The negative effects of being a ‘late’ newcomer during an expatriation assignment

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International Journal of Intercultural Relations

28 (2004) 551–576

0147-1767/$ -

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The negative effects of being a ‘late’ newcomerduring an expatriation assignment

Michael Harveya,�, Timothy Kiesslingb

aSchool of Business Administration, University of Mississippi, Mississippi, MS 38766, USAbUniversity of California-Stanislaus, USA

Abstract

In some situations, expatriate managers and their families are encapsulated in expatriate

enclaves for safety and social reasons. This type of living arrangement is frequently seen in the

Middle East and other locations where safety for family members are of a high level of

concern. Even in situations without strict compound-like arrangements, enclaves of

expatriates are formed with their own group characteristics. It is anticipated that as MNCs

focus on transition economies and emerging market countries, these enclaves and the

adjustment of an expatriate to not only the cultural disparities but to these established groups

will have an impact on expatriate success. This paper addresses the issues associated with being

a ‘late newcomer’ to one of these self-contained compounds and the difficulties of becoming

integrated into the social systems established in these enclaves. The appropriate type/level of

social and organizational support is also examined.

r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Success on a global assignment is greatly influenced by an expatriate’s cross-cultural adjustment to the host countryytherefore; additional research is neededon how to improve expatriate adjustment.

(Caligiuri, Phillips, Lazarvoca, Tarique, & Burgi, 2001)

see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

.ijintrel.2005.01.010

nding author. Tel.: +1 662 915 5829; fax: +1 662 915 5821.

dress: [email protected] (M. Harvey).

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijintrel

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M. Harvey, T. Kiessling / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 28 (2004) 551–576552

1. Introduction

Expatriation is sending parent company nationals to another country, or the hostcountry to perform management duties. This staffing alternative has been one of themost frequently used means for staffing overseas assignments for Westernmultinational corporations (MNCs). Currently many MNCs use expatriatemanagers to monitor the activities of a foreign subsidiary (O’Donnell, 2000) andexpatriates are considered an extension of headquarters governance and control(Boyacigiller, 1990). Staffing in this fashion is based upon the underlying assumptionthat managers whose nationality is the same as that of the MNC headquarters willalso hold very similar goals as those of the corporate level (Ghoshal & Nohria, 1993;Gong, 2003).

There has been some concern about the level of success for these expatriatemanagers. Exhibit 1 illustrates a summary of the research findings on what appearsto aid and hinder the success of expatriate managers (see Exhibit 1). As the exhibitillustrates there are a number of factors contributing to potential problemsassociated with expatriation. At the same time, there are several key issues thatneed to be addressed to help insure the success of expatriate managers. These issuesinclude individual manager characteristics, organizational features, foreign environ-ment context, as well as, the systemic planning and support put into place for theexpatriate manager and his/her family.

One problem that has not received a great deal of attention relative to theexpatriate’s adjustment to foreign assignments has been the problems associatedwith ‘late’ newcomers into well-established expatriate enclaves. In certain countries,especially those that are culturally distant and lag from an economic developmentstandpoint, the tendency has been for expatriates to develop a self-containedexpatriate community. These ‘closed encampments’ serve to provide the expatriateand his/her families with a comfortable, safe environment that is supportive of theexpatriate/families needs. This ‘home away from home’ develops a high degree ofsocial stability and is difficult for newcomers to successfully enter. Therefore, theadjustment and potential for success of these ‘late’ newcomer expatriates isjeopardized by the clannishness that develops in closed social community. These‘gated communities’ in the global environment need to be explored in more detail todetermine how to reduce the potential negative effects on adjustment of ‘late’newcomer expatriates.

In essence, the most recent expatriate has two major conditions to which they mustadapt: that of being a ‘newcomer’ to the host country, and that of being a ‘late’entrant into the expat community. This complex duality of issues compounds theprobability of failure of the expatriate as not only must they overcome all the relatedexpatriate failure issues (ex. culture, assignment characteristics, trailing spouse, etc.)but also that of integrating, or failure there-of, into the supportive expatriatecommunity.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the dimensions of expatriate enclaveenvironments and their impact on ‘late’ newcomer expatriates. To accomplish thisgoal, the paper is divided into six sections. First, a theoretical foundation of Social

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Exhibit 1

Predicting success/failure of expatriate managers

Expatriate

Performance

Individual Organizational Environmental Systemic

Success � Big ‘‘5’’ personality

characteristics

� Technical competence

� Cultural adaptability

� Previous cultural adjust-

ments

� Extensive foreign travel

� Cross-cultural training

� Repatriation program

� Knowledgeable IHRM

managers

� Separate IHRM process/

procedures

� Mentoring program

� Relocation to similar

economy/culture

� Reduced government

restriction

� Similarity of languages

� Planning perspective

� Integrated IHRM system

� Increased use of technology

� Flexibility of IHRM system

� Consistency of systems

globally

Representative

research

Caligiuri (2000), Stroh and

Caligiuri (1998), Ones and

Viswesvaran (1999), Spreitzer,

McCall, and Mahoney (1997)

Feldman and Bolino, (1999),

Harvey et al. (1999), Katz and

Seifer (1996), Selmer et al.

(1998)

Barlett and Ghoshal (1997),

Tung and Miller (1990)

Lado and Wilson (19940,

Harvey (1996b), Becker et al.

(1997), Harris and Brewster

(1999), Ferris et al. (1999),

Fish and Wood (1996)

Failure � Family issues

� Unwillingness to be

relocated

� Dual career issues

� Commitment to assignment

� Lack of language

capabilities

� Inadequate support for the

employee/family

� Lack of career planning

� Inadequate orientation

� Inadequate compensa-tion

programs

� Inadequate training

programs

� Emerging markets

� Restrictions on HR by

government

� Hostility (climate,

healthcare, etc.) of

environment

� Cultural taboos (women,

minorities)

� ‘‘Centric’’ IHRM

orientation

� Ad hoc case-by-case

negotiations with

candidates

� Inadequate career

development process during

foreign assign-ment

� Ineffective performance

appraisal system

Representative

research

Caligiuri, Phillips, Lazarova,

Tarique, and Burgi (2001)

Harvey (1998), Fish and

Wood (1997), De Cieri et al.

