮥ¤Ё-пвм, ®ЎкҐ¤Ё-пвм) the functionalwords of specifyingand limiting meaning. The modal word expresses the attitude of the speaker to the reflected situation and its parts.Here belong the functional words "probably, perhaps, unfortunately, fortunately, luckely etc"

The interjection, occypying a detached position in the sentence, is a signal of emotions. Modern principles of parf of speech identification have been formulated as a result of painstaking rezearch conducted on the vast materials of numerous languages. The three criteria characterization of parts of speech has been deviloped and applied to practice with the at most consistenly. V. V. Vinogradov in connection with his study of Russian grammar, A. A.Smirnitsky and B.Ilyish in connection with their study of English grammar have ilaborated (а §а Ў вл-ў вм)these criteria. The principles of syntactic (syntactico-distributional) classification of Endlish words were worked out by I. Bloomfield and his followers Z. Harris and especially Ch. Fries. CH. FRIES'S SCHEME OF ENGLISH WORD CLASSES. The syntactico-distributional classification ofwords is bazed on the study their combinability by means of substitution testing. The testing rezults in diveloping the standart model of four main "pasitions" of notional words in the English sentence: The noun-n, verb-v, adjective-a, adverb-av. Pronouns are included into the corresponding positional classes as their substitutes. Words standing outside the "position" in the sentence are treated (ва Єв®ў вм) as func-tion words of various syntactic values. For his materials Ch. Fries chooses tape-recorded conversations comprising (§ Є«оз вм ў ᥡҐ) about 250.000 word entries('entri-ўбвгЇ«Ґ-ЁҐ) for 50 hours of talk. The words are used as substitution test-frames (бвагЄвга ). Frame A. The cocert was good (always). Frame B. The clerk remembered the tax (suddenly). Frame C. The team wont there. As a result of tests on the sited (sait-жЁвЁа®ў вм) "frames" form words (parts of speech)are established into four classes: Class 1.A� concert, coffee, container, difference, ets. B� clerk,Husband, supervisor etc, take, found etc. C.� team,husband, woman etc. Class 2.A.� was, seemed, became,etc. B.� remembered, wanted, saw,etc. C.� wint, came, ran,lived, worked, etc. Class 3.A.� good, large, necessary, foreign, new. Class 4.A.� there, here, always,then, sometimes. B.� suffixiently, especially, soon. C.there, back, out, lagerly, etc. All these words can fill in the positions of the frameswithout affecting their general structural meaning: "thing and its qualityat a given time"-the first frame. "actor- action-direction of the action"-third frame. Functional words are exposed in the cited process of testing as being unable to file in the positions of frames without destroging them structural meaning.

LECTURE 6 THE PROBLEM OF NOMINATIONAL AND FORMAL PARTS OF SPEECH.

1.The oppositon of notional and functional words. 2.The four cardinal classes of notional words. 3.The interpretation of functional words as syntactic meditors. Comparing the syntactico-distributional classification of words with the traditional part of speech division of words you can see one of the major truths as regards the linguistic mechanism arising from the comparisonof the two classifications is the explicit and unconditional division of the lexicon into the notional and functional parts.The open character of the notional part of the lexicon and closed character of the functional part of it receives the strict status of a formal grammatical faeture. The unity of notional lexemes finds its essentual demonstration in an inter-class system of derivation that can be presented as a formal four-stage series permeating the lexicon and reflected in regular phrase correlations: a re- cognising note -a notable recognition-to note rtecognisngly-to rrecognize notably. Some grammarians (‚.Ќ.†ЁЈ ¤-®,€.Џ.€ў -®ў ,‹.‹.€®дЁЄ,'®ў-६Ґ--л© -Ј«ЁбЄЁ© п§лЄ.Њ.1956)state that words should be divided into two categorieson the following principle:some words denote things,actions and other extralinguistic phenomena,these would be notional words;the other words denote relations and connections between the notionaal words,these would be the formal words or form words. However, this view appears to be very shaky.Actually the formal words also express something extralinguistic.E.g. prepositions express relations between things: The letter is on the table The letter is on the table. Her,two different relations between the letter and the table,which are denoted by the prepositions.In a similar way conjunctions denote connections between extralinguistic things and and phenomena.In the sentence "the match was postponed because it was raining",the conjunction "because "denotes the causual connection between two processes. In the sentence "It was raining but the match took place all the same" the conjunction "but" expresses a contradiction between two phenomena,the rain and the match. It follows that the prepositions and conjunctions "on and in ", "because and but"express some relations and connections existing independently of language.And so these prepositions and conjunctions are in so far,no less notional than nouns or verbs. The term "formal word" would seem to imply that the word denoted has some function in building up a phrase or a sentence.This functionis perfrmed by both prepositions and conjunctions.From this point of view prepositions and conjunctions should be singled out. But this definitionof a formal word cannot be applied to particles.A particle doesnot do anything in the way of connecting words or building a phrase or a sentence. There does not seem to be any reason for classing particles with formal words.Ithis view is endorsed we have only two parts of speech,which are form words, prepositions and conjunctions. THE NOUN. 1.The nounis the main nominative part of speech. The noun in Modern English has only two grammatical categories number and case.The existence of case appears to be carefully analysed.

