IntroductionIn recent years, Southern states have been inundated by major flooding events. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), annual flood records are expected to be broken again in 2020 and beyond.1 Taken together, these repeated flood events can create a significant and long-term strain on states’ econo-mies, both in terms of tangible losses and damages,* as well as lost productivity. This SLC Regional Resource reviews recent flooding data in Southern states and explores how the Netherlands model of “living with water” may help states strengthen their resilience while reducing the cost of recovery for future flood-related disasters.
The Cost and Frequency of Flooding in Southern StatesAlthough each state has unique weather challenges, studies undertaken by NOAA, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the National Weather Service indicate that Southern states are at increased risk for–and dispro-portionately impacted by–flood events such as hurricanes, high tide flooding and inland flooding.
Hurricanes are the costliest weather disasters in the United States.2 Since 1980, the United States has sustained 42 hur-ricanes with damages exceeding $1 billion each. Combined,
* Losses and damages may or may not include recovery costs incurred by the federal or state governments.
these storms resulted in approximately $934.6 billion in damages, with an average cost of $22.3 billion per event.3 In recent years, Southern states have been impacted by several billion-dollar hurricanes. In 2016, total damages from Hurricane Matthew were approximately $10 billion.4 In 2017, Hurricane Harvey caused losses of approximately $125 billion, while losses from Hurricane Irma exceeded $50 billion.5,6 Estimated costs for Hurricane Michael (2018) total $25.2 billion, including approximately $3.2 billion in agricultural losses.†,7,8 That same year, Hurricane Florence caused an estimated $24 billion in damages.9 Taken together, these hurricanes have cost Southern states approximately $234.2 billion.
Increasingly, for those living in coastal areas, even sunny days do not guarantee dry ground.10 In 2018, the frequency of high tide flooding reached a median value of five days, tying the historical record set in 2015.11 As of June 2019, annual f looding along the Southeast (five days–a 190 percent increase since 2000), Eastern Gulf (three days–a 10 percent increase since 2000) and Western Gulf (six days–a 130 percent increase since 2000) coasts continues to increase rapidly as well.12 High tide flooding can disrupt traffic, interfere with commerce, inundate septic systems
† Further details on the economic impact of Hurricane Michael are available from the SLC Regional Resource, Weathering the Storm: Assessing the Agricultural Impact of Hurricane Michael, at http://www.slcatlanta.org/Publications/AgRD/Hurricane_Michael.pdf.
by Anne Roberts Brody, Policy and Program Manager
THE NETHERLANDS THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATESSOUTHERN STATES
2 THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE
and damage farmland. If persistent, high tide flooding also can depress property values, deter investment and slow private sector growth.
Although coastal states often bear the brunt of major flood disasters due to their susceptibility to hurricanes, a number of inland Southern states also have experienced severe f looding in recent years. According to NOAA, billion-dollar inland flood events have increased in the United States due to unprecedented levels of rainfall.13 Often, these f loods occur in states intersected by large rivers, and carry an average price tag of $4.3 billion per event. In 2016, the United States experienced four separate billion-dollar inland flood events, double the previous annual record.14 Contributing to this are record levels of precipitation across the Southern
region. From September 2018 to August 2019, four SLC states (Arkansas, Kentucky, Oklahoma and Tennessee) experienced their wettest 12-month period on record, while another four states (Missouri, North Carolina, Virginia and West Virginia) expe-rienced their second wettest 12-month period on record.15 In 2019, f loodwaters breached levees in approximately 250 locations nationwide, including those in Arkansas and Missouri.16
Nationally, flood-related disasters are occurring with increasing frequency and cost.17 Of the highest-ranking years for billion-dollar disaster events in the United States, four of the top five occurred in the last decade.18 Furthermore, 2018 had the fourth-highest number of billion-dollar disasters on record, marking the eighth consecutive year in which eight or more billion-dollar
2009 – 2019* Billion Dollar Flooding and Tropical Cyclone Disaster Cost (CPI-Adjusted)
* as of July 9, 2019
Note: Map reflects a summation of billion-dollar events (adjusted for the Consumer Price Index) for each state affected (i.e., it does not mean that each state shown suffered at least $1 billion in losses for each event).