(1991)

Brewster and Pickard (1994),

Brewster (1995), Chen (1994),

Florkowski and Fogel (1999)

Harvey et al. (1999), Dowling,

Schuler, and Welch (1999)

Harris and Brewster (1999),

Pucik and Sabar (1998); Fish

(1999), Brewster and Scullion

(1997).

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Identity Theory (SIT) is developed to serve as the backdrop for better understandingthe need of expatriates to be accepted during their foreign assignment. Second, therationale for continued use of expatriate by global companies is explored. Third, therelevant literature on international relocation is examined to determine what isknown about the support needed by expatriates during foreign assignment. Fourth,the socialization process that is needed to help insure expatriates can make thetransition to the foreign environment as successfully as possible. Fifth, the literatureassociated with in- and out-group is explored to determine how to seamlessly move‘late’ newcomers into the expatriate enclave. And finally, a step-by-step process fordeveloping a formal and informal support system for expatriates and their family ispresented. But to help insure a solid foundation for the issues associated with ‘late’newcomers, SIT will be presented in the next section of the paper.

2. Theoretical development relative to ‘late’ newcomer expatriate acceptance

SIT foundation premise is that group membership which constitutes afundamental part of an individual’s identity (Turner, 1987). Also, individuals aremotivated to establish and maintain their self-esteem, and that various groupmemberships can have positive esteem implications for individuals over time. SITcontends that several psychological processes operating in the service of promotingself-esteem result from the act of categorizing oneself and others into groups. Forexample, group categorization leads to an accentuation of differences between one’sown group and other groups, or an in- versus out-group mentality (Abrams & Hogg,1990).

This group categorization can lead to a series of social comparison processes.Positive self-esteem is achieved and maintained through comparisons amongst thegroups along characteristics that favor the in-group (Tajfel & Turner, 1986; Kulik &Ambrose, 1992; Bazerman, Tenbrunsel, & Wade-Benzoni, 1998). When groupboundaries are apparent, people search for differences that favor the group to whichthey belong or with which they identify. This competitive orientation leads toperceptual biases and discriminatory behavioral strategies, which function asattempts to differentiate between the in- and out-group in a manner favoring thein-group (Larrick, 1993; Hsee, 1996). An expatriate who is in need of social supportduring their acculturation process will have difficulty as an out-group member, so anorganization’s processes should take into consideration the encouragement of theinclusion of newly arriving expatriates into in-group participation.

Categorization of people into groups simplifies the complexity of the social world,especially in cross-cultural assignments (Allport, 1954; Trolier & Hamilton, 1986;McConnell, Sherman, & Hamilton, 1994). The mere categorization of people into in-and out-groups leads to differentiation between in- and out-group members in waysthat most often favor the in-group (Devine, 1995). This group designation isfrequently used as a form of social comparison used in making decisions as well asdetermining the ‘success’ of the individual making the comparison (Tenbrunsel,Wade-Benzoni, Messick, & Bazerman, 2000).

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M. Harvey, T. Kiessling / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 28 (2004) 551–576 555

In international assignments the group development and attachment is exacer-bated due to the level of diversity of employees with nationality-based differencesaccentuating the uncertain environment found in many foreign environments. Theuncertainty reduction hypothesis of in-group membership clearly has relevance forexpatriates and the uncertain contexts found during foreign assignments. Un-certainty reduction theory and the multilevel process model of organizationalsocialization, suggests that uncertainty motivates group socialization behaviors. Atthe same time, accentuates the need for acceptance in favorable groups as judged bythe international transferee (i.e., inclusion in the already existing ‘community’ ofexpatriate managers in the subsidiary). The uncertainty reduction hypothesis alsospecifies self-categorization as the social cognitive process that resolves uncertaintythrough prototype-based self-depersonalization (Lester’s, 1987; Saks & Ashforth,1997).

SIT processes are also motivated by a need to reduce subjective uncertainty aboutone’s perceptions, attitudes, feelings, and behaviors and, ultimately, one’s self-concept and place within the social world (Saks & Ashforth, 1997). Uncertaintyreduction, particularly concerning subjectively important matters to an individualwhich are generally self-conceptually relevant, is a core human motivation butdifficult to fulfill. Certainty confers confidence in how to behave and what to expectfrom the physical and social environment within which one finds oneself. In anuncertain international host environment, the expatriate will attempt to developcertainty for themselves and their family. As self-categorization reduces uncertaintyby transforming self-conception and assimilating self to a prototype that describesand prescribes perceptions, attitudes, feelings, and behaviors, inclusion into an in-group of the expatriate community will assist the transition process (Hogg & Terry,2000). Therefore SIT is of particular importance to expatriate managers in that theirsocial and physical environments are drastically modified when on foreignassignment.

3. International relocation literature review

There has been some theoretical research and but few empirical studies of theinternational relocation of expatriate managers. However, the internationalliterature on relocation provides a starting point for examining the stress/conflictassociated with relocation in general and, from that, to anticipate the stress for latenewcomer expatriates relocating to well-established expatriate enclaves in culturallydistant countries.

3.1. Willingness to relocate internationally

Expatriates’ expectations concerning an international relocation could differ fromthose of a domestic relocation. The trailing spouse in an expatriate lead dual-careercouple’s attitudes and/or pre-dispositions might play a significant role in the couple’swillingness to take a foreign assignment. As the co-provider role of the trailing

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spouse has become more prevalent, the likelihood of accepting a relocationopportunity which disrupts the trailing spouse’s career has been reduced (Crendall,Dwyer, & Duncan, 1990). It is important to note that an international relocationcreates more than a financial problem for the trailing spouse. Beyond the alteredfinancial state, the trailing spouse may: (1) lose social support provided by extendedfamily and friends; (2) experience significant adjustment due to loss of professionalidentity; (3) have problems associated with the family unit due to children’sunwillingness to relocate; (4) have difficulty in finding employment during therelocation; and (5) experience significant stress due to professional isolation and lossof career (Wiggins-Frame & Shehan, 1994). It is also significant that willingness ofthe trailing spouse of an expatriate to relocate internationally may be directly relatedto the stages in the expatriate’s career life-cycle as well as that of the trailing spouse’scareer life-cycle (Reynolds & Bennett, 1991; Chi-Ching, 1995).