The Modern english noun has not got the category of grammatical gender,which is to be found in Russian,French,German and Latin not a single noun in M.E.shows any peculiarities in its morphology due to its denoting a Male and Female being. The words husband and wife do not show any difference in their forms due to the pecularities of their lexical meanings. In such pairs actor and actress, prophet- prophetess: the difference between nouns is apurely lexical one.

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES OF THE NOUN. NUMBER.

M.E.as most other languages,distinguishes between two numbers,singular and plural.Some languages have a third number,the dual.Among these are ancient Greek Sanskrit and Lithuanian. The singular number shows that one object is meant,and the plural shows that more than one object is meant.The opposition is"one-more than one ". table-tables,dog-dogs.However,language facts are not always so simple as that. First of all,it is to be noted that there is some difference between,say,three three and three hours. Three houses are three seperate objects existing side by side,three hours are a continious period of time measured by a certain agreed unitof duration. f we turn to such plurals as "waters"(the waters of the tlantic)or "shows"(A Daughter of the Snows,the little story y Jack London).We shall see that we are drifting further way from the original meaning of the plural number.In the irst place,no numeral could be used with nouns of this ind.We could not say "three waters or three snows"or so. hat is the real difference in meaning between water and waters,snow and snows,then? The plural form in every case servesto denote a vast stretchof water(an ocean), or of snow,rather of ground covered by snow.So we see that between the singular and the plural an additional difference of meaning has developed. CASE. 1.The number of cases in English. 2.There are no cases at allin English nouns. The problem of case in M. English nouns is one of the most problems in English grammar.The most usual view is that English nouns have two cases: a common case-a boy,a man a genitive case(or possessive)- a boy^s,a man^s There are a number of views (other views)of existence of cases in English. Case is the category of a noun expressing relations between the thing denoted by a noun and other things,or actions and manifested by some formal sign in the noun itself.This sign is always an inflection,and it may also be a "zero" sign,that is the absence of any sign may be significant as distinguishing one particular case from another.Case isthe part of the mor phological system of a language. Some scholars,mainly germans,propound that Modern English nouns have four cases:nominative,genitive,dative and accusative,of which the genitive can be expressed by the "-S-"inflectionand by the preposition"of", the dative by the preposition to and also by word order (Max Deutsch-bein.System der Neuenglishen.Syntax,1928,15 c) Up to now we have seen the form -^s as a genitive case, and in so far we have stuck to the conception of a two-case system in Modern English nouns.

Lecture 7. TYPES OF THE PRONOUNS AND THEIR PECULIARITIES.