Source: NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) U.S. Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters (2019). https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/.
SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES 3
disasters occurred, outpacing the long-term average of 6.2 disasters exceeding $1 billion per year.19,20 As of July 9, 2019, the United States has experienced six weather-related disaster events with losses exceeding $1 billion each. The rising cost of these disasters is attributable both to the increasing frequency of extreme weather events and increases in population, exacerbated by the high concentration of population centers and infrastructures in vulnerable areas like coasts and river floodplains.21
The episodic nature of f lood-related disasters has shaped states’ strategies for mitigation and spend-ing, leading to a recovery-oriented approach. Even as disaster cost and frequency have risen in recent years, state support for emergency management continues to decline. The National Emergency Management Association’s* recent biennial report found that in 2017, aggregate state spending on emergency management agencies was $466 million, down from $2.1 billion in 2003.22 As these events increase in frequency, Southern
* The National Emergency Management Association is an affiliate of The Council of State Governments.
states are challenged to pivot from a recovery-oriented approach to flood management to one focused on resiliency and mitigation.
Enter: the Dutch.
The Netherlands ModelIn the Netherlands, water management is as old as the country itself and laid the foundation of one of Europe’s earliest forms of democracy.23 Situated in a low-lying delta formed by the outflow of three major rivers (Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt), one-third of the country is below sea level and two-thirds are vulner-able to flooding.24 In the 13th century, Dutch citizens began organizing around the need to mitigate flood risks, forming water boards tasked with developing and implementing strategies to reduce flooding. One innovation to come from this is the now-iconic 15th century polder windmills, which were used to pump water out of low-lying swampy areas, allowing land to be reclaimed for agricultural purposes. By surround-ing submerged and low-lying lands with dikes and pumping out the water, hundreds of thousands of acres of farmland were created.25
Glossary
Floodplain: an area of low-lying ground adjacent to a river, formed mainly of river sediments and subject to flooding.
Flood pool: an area inundated during periods of flooding to pre-vent inundation elsewhere.
Flood stage: the level at which a body of water’s surface has risen to a sufficient level to cause inundation of areas that normally are not covered by water.
Floodway: the channel of a river or stream and the overbank areas that must remain open to carry deeper, faster moving water during a flood.
High tide flooding: coastal flooding that occurs at high tide when water levels measured at NOAA tide gauges exceed heights associated with minor impacts.
Reservoir: a large natural or artificial lake used as a source of water supply.
Special Flood Hazard Area: an area identified by FEMA as having a special flood or mudflow, and/or flood-related erosion hazard.
Pictured: floodplain
4 THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE
For much of the nation’s history, an elaborate mosaic of dikes–which, if strung together, would stretch approxi-mately 50,000 miles–kept the country dry.26 However, in 1953, a catastrophic flood caused by a combination of strong winds and high tides dramatically eroded the nation’s sense of safety, inundating more than 2,000 square kilometers of land–nearly 500,000 acres–and killing 1,835 people overnight.27 By comparison, in 2005, Hurricane Katrina caused approximately 1,833 fatalities.28 This massive flood, more than five decades before Katrina, became a catalyst for change, leading to the creation of an enormous flood-control system known as the Delta Works.
Costing approximately $13 billion and spanning four decades, Delta Works is a series of dams designed to seal off flood-prone river estuaries and inlets from the sea.29 In total, the Delta Works program resulted in 13 major infrastructure projects.30 In some cases, waterways supporting heavy shipping traffic could not reasonably be sealed. For these areas, movable barriers were erected.31 One such example is the Maeslantkering storm surge barrier near the Port of Rotterdam. The last of the Delta Works projects to be completed, the Maeslantkering comprises a pair of gates connecting the Port of Rotterdam to the North Sea. These gates –each 688 feet long and supported by trusses that are 777-feet-long–can be closed if a storm surge threatens the city.32 The gates are controlled by a computer that constantly monitors weather data, including river discharge and sea level. If a storm surge is detected, the gates automatically close.