Expatriate willingness to relocate internationally may be analyzed from threetheoretical perspectives. First, the human capital theory compares the appropriatelydiscounted future utility streams expected on one’s present location to those inalternative locations. Streams relate to both members of the expatriate couple andextend beyond explicit financial remuneration, and include climate, nearness tofamily and friends, accelerated advancement, and impact on career opportunities forboth members. The second theoretical perspective is role theory. This perspective onwillingness to relocate internationally is based on the assumption that women aresocialized and rewarded for subordinating their careers for the family (Markham &Pleck, 1986). Despite considerable liberalization, there is evidence that such normsare still widely held.

There appears to be a link between the female member of the expatriate couple’swillingness to relocate and career stage, family life-cycle stage, supportiveness offamily, job tenure, and career development opportunities after the foreignassignment (Noe, Steffey, & Barber, 1988). In contrast, sex role stereotypes suggestthat female expatriate with a male trailing spouses will be less willing to relocateinternationally than female spouses. It may be construed that a male trailing spousefollowing his wife on an international assignment is a significant departure fromsocial norms associated with the male role as primary provider for the family (Brett,Stroh, & Reilly, 1992).

The third theoretical approach to the willingness of expatriate couples to relocateinternationally is family power, which argues that power accrues to the spouse whobrings more resources to the marriage and therefore is less dependent. In anexpatriate couple, willingness to relocate internationally would be reduced if thetrailing spouse made a significant contribution to the financial well-being of thefamily unit (Harvey, 1995).

An expatriate couple’s expectations and willingness to relocate internationally hasa direct bearing on the attitude taken into the new position and is thought to providea quasi-prediction of successful relocation. The willingness to relocate overseasappears to be influenced by family situations (i.e., life-cycle stage) the flexibility/adaptability of candidates job knowledge, the perceived value of the internationalassignment to the expatriate’s career path, cultural similarity between home and host

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countries, and the duration of the assignment. To heighten the willingness ofexpatriate managers to relocate internationally, and to have well-delineatedexpectations concerning their relocations, researchers have identified five key issueswhich are critical to the process: (1) free choice; (2) realistic job preview; (3) having amentor in the ‘‘home office’’ during the foreign assignment; (4) placement uponreentering domestic market; and (5) the relocation program supports the manager’slong-term career goals and objectives (Wanous, 1980; Harvey, 1985, 1989; Harris,1989; Feldman, 1991). Therefore, the following issues appear to be central inanalyzing expatriate couples’ willingness to relocate internationally:

1.
Individual issues—stage of family life-cycle, stage of career life-cycle, trailingspouse’s career orientation, impact or modification in real income of expatriateand expatriate couple.
2.
Position related issues—the perceived impact of the international assign-ment on the manager’s career, duration of the foreign assignment, levelof organizational support for the expatriate couple during internationalrelocation.
3.
Environmental issues—cultural similarity of host and home country, level ofeconomic development of host country.
3.2. Adjustment during international relocation

Adjustment to international assignments has attracted researchers’ attention andmost of their research efforts have been directed toward cultural adjustments (i.e.,between home and host country, domestic and international organiza-tion cultures) (Feldman, 1976; Louis, 1980; Feldman & Brett, 1983; Jones, 1986;Pinder & Schroeder, 1987; Black, 1991c; Black & Gregersen, 1991b). Due to the natureof international relocation of expatriate couples, both environmental ‘fits’ must beanalyzed to ascertain the adjustment issues for expatriate managers and their trailingspouses (Baird & Meshoulam, 1988; Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991).

International adjustment theory development (Black et al., 1991) has identifiedthree categories of pre-departure variables (i.e., previous international experience,pre-departure training, and the candidate’s relocation criteria and process, as well astwo post-departure variables, individual skills and non-work factors, that impact therate of adjustment during a foreign assignment). Past researchers have consistentlysupported the non-work importance of the family and trailing spouse in adjustmentto overseas assignments (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; Black & Stephens, 1989; Blacket al., 1991; Harvey 1995, 1996).

Family and spousal problems can retard the rate and level of adjustment of theinternationally relocated manager (Parker & McEvoy, 1993). The inability ofexpatriate managers and their spouses to successfully adjust to a new host culturecould influence their level of satisfaction, the expatriate’s performance level, andcould affect the expatriate couple’s ability to fulfill their expatriate job obligations.This would be of particular interest in expatriate families where the trailing spousesare unable to continue their careers during a foreign posting (Harvey, 1995). In

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general, many researchers have concluded that the family and spouse are majorfactors when assessing the ability of an expatriate manager to adjust to aninternational relocation (Church, 1982; Tung, 1984; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985;Harvey, 1985; Black & Stephens, 1989; Harris, 1989; Reynolds & Bennett, 1991;McCook, Charlesworth & Folzer, 1991; Pascoe, 1992; Global Relocation Trends,1994; Swaak, 1995).

This would be a strong indication of the need for the MNC to develop a formal aswell as informal support for the expatriate (formal at work) and family/trailingspouse (informal) to be developed. Exhibit 2 illustrates the key elements in such asystem and the interplay between the formal and informal support processes. But itshould be noted for successful adjustment to take place, particularly in culturallydistant countries, both systems should be operational.

3.3. Satisfaction with international assignment

Intent-to-leave during an expatriate’s relocation is thought to reflect the satisfactionin a foreign assignment as well as in the host environment of the expatriate and/orfamily/spouse. (Parker & McEvoy, 1993; Birdseye & Hill, 1995). This type ofdissatisfaction and internal turnover has been noted by a number of researchers(Tung, 1982; Naumann, 1993; Sieveking, Anchor, & Marston, 1981; Harvey, 1995).