The definition of pronouns as a seperate (®б®Ўл©) part of speech has caused many difficulties.More than once in the history of linguistics the very existence of pronouns as a part of speech has been denied.However,attempts of this kind have not proved succesful and in present day grammars. Both English and Russian,pronouns are recognised as a part of speech.We usually find in grammars a classification of pronouns into personal, possesive, interrogative, indefinite, relative(®в-®бЁвҐ«м-л©) CASE.In dealing with the category of case in pronouns,we must bear in mind that they need not in this respect be similar to nouns.Some of them may,and indeed do,have peculiarities(®б®ЎҐ--®бвм,е а ЄвҐа- п зҐав )which no noun shares. Some pronouns distinguish between two cases which are best termed nominative and objective (instead of nominative we might say subjective) nom. i,he, she,(it),we,(you),they who. obj. me, him, her,(it),us,(you)them, whom. A number of pronouns have no category of case (something,anything, nothing,everything,some, any,no,my,his,mine,hers) A number of pronouns have a different case system,they distinguish between a common and a genitive case in the same way as the nouns,they are somebody,anybody,one,another,and a few more. The case system in pronouns of the somebody type is identical with that of the nouns of the father type. It is well known that the form "me",which is an objective case form,is not only used in the function of object (direct or indirect),but also as a predicative,in sentences "It is me".The sentence " Itis I"though still possible,is rarely( ।Є®)used;it has acquired 1.‹.‚.�…ђЃЂ.Ћ з бвпе аҐзЁ ў агббЄ®¬ п§лЄҐ.€§Ўа --лҐ а Ў®влЇ® агббЄ®¬г п§лЄг 1957. б.68. a kind of archaic flavour( ае ЁзҐбЄЁ©,гбв ॢ訩;ўЄгб,ЇаЁ- ¤ ў вм ўЄгб)as its stylistic peculiarity has become inapp ropriate in colloqual speech.As to the other pronouns of this group,the sentences "its him,it is her,it is us,it is them,with the objective case form used as a predicative. NUMBER.It will be easily seen that the category of number has only a very restricted field in pronouns.It is found in the pronouns these-this,that-those,other-others.We need not dwel here on the very peculiar means which are used to form the plural of "this" and of " that".We can limit ourselves to the statement that the by which each of two words forms its plural is quite individual and analysable from the view point of the modrn language. As to the pronouns i-we,he,she,it-they,it must be stated that thereis no grammatical of number here."we"is not a form of the pronoun "I",but a seperate word in its own right.In a similar way "they is a form of he,or she,or "it",or of all them,but a seperate word. Ther is no grammatical category of number either in the pronouns:my-our;his,her,its-their,mine-ours,his, her,its-their,mine-ours,his,hers-theirs. A peculiar difficulty arises here with reference to the pronouns "myself(ourself)-ourselves,yourself-yourselves,himself,herself,itself-themselves. There is no category of gender.The pronouns he, she, it; his, her, its; himself,herself,itselfare all seperate words.

TYPES. Ennglish pronuns of the same phonetic unit are used to express different meanings in different contexts. So the question arises if there is a case of polysimy that is different meaning of the same word or of homonomy, that is different words sounding alike. We may state the following cases: that-demonstrstive, that-relative.(®в-®бЁвҐ«м-л©) who-interrogative, who-relative. which-interrogative, which-relative. myself(and the other self-pronouns)-reflexive(ў®§ўа в-®Ґ) and the same pronouns intensive. The demonstrative "that" has a plural form "those", where as the relative "that" remains unchanged in the plural. The "that" which remains unchanged in the plural cannot be the same word as the "that" which has the plural form "those. So we come to conclussion that there are two different pronouns: that-relative. that/those-demonstrative (paralled to "this"). The numeral. O Jespersen has quite rightly remarked that the numerals have been treated by grammarians in a different way from other parts of speech (O. Jespersen. The Philosophy of Grammar. M.1968. p.37).there is only the function of numerals to be considered, and also possibilities of their substantivization. The most characteristic function of numerals is that of an attribute preceding its noun. However a numeral can also perform other functions in the sentence(subject, predicative and object): We are seven , of the seven people, i was looking for. I found only three. In ordinal numeral can also be modified by an infinitive denoting the action in which the object mentioned occupies a definite plase: He was the first to come. THE STATIVE AS A SEPARATE PART OF SPEECH. The essence of the words asleep, afload, astir, ablaze, afraid and their position in the system of parts of speech is still under discussion. Syntactical functions. The main function of the statives is that of predicative and in that case they are preceded by a link verb "be", but occasionally-fall, keep, ful. E.g. The child was fast asleep; something is afloot; he soon fell asleep; he felt ashamed of himself. Statives are also occasionally found in the function of objective predicatives after the verb find or have and a noun or pronoun as in the sentences: He found his sister alone. Phrase "be+stative" may sometimes be synonymous with the continuous form of the corresponding verb. E.g. He was asleep-he was sleeping. Typical Russian statives as "¦ «м, «Ґ-м,вҐа«®,е®«®¤-®" are never translated by statives into English: ¬-Ґ ҐЈ® ¦ «м-I pity him or i feel some pity for him. Ґ¬г «Ґ-м Ўл«® ўбв ў вм-he fell to lazy to get up; §¤Ґбм ⥯«®-it is warm here; Ґ¬ге®«®¤-®-he is cold or he feels cold. The existence of statives as a separate part of of speech is not universally recognised either for the Russion or for the English language.Prof.L. Barkhudarov arrives at is that words (stative words) of this type are adjectives, which of course is the traditional view. However these arguments are not binding (baind-§ ўп§лў вм, ЇаЁўп§лў вм)