Riverine f looding in the 1990s again caused the Dutch to reassess their flood mitigation strategies. This resulted in a shift from the “hard engineering” approaches that characterized the Delta Works era toward a softer approach aimed at restoring natural floodplains and creating space to safely accommo-date flooding. In 1992, the Netherlands adopted a national flood policy that included the codification of the right to be protected from flooding,* strict national standards for flood safety,† and government structures and resources to facilitate implementation.
In terms of engineering, the massive Room for the River project was the central achievement of this new phase of Dutch resilience. Initiated in 2006, Room for the River involves approximately 40 infrastruc-ture projects along rivers and waterways at a cost of $3 billion.33 The objective of this project was to ease flooding by giving waterways space to move and flood naturally,34 through excavating and deepening exist-ing floodplains, moving dikes farther back from river
* The right of the Dutch population to be protected from flooding was written into the national constitution. The government undertakes to protect its citizens from floods and is obligated to make them whole if the systems fail. † Dutch flood protection measures are designed to defend the heavily populated and industrialized western part of the country from 10,000-year floods, while less populated areas have protections designed to guard against a 4,000-year flood. By comparison, the norm for flood safety standards and insurance policies in the United States often is set for a 100-year flood.
The Netherlands
The Netherlands has a total area (land and water) of approximately 25,813 square miles, including 280 miles of coastline. With approximately 55 percent of land designated as agricultural, the country is the second largest exporter of agricultural goods in the world. The majority of the population—almost 92 percent—lives in urban areas.
Pictured: Maeslantkering storm surge barrier, South Holland, Netherlands
SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES 5
channels, creating high-water channels and remov-ing obstacles from floodways.35 The undertaking also required lowering or moving dikes to allow rivers to reclaim floodplains, necessitating buyouts of residents living in these low-lying areas. Those residents who chose to remain, despite flood risks, are not eligible for government assistance in the event of a flood. Of the 17 million Dutch citizens, approximately 100,000 choose to live in unprotected areas.36
Today, flood management in the Netherlands is cen-tralized. The Rijkswaterstaat, a national authority, is responsible for major flood protection measures, while local water boards are responsible for maintaining flood protection systems in their jurisdictions, under-scoring an element of local control.37 The Netherlands spends almost 0.2 percent (approximately $3 billion) of its annual economic output on flood protection, funded by general national taxes, the Delta Fund and special taxes levied by local water boards.38,39
Dutch mastery of f lood protection and resilience is known worldwide. In fact, a 2014 report by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development noted that the Dutch are a “global ref-erence for water management.”40 Replicating the Dutch model in the United States would require unprec-edented investment in resiliency. And yet, several Southern states, including Louisiana, Texas and South Carolina, have begun examining Dutch strategies and, in some cases, drawing directly from Dutch expertise, for water management and flood mitigation.
LouisianaLouisiana is no stranger to severe and persistent flood-ing. The state is vulnerable to hurricanes, high tide flooding, relative sea level rise and inland flooding. Louisiana has approximately 397 miles‡ of coastline, with a coastal population of approximately 3.5 mil-lion.41 Even the state’s inland communities are not immune from flood risks, and those along the banks of the Mississippi River are particularly susceptible. This recently was underscored by record-high levels along
‡ Based on figures used by NOAA in administering the Coastal Zone Management program.