The level of stress associated with an expatriate transfer to an internationalassignment heightens the probability of an adverse relocation experience andtherefore intent-to-leave. Stressors in the work and family domains are additive andhave a tendency to ‘‘spillover’’ from one domain to the other. This compoundingeffect from spillover influences the level of stress which, in turn, can alter satisfactionwith work and family life (Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1986; Gutek, Repetti, &Silver, 1988; Lambert 1990; Parasuraman, Greenhaus, & Granrose, 1992; Williams& Alliger, 1994). The intent-to-leave becomes problematic with expatriation due tothe likelihood of compounding stress because of the potential problems associatedwith a trailing spouse’s detachment from his/her career during an already stressfulinternational relocation. The crossover or transfer of stress from one spouse (i.e., thetrailing spouse), to the expatriate manager increases the difficulty in meetingperformance goals (Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler, & Wethington, 1989; Jones &Fletcher, 1993). Not only can the intent-to-stay be influenced, but both thepsychological health and marital satisfaction of partners can be negatively influenced(Fletcher, 1983; Haynes, Eaker, & Feinleib, 1983; Jones & Fletcher, 1993). Therelationship between job satisfaction and marital quality has demonstrated that thehigher the stress and job demands, the more detrimental the influence to maritalsatisfaction and job performance (Zedeck, Maslach, Mosier, & Skitka, 1989). One ofthe highest stressors in expatriate couples has been job relocation (Munton, 1990).

Exhibit 3 illustrates the nature of the stress that expatriate managers willexperience during their relocation overseas. It is important to note that stress canemanate from one of four origins, those being; the foreign organization (withconcomitant stressor from the home country organization); personal issues of themanager and the role to be fulfilled during the foreign assignment, family, and

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Exhibit 2

Model of social/psychological support for expatriates

Need for Social/Psychological Support

Support Environment

Family SettingExternal NetworkDegree of DissimilarityRecipient Characteristics

Support Environment

Prior OrganizationalProgramsInternal NetworkOrganization ConfigurationProvider Characteristics

Resources toProvide Support

ConcernEconomicKnowledgeTime

Resources toProvide Support

ConcernEconomicKnowledgeTime

Willingness toProvide Support

Family RolesGender RolesCorporate Roles

Normative Appropriateness

Expected Valueor Rewards

Marital SatisfactionFamily CommitmentIncreased ProductivityReduced TeamworkWillingness to AcceptGlobal Relocation

Perceived Equity

Support ReceivedRelative ResourcesRelative Family/WorkCommitment

Support Provided

EmotionalInstrumentalInformationalAppraisal

Spouse

Organization

••••

••••

•••

••••••

••••

••••

•

•••

••••

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Exhibit 3

Intercultural stress inducing activities of expatriate managers

Stressor *Cog Em Beh Cog Em Beh Cog Em Beh Cog Em Beh

Economic

Goal Attainment

Security

Role Ambiguity

Social Attainment

Recognition

CulturalUnderstanding

Physical Risk

Technology

Environmental

Source of Stress

Organizational Personal Family

*Types of Life Strains Cog = Cognitive Dimension: Em = Emotional Dimension: Beh= Behavioral Dimensio


general environmental issues (e.g., cultural distance, level of economic development,safety/risk issues and the like). At the same time, each stressor may have threedimensions those being; cognitive, emotional, and behavioral. While all stress maynot have a combination of these three dimensions, the most difficult stress to addressby the expatriate will have a combination of dimensions creating the stress on theexpatriate manager.

Given the previous research on international relocation, the following issueswould appear to be important when examining the adjustment stress on expatriatemangers:

1.
Individual specific—age, past experience with relocation, stage of career life-cycle,stage of family life-cycle, and past success in job.
2.
Position specific—remuneration package, role clarity, role discretion, role conflict,duration of assignment, job security, general level of job satisfaction.
3.
Organization specific—similarity of organizational culture, support providedto employee/family by organization, degree of organizational (subsidiary)autonomy.
4.
Non-work specific—dissimilarity of external host environment, degree of contactby expatriate with external environment, and restrictions on the family andtrailing spouse.

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The difficulty to relocating to culturally distant countries by ‘late newcomer’expatriates and their families, heightens the stress associated with expatriaterelocation. This issue has received very limited attention by researchers butwould appear to be a special case when a closer examination is undertaken. Theimportance of socializing ‘late’ newcomer expatriates is addressed in the followingsection.

4. Importance of the socialization process and inclusion into the in-group for ‘late’

newcomer expatriates

International relocation can be a chaotic experience and requires extensiveadjustment by the expatriate and support for both themselves and their family(Hausman & Reed, 1991). This type of relocation entails many unknowns, especiallyin the two central domains of work and family (Mortimer, Lorence, & Kumka,1986). Expatriates are often faced with a new work role that may be more ambiguousand complex, complicated by cultural nuances, with greater responsibilities andpressures to perform (Harvey, 1985). Expatriates relocating with their families canhave major issues with both of the trailing spouse (in the case of expatriate couples)and children. Spouses lack of social support networks or organizational affiliationoften results in loneliness, frustration, and diminished self-esteem (Loomis, 1992).The expatriate can ‘‘escape’’ to their job, while letting the spouse to contend with allthe cultural nuances alone. Children attend new schools, make new friends, andadjust to a complete transformation of their physical and cultural environments(Cornille, 1993). These work and family related issues are compounded by aninability to be immediately accepted into what might be perceived as well entrenchedexpatriate community by many latent expatriate newcomers.

Approximately 70% of international assignees are accompanied by a spouse, and/or children and increasingly, large number of expatriate couples are acceptinginternational assignments (Harvey, 1997) and the interface between work and familyis apt to be even more salient for them (Shahnasarian, 1991). The level of supportneeded to expatriates with families will be considerable higher then an expatriate onan assignment alone.