Lecture 8

THE VERB AND ITS PROBLEM OF ASPECT. 1.The is the most complex part of speech. 2.The class of verbs by semantic and lexico-grammatical features. 3.The finite forms of the verb. 4.The aspective meaning of the verb. Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech.The complexity-( б«®¦-®бвм) of the verb is inherent (ЇаЁбгйЁ©,-Ґ®взҐв«Ёўл©) not only in the intricate (§ Їгв ---л©,б«®¦-л©)structure of its grammatical categories,but also in its various subclass divisions,as well as in its falling into two sets of forms profoundly different from each other:the finite set (form)and the non finite set(form). The complicated character of the grammatical and lexico- g rammatical structure of the verb has given rise to much dispute and controversy. Class of verbs falls into a number of subclasses distinguished by different semantic and lexico-grammatical features: a) set of national verbs. Semi-notional and functional verbs serve as markers of predication in the priper sense,since they show the connection between the nominative content of the sentenceand reality in a strictly specilized way.These "predicators" include auxilary verbs,modal verbs,semi-notional verbid,introducer verbs and link verbs. a) Auxialary verbs constitute grammatical elements of the categorical forms of the verb.These are the verbs: be, have, do, shall, will, should, would, may, might. b) Modal verbs are used with the infinitive as predicative markers expressing relational meanings of the subject attitude type,i.e.ability, obligation, permission, indivisability etc.They also express relational probability probability: the groups be likely,be probable. 1.Tom may stay for the tele view if he will�Tom is permitted to stay. 2.The storm may come any minute,you had better come the deck�The storm is likely to come any minute. The modal verbs can,may,must,shall,will,might,need, difective in forms,for example:The can prepare the play-ground themselves -The boys will be able to prepare the play -ground themselves. c) Semi-notional verbud,intrducerverbs are distributed among the verbal sets: of discriminatory relational semantics (se-em, happen,turn out,etc) of subject-active relational semantics (try,fail,manage,etc),of phrasal semantics (begin,continue,stop,etc) They began to fight; d) The phasal predicator "begin"and the infinitive of the notional verb "fight",the two lexemes making one verbal part; The transitive verb " begin"forms the predicate of the sentence. e) Link-verbs introduce the nominal part of the predicate which is commonly expressed by a noun,an adjective,or aphrase of or similar semantico-grammatical character.It should be be noted that link-verbs althogh they are named so, are not devoid of meaningful content.Performing their functions of connecting(linking)the subject and the predicative of the sentence,they express the actual semantics of this connection.

The linking predicator function in the purest form is effected by the verb "Be".Therefore "Be"as a link verb can be referred to as the "pure link-verb".The common specifiyng link verbs fall into two main groups: 1) those that express perceptions. 2) those that express nonperceptional,or "factual"link-verb connection. The main perceptional link-verbs are: seem,appear,look,feel,taste; The main factual link-verbs are: become,get,grow,remain,keep. e.g. The letter seemed to have remained unnoticed. I began to feel better. you shouldn^t try to look cleverer than you are. As is to be seen from the comparison of the specifying link-verbswith the verbid introducer predicators described above,the respective functions of these two verbal subsets are cognate,though not altogether identical. THE FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB. The verb is apart of speech which includes words expressing actions or states connecived (ў®бЇаЁ-Ё¬ ⥫м-л©)as prosesses. The various forms that a verb cantake are subdivided under two main headings:finite and nonfinite(verbals). In the form the verb has the function of the predicate in the sentence.It is limited by or bound to some subject with which it agrees in person and number:you are a teacher,he is not a student. The finite forms of the verb indicate the following categories:person,number,aspect,tense,mood and voice. In modern English ther are six classes of the verb.Each of these of the verb appears with its own obligatory constituents(б®бв ў-л©)without which it would be incomplete. 1.Transitive verb. a transitive verb normally has to have a direct to be complete;For complete: This girl likes-uncompleted sentence. This girl likes the dog-completed sentence Kate hugged the baby(®Ў-Ё¬ вм). The dog found the bone(Є®бвм). 2.Intransitive verb. The intransitive verb, as its name suggests is a class of verb which does not take one object.In fact an intransitive verb requires nothing else to complete the verb phrase.For example:the lady cried. She moved. However, there are other constituents which can occur with this class of verb.Such constituents are optional (-Ґ®Ўп§ ⥫м-л©) rather than obligatory.In the other they can appear and not as adverbials(place,time,etc). The baby cried in the night. 3.Ditransitive verb.Another class of verb which occurs with an object is ditransitive.However,this type of verb requires two objects.One of these is the direct object,the other is an indirect object in the sentence.For example: Raytold the children a story. In the sentence the verb "tell" is followed by two noun phrases,the children and a story.A story is the direct object of the verb "the"in the past indefinite tense.The children is the indirect objectof the verb.