the Mississippi River, which remained at flood stage from December 28, 2018 through August 10, 2019, the longest period on record, to date.42 The state also was heavily impacted by Hurricane Katrina–the costliest hurricane in U.S. history. Recognizing Louisiana’s unique vulnerabilities, FEMA has designated more than 27,000 square miles (approximately 52 percent of the state) as Special Flood Hazard Areas.43
In 2005, Hurricane Katrina (and, to a lesser extent, Hurricane Rita) spurred a new approach to flood plan-ning and mitigation in Louisiana. Following these two storms, stricter building codes were enacted and the Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority (CPRA) was formed. Among the mandates of the CPRA is the development and implementation of a compre-hensive Coastal Protection and Restoration Master Plan (Master Plan), which is updated every five years. The plan includes structural and nonstructural miti-gation measures, with a focus on reducing flood risk and building or sustaining landmass. The most recent 2017 Master Plan includes 124 projects–79 aimed at restoration, 13 for structural protection, and 32
The Dutch Dialogues
In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, the Dutch Embassy in Washington, D.C. invited a delegation of officials from Louisiana, led by U.S. Senator Mary Landrieu, to visit the Netherlands to learn the Dutch approach to water management. Out of this experience emerged the Dutch Dialogues, a collaboration among New Orleans-based architectural design firm Waggonner & Ball, Royal Netherlands Embassy and American Planning Association, which convened local and international urban design and water sector experts to reimagine water management and flood resilience in New Orleans. The Dutch Dialogues model has since been employed in Charleston, South Carolina, and in the Hampton Roads region of Virginia. The workshops combine Dutch approaches to integrated water management with American expertise to address flood-related vulnerabilities.
6 THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE
dedicated to nonstructural risk reduction–that build or maintain more than 800 square miles of land and reduce potential flood damage in the state by $8.3 billion in its 50th year, and more than $150 billion over a 50-year period.44
Legislative actions in recent years also have helped iden-tify opportunities to better align the state’s entities and resources, paving the way for collaborative planning and more efficient resource allocation for the purpose of selecting and implementing mitigation projects that will reap the greatest benefit for vulnerable areas. In 2013, the Louisiana Senate unanimously passed Senate Continuing Resolution 39 (SCR 39), directing the CPRA and the state Department of Transportation and Development to conduct a science-based study and issue a report to better understand the adequacy of the existing alignment of state levee districts, drain-age districts, conservation districts and other water resource districts.45 The study identified a patchwork of 65 levee and water districts created by the state, with a wide range of responsibilities, operational budgets and revenue-generating mechanisms. It further found that many adjacent levee districts were responsible for managing connected parts of the same flood protec-tion system and that many district boundaries did not follow watershed boundaries.
In March and August of 2016, the state experienced two historic rain events, which collectively poured trillions of gallons of precipitation on 56 parishes across the state, causing more than $10 billion in damage.46 Areas that once were considered to be at low risk of flooding were impacted, exposing key deficiencies in the state’s approach to floodplain management and validating the findings of the SCR 39 report.47 In response to these disasters, Governor Jon Bel Edwards created Louisiana’s Strategic Adaptations for Future Environments (LA SAFE), led by the Office of Community Development, to provide a holistic approach to flood risk. This spurred various state agen-cies to begin collaborating on a framework to advance the initiative, with support from the Legislature. Formalizing this collaboration, Senate Resolution 172 (2017) called on the CPRA to provide recommenda-tions to establish, implement and enforce floodplain
management plans for each watershed in the state.48 In May 2018, Governor Edwards issued Executive Order JBE18-16, further defining this interagency col-laboration and establishing the Council on Watershed Management* to oversee and coordinate the state’s progress toward a statewide vision for sustainability and resilience.49 The governor has allocated $1.2 billion in post-disaster funding from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development to the Louisiana Watershed Initiative, which will be spent based on plans and actions designed around watershed bound-aries, encouraging cross-boundary collaboration.50
The state’s progress toward a collaborative, streamlined and science-based approach to mitigation planning and floodplain management has resulted in numerous plans and resources to increase the state’s resilience to flood-related disasters. Policymakers and administra-tors have leveraged these tools to draw down significant federal funding through community block grants and other sources to implement these important projects. Louisiana continues to undertake a vigorous approach to flood risk reduction, coastal restoration, and urban water management. In doing so, the state has catalyzed the development of a burgeoning water management and business sector dedicated to improving flood pro-tection and water quality, employing more than 30,320 workers, with growth in this sector expected to increase by approximately 23 percent over the next 10 years.51
* The Council on Watershed Management comprises the secretaries and executive directors of the Office of Community Development, Department of Transportation and Development, Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority, Governor’s Office of Homeland Security and Emergency preparedness, and the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries. Together, these agencies launched the Louisiana Watershed Initiative.