Human capital theory suggests that there is a potential direct influence of familybased inputs by considering them in combination with work-based inputs (Beckerand Becker). The human capital perspective infers that inter-role conflict occurswhen one domain interferes with another, and a struggle to maintain balancebetween the two ensues. In international assignments, that family will have a largerrole in, and impede upon, the expatriate’s work, especially during the acculturationperiod. This struggle is especially stressful when the two domains are of similarsalience and dependent on each other for resources, as in the case of work and family(Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). The conflict has a significant negative influence on jobsatisfaction (Kossek & Ozeki, 1998).

Selection of the expatriate typically is from a pool of successful employees who intheir domestic environment were part of an organizational in-group, and whose

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family socially belonged to many different types of supportive professional andpersonal groups. In the case of organizations choosing to send parent countrynationals on foreign assignment, the literature identifies a number of factors thatneed to be taken into consideration to predict expatriate success. These factorsinclude technical competence on the job; personality traits; environment variables;and family situation (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; Tung, 1981). Other personalcharacteristics include expatriates who exhibit tolerance toward differences in race,creed, culture, customs and values, and can be viewed as expressing cultural empathy(Tung, 1981). Highly motivated individual is also identified as a factor predicting thesuccess of the expatriate on foreign assignment (Heller, 1986). A final criterion is thatof behavior, being defined as non-judgmental, showing tolerance for ambiguity anddisplays of respect (Phatak, 1995).

Even more evidence for potential failure for an expatriate that does notbecome socialized within the host expatriate community is that out-group employeeswho do not possess the essential connections, their level of satisfaction is likely to belower. This has an adverse impact on their sense of self-worth and overallperformance (Hurley, Fagenson-Eland, & Sonnenfeld, 1997). In-group memberswere higher on motivational factors and experienced less role-related stress (e.g., roleoverload, role insufficiency, role ambiguity, and conflict) (Lagace, Castleberry, &Ridnour, 1993)

Owing to in-group bias, the efforts of out-group members are often unrecognizedby their supervisors. Moreover, out-group members do not experience the jobsecurity and desired rewards in-group members enjoy. They are often overlooked interms of opportunities for personal achievement. But the true measure of theimpact of being n out-group member is the lack of identification of members ofthe out-group and lower levels of commitment to the goals of the organization.While on the other hand, in-group members are delegated key roles in theorganization, out-group members are merely assigned peripheral functions that areeasily replaceable (Cheng, 1999).

From a leader-member exchange (LMX) viewpoint, in-group members receivemore attention and support from their superiors than out-group members(Scandura, 1999). Since in-group exchanges have the characteristic of a partnership,the interactions between supervisors and their in-group counterparts are governed byinterpersonal relationship (informal organizational relationships) rather than formalauthority or organization structure (Berry, 1998). In-group members are likely toexperience higher morale, which results from the building of such intimate personalrelationships frequently being translated into greater productivity and satisfaction(Jenks, 1990). Out-group members frequently only receive the standard formalinteractions and resulting benefits from the formal relationships with their superiors.

Over time, the morale of the out-group has a tendency to be eroded by theirfeelings of alienation, powerlessness, and inequity as favoritism of in-groupemployees renders the relationship between performance and reward less obvious(Prendergast & Topel, 1996). The out-group members develop a we versus themmentality which over time becomes further impediment to their advancement in theorganization. This type of alienation is of particular relevance when one considers

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the professional and personal isolation expatriate managers experience while onforeign assignment (Harvey, Speier, & Novicevic, 2001).

Therefore, the actions and programs of the MNC in socialization expatriateinto the in-group expatriate community should assist in the retention of theexpatriate. Many researchers have confirmed that newcomer perceptions ofthe socialization tactics used by organizations influence attitudinal out-comes (Ashforth, Saks, & Lee, 1997; Jones, 1986; Van Maanen & Schein, 1979).Initial experiences with an organization influence newcomers’ work attitudes andbehavior (Feldman, 1976; Saks & Ashforth, 1997). Organizational socializationtactics applied in the weeks following entry represent another set of meaning-ful experiences that can affect newcomers’ work-related attitudes and behavior(Jones, 1986).

Socialization experience has been classified into six dimensions referred to asinstitutionalized tactics: (a) collective (i.e., socializing a group of newcomerstogether), (b) formal (i.e., segregating newcomers from the work group for aninitial period of socialization), (c) sequential (i.e., providing a clear picture of thesequence of boundary passages), (d) fixed (i.e., providing a clear picture of the timingof boundary passages), (e) serial (i.e., having accessible and supportive role modelsavailable to the newcomer), and (f) investiture (i.e., supporting the newcomer’s initialattitudes and values) (Van Maanen & Schein, 1979). These dimensions are importantin that each one has a direct impact on the newcomers feeling of acceptance andworth in the organization. If the socialization dimensions or not directly addressedby organizational processes, the level of socialization of newcomers can be inhibited.In addition, socialization of newcomers such as expatriate managers will normallyreceive less attention that those of their domestic counterparts making them morevenerable to feelings of isolation and initial dissatisfaction with their newassignment. This is ‘outcast’ feeling of newly arrived expatriates is accentuated inlong-standing expatriate communities that are closely knit and comfortable withtheir foreign enclave.

As the process which newcomers learn about the organization and therequirements of role performance, socialization can have a major impact onnewcomer adjustment (Bauer & Green, 1998). Also, institutionalized socializationhas been associated with high job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

5. In-/out-group and the ‘late’ newcomer expatriate

Relationships among individuals accentuate the complexity of organizational lifeand are particularly important when there is a blending of two or more cultures inforeign subsidiaries (Barge, 1994). This complexity is exasperated during interna-tional assignments when not only must the expatriated employees work together, butfrequent they also must live together (i.e., foreign compounds) maintaining socialrelationships outside the work environment. Beneath the ‘cloak’ of formalrelationships in every organization, there is a more complex system of socialrelationships that arise spontaneously as people associate with one another.