She gave me a look-She gave a look to me. Ken made the party a cake-Ken made a cake for the party. In these sentences with ditransitive verbs two objects are obligatory,not optional.To and for are preposition which have joined with noun phrases the children,me,the party to form prepositional phrases. 4.Intensive verb.Intensive verbs belong to small group which includes verbs like,be, appear,become,look and so on. These verbs have in common the noun-phrase subject: Sally became a doctor. George is in the garden. She seems unhappy. COMPLEX-TRANSITIVE VERB. Another class of verb to appear with a complement is called complex-transitive.with this type of verbthe complement relates to the object,not the subject. The voters elected Mary a president. Kate thought John a fool. S P DO OC with this type of verb two elements are obligatory to complete the verb phrase,in these cases,two noun phrases. 6.Prepositional verb. a prepositional verb is one which requires a prepostional phrase in order to be complete. Verbs as glance,lean,refer fall into this class.In fact they are so closely linked with a preposition that is easy to think of them as verbs consisting of two parts as in glance at,lean on,refer to.They are certainly incomplete without a prepositioal phrase. Kate leant on the table. The children glanced at the pictures. The function of the prepositional phrase in these sentences are prepositional objects. THE ASPECTIVE MEANING OF THE VERB. The aspective meaning of the verb,as different from its temporal meaning,reflects the inherent made of the realizationof the process irrespective of its timing(а бзҐв ўаҐ¬Ґ--Ё,бЁ-еа®--®бвм) There two sets of forms in the M.English verb which are contrasted with each other on the principle of use or non-use of the pattern "be+first participle": writes-is writing wrote-was writing will write-will be writing has written-has been writing These two sets of forms clearly belong to the same verb "write"and there is some grammatical difference between them. What is the basic difference between "writes" and "is writing"or between "wrote" and "was writing"? The basic characteristic of "is writing" is this:it denotes the action proceeding continuously at a definite period of time,within certain time limits.On the other hand,"writes"denotes the action not thus limited but either occuring repeatedly or everlasting,without any notion of lasting duration at agiven moment.

There is some difference in this respect between the sentences:The earth turns round the sun. The sun rises in the East. The action mentioned in the first sentence goes on without interruption,wher as the action mentioned in the latter sentence is repeated every morning and does not take place at all in the evening. Now,the question must be answered,how should this essential difference in meaning between the two sets of forms be described. The best way to describe it would seem to be this:it is a difference in the way the action is shown to proceed.Now this is the grammatical notion described as the category of aspect with reference to the slavonic languages (Russian,polish,Greck)and also to ancient greek ,in which this category is clearly expressed. As is well known, not every verb is commonly used in the form "be+firstparticiple".Verbs denoting abstract relations such as "belong" and the verbs denoting sense of of perception or emotion such as "see,hear,hope,love",seldomappear in the form.Thus,the verbs "see, hope, like, fear". and others, denoting perception or feelings(emotions)may be found in this form.E.g.It was as if she were seeing herself for the first time in a year. The form "be+first participle"is very appropriate here as it does not admit of the action being interprited as momentaneous and makes it absolutely clear that what is meant is a sense perception going on for some time.

LECTURE 9. THE CATEGORY OF TENSE. THE ESSENCE OF PERFECT FORMS.