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In an organizational context, this informal organization is important indetermining how ‘things are done’ rather than by examining the formal organizationchart of the organization. During international assignments, an expatriatecommunity is frequently developed in an attempt to create a feeling of communityand to reduce the isolation and culture shock experienced by many expatriates. Thisexpatriate enclave ‘fortress’ are more like the expatriate home-country than that ofthe host country and often stimulates the felling of a social in-group that is cohesiveand reduces the risks associated with foreign assignments. Unlike the formalstructure, which emphasizes official positions in terms of authority and responsi-bility, the informal structure emphasizes people/families, their unofficial relation-ships and support mechanisms (Newstrom & Davis, 1993).

The informal system evolves to fulfill needs that cannot be met by the formalsystem (Furnham, 1997). In the expatriate community, the informal system isfrequently stronger than in a domestic country setting as groups due to the lack ofneed to form supportive groups from work given the high level of homogeneity ofpotential social contacts in the home-country. Demographic homogeneity maystrengthen organizational in-group prototypes, social attraction, and identification(Hogg & Terry, 2000). Expatriates who have just arrived are out-group members,which may be a contributing factor to failure, as this is the most important time ofthe acculturation period.

The expatriate frequently needs to develop informal relationships with the ‘rightpeople’ during his/her foreign assignment, who may include subordinates, peers, aswell as superiors. These informal relationships in the organization/expatriatecommunity have the potential of bringing about more influence and power thanthe formal relationships (Jenks, 1990; Johns, 1992). Such informal relationships mayoverride organizational charts and involve an element of ‘power-seeking,’ whereindividuals exchange more than friendship among themselves to further individualgoals that cannot be met through formal channels. But as importantly, the expatriateneeds to have a support group that will aid him/her in adjustment and acceptance ofthe new organizational as well as macro environments. Informal support represents a‘touchstone’ for the expatriate that affirms that they are making they are facingsimilar obstacles to adjustment as their expatriate counterparts and there aresolutions to these barriers to adjustment.

It is important to note that in-groups are formed over time both at the formal andinformal level in foreign environments. Inclusion to the in-group is contingent on anumber of factors some of which are under the control of the expatriate but anumber of issues are related to the in-group itself (see Exhibit 4). In many cases(particularly in economic/cultural distant environments), the in-groups stronginterpersonal connections have been developed over time which has resulted in theformation of tightly knit in-groups which tend to be exclusive, and may not includethe newcomer (Trice & Beyer, 1993).

The LMX model suggests that in-group members are given high levels of trust,interaction, support and rewards while out-group members receive low levels ofeach. In-group members enjoy considerable benefits while out-group members aredenied valuable opportunities (Vecchio, 1997; Graen & Cashman, 1975). Unless the

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Exhibit 4

Factors affecting expatriate inclusion into in-group

Expatriate

• Level of Employment • Personal Characteristics• Previous International

Relocation• Demographic Characteristics

In-Group

• Level of In-Group Cohesion • Size/Level of Diversity of In-Group • Tenure of In-Group• Leadership of In-Group• Role of Family Unit in the In-Group• Demographic Characteristics

Low Cultural Novelty/Distance of the Host Country HighRate of Typical Expatriate Turnover


expatriate can become acculturated within either the host country or enter into thein-group expatriate community, the risk of assignment failure increases. The supportof the expatriate community is essential for the expatriate and their family to adjustto often large cultural differences, but both expatriate individual differences andgroup dynamics may make this support difficult to attain.

Organizational socialization tactics have been theorized to have an importantimpact on how individuals, especially for organization newcomers, adjust to newwork roles (Van Maanen & Schein, 1979). The socialization process for internationalassignments becomes ever more complicated due to both cultural manifestations andthat of attempting to become part of the expatriate community. Mode of adjustmentis essentially the means by which individuals adjust to the transition. One of the mostfrequently discussed modes of adjustment in the socialization literature is roleinnovation (see Fisher, 1986, for a review). Role innovation can be defined asadjusting to the transition by changing the new role expectations and requirements(Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Nicholson, 1984; West, 1987).

Factors affecting the expatriate inclusion into the in-group are both personalcharacteristics and characteristics of the in-group, moderated by rate of expatriateturnover and cultural novelty/distance of the host country. The factors areinterrelated and each one does not stand alone, but influences one another. Thelevel of employment, whether the expatriate is an officer or low-level worker, willaffect the inclusion into the in-group. As an officer of the firm, the expatriate’sauthority to alter or assist others’ career may entice the in-group to include thenewcomer. Alternately, a new employee of little status may be looked upon asoffering little or no value to the in-group.

Expatriates personal characteristics, most often referred to as the ‘Big Five’ (e.g.,extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness orintellect) (Caligiuri, 2000) will not only help to predict the success of an expatriate’sability to adjust to a new environment, but also to their ability to developrelationships with the in-group expatriate community. Research has suggested thatprevious international assignments will positively affect an expatriate’s success at

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their current assignment (Black et al., 1991). The expatriate will not only be able tobecome acculturated to the host country environment, but is familiar with expatriatecommunities and negotiate through the politics of the in-group. The final majorexpatriate characteristic that will decide their inclusion into the in-group is theirdemography. This characteristic is directly in relation to the in-group demographiccharacteristic. For example, if the expatriate is single and young, and the in-group isolder with families, the expatriate will find it difficult to be included within theirauspices.

The in-group characteristics will either make it difficult or easy for the expatriateto become included. The cohesion, or whether the in-group is close-knit, is likely tobe related to the tenure of the in-group. As the in-group has existed for an extendedperiod of time, routinization of the social activities becomes cemented with very littledeviance. This routinization assists in the development of the environmental bubbleand alleviates uncertainty which prevails in the cultural distance of the host country.The greater the cohesion and tenure of the in-group, the more likely that theexpatriate will have difficulty in becoming a member. When a group is cohesive, in-group members are liked more if they embody the in-group prototype (Oakes, Hasla,& Turner, 1994). Out-group members generally are liked less than in-groupmembers. When a group is not cohesive, liking is based on personal relationshipsand idiosyncratic preferences (Hogg & Terry, 2000).