1.Tense is one of the typical functions of the funite verb. 2.O.Jespersen denied the existence of a future tense in English 3.The perfect as a tense category (O.Jespersen). 4.The perfect as a way of expressing the category of "ti-me-relation". (A.I.Smirnitsky). The immediate expression of grammatical time, or "tense" Lat. tempus) is one of the typical functions of the finite verb. it is typical because the meaning of process, inherently embedded in the verbal lexeme, finds its complete realization only if presented in certain time conditions. When speaking of the expression of time by the verb, it is necessary to strictly distinguish between the general notion of time, the lexical denotation of time and the grammatcal time proper, or grammatical temporality (M.Y.Bloch. A Course in Theoretical English Grammar. M.1983. p.137). In Modern English, the grammatical expression of verbal tense is effected in two correlated stages. At the first stage, the process receives an absolutive time characteristic by means of opposing the past tense to the present tense. The market member of this opposition is the past form. At the second age, the process receives a non-absolutive relative time characteristic by means of opposing the forms of the future tense t the forms of no future marking. The two stages of the verbal time denotation are expressed separately, by their own oppositional forms.

The category of tense may be defined as a verbal category which reflects the objective category of time and expresses on this background the relations between the time of the action . In English there are three tenses (past, present, future) represented by the forms "wrote, writes, will write, lived, lives, will live". Some doubts have been expressed about the existence of a future tense in English. O.Jespersen discussed this question more than once (O.Jespersen. The Philosophy of Grammar. M.1958. p50.) The reason, why Jespersen denied the existence of a future tense in English was that the English future is expressed by the phrase "shall/will+infinitive" and the verbs "shall and will" which make part of the phrase preserve, according to Jespersen, some of their original meaning (shall are element of obligation and will are element of volition (®Ўп§ --®бвм, ®Ўп§ ⥫мбвў®, ¦Ґ« -ЁҐ, ў®«п). In Jespersen's view, English has no way of expressing "pure futurity" free from modal shades of meaning that is it has no form standing on the same grammatical livel as the forms of the past and present tenses. However, this reasoning is not convincing (гЎг¤Ёвм). This is especially clear in the sentences where the verb "will" is used as an auxiliary of the future tense and where at the same time, the meaning of volition is excludedby the context. E.g. I am so sorry, I am afraid I will have to go back to the hotel. The verb "will" cannot be said to preserve even the slightest shade of the meaning of volition here. It can have only one meaning-that of grammatical futurity (Ўг¤г饥, Ўг¤ги-®бвм). A present tense form may be used when the action belongs to the future, as in the following example: "MMaria is coming, my lad", he said, "she is coming to-morrow". So it might also have been expressed by the future tense: Maria will come, my lad, she will come to-morrow. But the use of the present continuous tense adds another shade of meaning, which would be lost if it were replaced by the future tense: Maria is arrival to-morrow is part of a plan already fixed at the present. The tense view of the perfect is presented in the works of H. Sweet, G. Gurme, M. Bryant and some other foreign scholars. The tense interpretation of the perfect was endorsed by the well-known course of English Grammar by M.A.Ganshina and N.M. Vasilskaya. A.I. Smirnitsky's conseption of the perfect may be called the "time-relation"(ўаҐ¬Ґ-- п ®в-ҐбҐ--®бвм). Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky explained that an explicit demonstration of the fact that the perfect form by means of its oppositional mark, builds up its own category, from both the "tense" (present-past-future) and the "aspect" (continuous-indefinite). The functional content of the category of "time-correlation" (ўаҐ¬Ґ-- п ®в-ҐбҐ--®бвм) was defined as priority expressed by the perfect form in the present, past or future contrasted against the non-expression of priority by the non-perfect forms.

LECTURE 10. DIFFERENT CONCEPTIONS OF THE MOOD SYSTEM IN ENGLISH.

1.The category of mood is the most controversial category of the verb. 2.The indicative mood. 3.The imperative mood. 4.The other moods (subjunctive, conditional).