The greater the size of the in-group, the greater the potential that the expatriatecan enter through a subgroup, or directly through a member that is demographicallysimilar. Smaller groups may be more cohesive and more difficult to enter, yet maywelcome newcomers that are demographically similar. The leadership of the in-group, as like the leadership of any group, influences the inclusion of the expatriate.If the leadership understands the cost of expatriation to the firm and the importanceof the success of the expatriate, the nurturing and inclusion of the expatriate duringthe acculturation period will occur through their direction. The role of the familyunit in the group and the in-group’s demography will affect the expatriate’s successin infiltrating due to like-type characteristics. In-group social identity processes aremotivated by subjective uncertainty reduction, (2) prototype-based depersonaliza-tion lies at the heart of social identity processes, and (3) groups are internallystructured in terms of perceived or actual group prototypically of members (Hogg &Terry, 2000). The greater the similarity in the characteristics between the expatriateand the in-group, potentially the greater the probability of success of inclusion of thenewcomer expatriate.

Influencing the in-group and the expatriate is the cultural novelty/distance of thecountry and the rate of typical expatriate turnover. In host countries whereexpatriate turnover is high; the desire of the in-group to extend its relationships tonewcomers would be lessoned. As there are only finite personal resources such astime, attention and energy (Eckenrode & Gore, 1990), the in-group members will notwaste their personal resources on an individual who may not be in the hostcountry very long. Low cultural novelty of the host country (example, UnitedKingdom) would suggest that the expatriate community will not need to developsuch an intense ‘environmental bubble’ and may even have host country nationals

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as a part of the in-group. In high cultural distance countries such as Saudi Arabiathe in-group may actually live together in an enclosed compound with littleto no contact with the host country population. This is particularly true in coun-tries that have restrictions on the employment of trailing spouses or of womenin general.

6. Step-by-step process for developing effective ‘late’ newcomer expatriate support

programs

In an effort to illustrate the support system needed by expatriate managers andtheir families, a step-by-step process is presented in Exhibit 5. Each of the steps in theprocess will be briefly discussed but it is important to note that each of the steps inthe process is essential to bring about a successful support mechanism for ‘late’newcomers into static foreign environments.

(1)

Exh

Prog

F

Justification of the importance of support system for ‘late’ newcomer expatriates:

The first step in developing a support system for ‘late’ newcomers is to recognize

ibit 5

ram development for support programs for expatriates

Justification of Value/Importance of Support System for Expatriates

Determination of Location/Number of Expatriate Assignments

Assessment of Economic/Cultural Distance of Expatriate Assignments (Clustering)

Identification of Stage of Family Life-Cycle

Identification of Stage of Career Life-Cycle

Development of Formal/Informal Support Programs by Cluster

eedback

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that his type of organizational and personal support is needed by this group ofmanagers. Many organizations have been reluctant to provide extensive training/support to their expatriate managers for a number of reasons: (1) due to thetemporary nature of expatriate assignments (i.e., duration of from 3–5 years); (2)frequently there is an immediate need for an expatriate manager, many times dueto the failure of the prior manager and the absence of succession planning bymany global organizations; (3) lack of experience within the organization tocross-culturally train expatriate managers; (4) the length of time to undertake‘adequate’ training for expatriate managers; (5) resistance to training bypotential expatriate managers due to the already busy schedules and the lackof certainty of where them might be reassigned overseas; (6) difficulty indetermining what should be covered in expatriate training given the lack ofspecific knowledge of where the assignment might be (i.e., training takingplace 1–2 years ahead of time to be substantive); and (7) who should betrained, determining for enough in advance who potential candidates are for thetraining. Therefore, additional training to ‘late’ newcomers might be a difficultprogram to institute in many organizations. In addition, the nature of thetraining program would have to be determined and specialized for the characterof the expatriate ‘encampment’ that the manager is being sent to by theorganization. A very difficult task given the lead-time to have meaning trainingto take place.

(2)
Determination of location/number of expatriate assignments: In an effort toaddress the comment made above, it is critical for the location and number ofexpatriate enclaves to be identified by the HRM personnel. In this process thenature of the community should be determined by examining the followingcharacteristics of the expatriate encampment: (1) length of time the compoundhas existed; (2) size/diversity of members of the community; (3) normal tenure ofmembers of the group/encampment; (4) leadership of the expatriate communityand their potential assistance in addressing the ‘late’ newcomer phenomena; (5)demographics of the expatriates/families in the community; and (6) cohesion ofthe group and the level of turnover and newcomers to the expatriate compound.In addition, it is important ex anta to identify the potential expatriateassignments and where managers are likely to be relocated overseas. In thisway, the level of economic/culture distance can be estimated and can be used tohelp forecast the likelihood of foreign communities of expatriates/families. Thehigher the risk of these communities occurring the greater the need for ‘late’newcomer assistance programs.
(3)
Development of clusters of potential environments to which expatriates could be
assigned: By clustering macro and enclave environments, the HRM group beginsto develop models for ‘late’ newcomer programs. This step allows some degree ofeconomies of scale in the training of expatriate who will face the possibility ofexclusion from the foreign assignment in-group. The customization of ‘one-of-one’ programs for each expatriate would be cost prohibitive and could notbe justified by the HRM group. Therefore, this step allows some economicjustification for such programs.

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(4)
Identification of stage of family cycle: It is anticipated that the family’s safety isone of the primary reasons for the development of expatriate compoundsduring foreign assignments. This safety concern has only been heightenedby the recent wave of terrorism and the past attacks on Western MNCs/globalorganizations. It is also anticipated that the support group for ‘late’ new-comers should be tailor to the needs of the expatriate and his/her family. Ateach stage of the family life cycle (e.g., bachelor, newly married, full nest I:youngest child under six years-old, full nest II: youngest child over six-years old,full next III: older married couples with dependent children; empty nest I: oldermarried couples with no children living within the family unity, empty nest II:older married couple retired, sole survivor retired) the needs of the familyunit requires a different support system and the importance of support ele-ments differs.
(5)
Identification of stage of career-life cycle: Just as with the family life-cyclethe stage of the expatriates’ career life-cycle also will help to predict the type/level of support needed. The recognized stages of career life-cycle are:(1) exploration ages 21–25; (2) crystallization and implementation ages 25–30;(3) establishment ages 30–35; (4) late 1930s transition ages 35–40; (5) settlingdown average age 40+; (6) late 1940s, 45–50; (7) achievement-maintenanceage 50+; and (8) disengagement. While the exact ages and stages are not theintent of this type of analysis, it is important for the HRM team to recognizethat at each stage (regardless of how it is defined or ages of those in the category)managers and particularly expatriate managers needs will vary by the their careerstage.The best means to develop a support program for ‘late’ newcomer expatriateis to combine the family and career life-cycles analysis to fine-tune the needsof the candidate and his/her family. But it should be recognized by thosedeveloping the support system that both life-cycles are integral elements toforecast the nature and character of the support that will be needed by expatriatemanagers facing the prospect of attempting to enter the expatriate ‘gatedcommunity.’
(6)
Development of formal/informal support programs by clusters: While most of theattention so far as been on the formal organizational support program that mightbe needed by ‘late’ newcomers, there should be an equal amount of effortdirected towards the informal support received outside the confines of theorganization. The development of informal social support networks is a tauntingtask in a domestic setting and even more vexing in multiple foreignenvironments. In addition, the people who need to provide the support are thesame individuals (in-group) that may be the barriers to entry for the ‘late’newcomer. Therefore, the nature and extent of this potential problem willhave to be included in pre-expatriate training for managers being relocatedoverseas. The lack of globally competence of both the human resource systemas well as managers to effectively compete in global markets will heightenthe need to address such difficult problems (Mendenhall, Black, Jensen, &Gregersen, 2003).

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7. Summary/conclusion

MNCs continue to use expatriates to assist in their global operations as extensionsof their headquarters’ governance and control as these individuals will typically holdsimilar goals and values as those in headquarters. The expatriates also are used totransfer headquarters’ corporate culture and operating systems, functional technicalexpertise and to give home country personnel international experience. Unfortu-nately these assignments fail frequently as there is evidence that more than 30% ofUS corporate overseas assignments fail (Solomon, 1995) and about 28% for the UK(Foster, 1997). As more than 100,000 US employees are expatriated each year at anestimated cost of $250,000, this is a very important issue (Mandell, 1994; Ioannou,1995). Therefore, continued research into drafting success for these individuals isrequired.

The bulk of the MNCs staffing literature has focused on staffing issues related toexpatriate parent country nationals (Harvey et al., 2001; Peterson, 2003), but none ofthis literature has focused on the issues of the informal expatriate communitysupport, or lack thereof. This research has attempted to fill that gap in the expatriateliterature.

Expatriates develop closed encampments or an ‘environmental bubble’ (Cohen,1977) to attempt to develop their home country characteristics to alleviate thecross-cultural nuances and ease some uncertainty of the environment. Unfortunatelythese expatriate communities develop a high degree of social stability and aredifficult for newcomers to successfully enter. We explore these communities throughSIT and explain why it is important in regard to the expatriate, then develop stepsto assist.

SIT’s foundation premise is that group membership constitutes a fundamentalpart of an individual’s identity (Turner, 1987) in which members are motivated toestablish and maintain their self-esteem and that group categorization leads to anaccentuation of differences between one’s own group and other groups, or an in-group versus out-group mentality (Abrams & Hogg, 1990). In internationalassignments the group development and attachment is exacerbated due to the levelof diversity of employees with nationality based differences accentuating theuncertain environment found in many foreign environments, also emphasizing evengreater those in the ingroup versus outgroup.

Both the family and the trailing spouse affect adjustment of the internationallyrelocated manager and their performance level as spouse’s lack of social supportnetworks or organizational affiliation often results in loneliness, frustration, anddiminished self-esteem (Loomis, 1992; Parker & McEvoy, 1993). The level of stressassociated with an expatriate transfer to an international assignment also heightensthe probability of an adverse relocation experience and therefore intent-to-leavethe MNC.

To assist the expatriate into their transition into the new stressful environment,organizational socialization tactics have been theorized to have an important impacton how individuals, especially for organization newcomers, adjust to new work roles(Van Maanen & Schein, 1979). During this socialization process, it is important to

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integrate the expatriate into an in-group, as in-group members were higher onmotivational factors and experienced less role-related stress (e.g., role overload,role insufficiency, role ambiguity, and conflict) (Cheng, 1999; Lagace et al., 1993).While out-group members develop a, we versus them mentality, are oftenunrecognized by their supervisors and the morale of an individual in the out-groupwill have a tendency to be eroded by their feelings of alienation, powerlessness,and inequity (Prendergast & Topel, 1996). Therefore it is important for MNCsto not only be prepared to acculturate the expatriate into the host country, butto establish steps to include the expatriate within the informal expatriate communityof relationships.

We have developed steps in which an MNC can assist in the development offacilitating the inclusion into the in-group in host country expatriate communities.The MNC must develop justification for these support systems as numerous reasonsto not support expatriate training have developed (example, who should be trained,temporary nature of expatriate assignments, etc.). The MNC must assess theexpatriate community of their characteristics (example cohesion, tenure, size,leadership, etc.). Develop models for latecomer programs that will allow someeconomies of scale in the training of the expatriate who will face possible exclusionfrom the foreign in-group that could be applied universally. Individual character-istics of the expatriate need to be evaluated such as their stage of career-life cycle,family cycle, previous international experience, etc. to be incorporated into theprogram. Finally efforts to develop informal support for the expatriate should entail.Upon entry into the country, assignment of a initial mentor to establish informal tiesand formal family gatherings to assist in the attempt at relationship buildingamongst a possible tight knit group could be a start, as the very people who need toprovide the support are the same individuals (in-group) that may be the barriers toentry for the ‘late’ newcomer.

In conclusion, expatriation will continue as a human resource strategy formultinational corporations. These companies wish the assignment to be a successand although literature has explored various explanations for expatriate success/failure, this research suggests that the informal expatriate community may play avery large role. Through social identity theory, we have developed a possibleframework for the inclusion of the expatriate and their family to become includedwithin the in-group.

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