A lot of definitions have been given of the category of mood. one of them given by Academician V.Vinogradov is this: "mood expresses the relation of the action to reality, as stated by the speaker".(‚.‚.‚Ё-®Ја ¤®ў. ђгббЄЁ© п§лЄ, 1972. б.581). This definition seems plausible on the whole , though the words "relation of action to reality" may not be clear enough. What is meant here is that different moods express different degrees of reality of an action, one mood represents it as actually taking plase, while another mood represents it as merely conditional or desired. There are other ways of indicating the reality or possibility of an action, besides the verbal category of mood. Modal verbs "may, can, must" and modal words "perhaps, probably, etc" which fall under the very wide notion of modali- ty, which is non confined to grammar, but includes some parts of lexicology and of phonetics (intonation) as well. The indicative mood. The use of the indicative mood shows that the speaker represents the action as real: Two additional remarks are necessary here: 1).The mention of the speaker (or writer) who represents the action as real is most essential.In what sense could we say, for instance, that sentence-David Copperfield married Dora-represent real fact. 2).Some doubt about the meaning of the indicative mood may arise if we take into account its use in conditional sentences such as following: I will speak to him if i meat him. It may be argued that the action denoted by the verb in the indicative mood (in the subordinate clauses as well as in the main clauses) is not here represented as a fact but merely as a possibility (I may meet him, and i may not). However this does not affect the meaning of the grammatical form as such. The conditional meaning is expressed by the conjunction and of course it does not alter the modal meaning of the sentence, but the meaning of the verb form as such remains what it was . E.g.She spoke to him last night. She came in a moment ago. She saw him this morning. The indicative mood is widely used in Moddern English. As has already been stated the verb in the indicative mood has three primary tenses and three secondary perfect tenses, two aspect forms-common and continuous and two voice forms-active and passive:1) E.g.We have finished our work-our work has been finished. 2) They are building two houses at the end of the street-two houses are being built at the end of the street. 3) Who brought the parsel? -By whom was the parcell brought? 4) They asked her some questions. She was asked some questions. Some questions were asked her (less common) The imperative mood. the imperative mood in English is represented by one form only "come, write, read", without any suffix or ending. It differs from all other moods in several important points. It has no person, number, tense, aspect distinctions and which is the main thing, it is limited in its use to one type of sentence only, that is, imperative sentences. A verb in the imperative has no pronoun acting as subject. However the pronoun may be used in emotional speech as: "you live me alone", she cried out loudly. A serious difficulty connected with the imperative is the absence of any specific morphological characteristics: with all verbs, including the verb "be", it coincides with the infinitive, and in all verbs except "be", it also coincides with the present indicative

apart from the third person singular. Even the absence of a subject pronoun "you" which would be its syntactical characteristic is not a reliable feature at all, as sentences like: You sit here!-occur often enough. The emphatic imperative is formed with the help of the auxiliary verb to do, following by the infinitive: Do tell me what he said. Do be silent. Do bring my book to-morrow. The other moods. It is a very difficult set of problems, namely thouse connected with the subjunctive, conditional, or whatever other name you may choose to give these moods. In practical English Grammar by M. Ganshina and N. Vasilevskaya we find the oblique moods. There are four oblique moods in Modern English, of which two are synthetical and two analytical. 1.The synthetical moods are subjunctive I and subjunctive II. 2.The analytical moods are the conditional and the suppositional. The synthetical moods. Subjunctive I represents an action as problematic, but not as contradicting reality. It is used to express order, request, suggestion, supposition, purpose. E.g. If the the weather be fine to-morrow, we shall go to the country. Subjunctive I has no tenses, the same form being used for the present, past and future. He ordered that we be present. The form of the third person singular has no -s (-es) inflexion: I have, he have, we have, you have, they have; I speak, he speak ets. The subjunctive II represents an action as contrary to reality. E.g. I wish he were with us. Subjunctive II has two tenses the present and the past. The present subjunctive II. і The past subjunctive II. ДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДД і ДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДДД I were, spoke, were speaking. і I had been, I had spoken. He were, spoke, were speaking.і I had been speaking. She (it) were, spoke. і He had been, he had spoken, We (you,they) were, spoke, і he had been speaking. were speaking. і She(it) had been, she і (it)spoken, she had been і speaking. We (you, they) had і been, we (you, they) had been і spoken, we (you,they) had і been speaking. The present subjunctive II is homonymous with the past indicative. The past subjunctive II is homonymous with the past perfect indicative. The analytical moods. 1. The suppositional mood represents an action as problematic, but not necessarity contradicting reality. The present suppositional mood. I (he, she) should speak. We (you, they) should speak. I (he, she) should be speaking). We (you, they) should be speaking. The past suppositional mood. I (he, she) should have spoken. We (you, they) should have spoken.

I (he, she) should have been speaking. We (you, they) should have been speaking. 2. The unreality of an action represented by the conditional mood is due to absense of the necessary circumstances on which the realization of the action depends. The conditional mood is mainly used in the principal clause of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of unreal condition. E.g. If he were at home, he would help us. If i were at home, i should see her. Conditional mood has two tenses: the present and the past. The present conditional mood. I should speak. He (she) would speak. We should be speaking. You (they) would be speaking. The past conditional mood. I should have spoken. He (she) would have spoken. We should have been speaking You (they) would have been speaking.

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