Hurricane Katrina Costs
Total costs from Hurricane Katrina—across all impacted states—are estimated at $161 billion, including 167,985 flood insurance payouts amounting to $16 billion.92
SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES 7
Texas
With approximately 367 miles of coastline, Texas is among the states most at risk for flood-related disas-ters. Since 1980, Texas has been impacted by more than 100 disasters exceeding $1 billion, more than any other state.52 Texas is vulnerable to high tide flooding, relative sea level rise, hurricanes and inland flooding.
Approximately one-tenth of Texans are exposed to moderate or high risk of inland flooding each year.53 Major metropolitan areas in the state also are vulnera-ble to high tide flooding. The Galveston-Houston area is projected to experience an annual median of six days with high tide flooding in 2020, increasing to as many as 215 days by 2050.54 According to measurements taken in 2012, sea levels in the Galveston-Houston area rose 12.5 inches during a 50-year period.55 Alarmingly, in recent years, more than half of flood insurance claims have occurred in areas that were not previously identified as high-risk flood zones, exposing both the inadequacy of existing flood maps and risks posed by the increased frequency of disasters.56
In 2017, Hurricane Harvey dumped an unprecedented amount of rain on the Houston area, causing an estimated $125 billion in damage to infrastructure and property, including more than 200,000 homes and businesses.57 The storm, which remains the second-costliest weather disaster in the nation’s history, dumped as much as 60 inches or more of rain in some areas.58 Rainfall totals from Hurricane Harvey indicate that more than 30 inches of rain fell on 6.9 million people, while 1.25 million experienced more than 45 inches, and 11,000 people endured a staggering 50 inches or more of rain.59
A 2019 report by the state Water Development Board estimates statewide f lood mitigation costs during the next 10 years at more than $31.5 bil-lion.60 Acknowledging this, the Texas Legislature took action in 2019 to create a regional approach to proactive flood-mitigation and planning. Among legislation adopted and signed into law were those addressing flood-risk disclosure, creating a statewide flood plan and providing dedicated flood mitigation
funds. Meanwhile, researchers at Texas A&M and Rice universities are working with Dutch experts on proposals to protect the state’s coast and bays from storm surges.61
Senate Bill 339 expands disclosure requirements for homeowners when selling a property. The law, effective September 1, 2019, requires homeowners to disclose if their properties currently are covered by flood insur-ance, have experienced flooding due to a failure or breach of a reservoir or controlled emergency release of water from a reservoir, and if there has been previous water penetration into a structure on the property due to a natural flood event.62 The law also requires sellers to disclose whether the property lies–in whole or in part–within a 500-year floodplain or a floodway, flood pool or reservoir.63 Previously, sellers in the state only were required to disclose whether their home was in a 100-year floodplain.64
Senate Bill 7 establishes two separate funds – the Flood Infrastructure Fund (FIF)† and Texas Infrastructure Resiliency Fund (TIRF)–to provide grants and loans for flood control and mitigation projects and draws from the state’s $12.5 billion “rainy day fund” to pay for these measures.65
Managed by the state Water Development Board, FIF was established as a special fund in the state treasury outside of the General Revenue Fund and consists of appropriations from the Legislature, pro-ceeds from general obligation bonds, repayments of loans made from the fund, and money from gifts, grants or donations.66 The fund may be used to make grants or loans to eligible political subdivisions for flood mitigation projects. State funds also may be used to provide matching funds to enable a political subdivision to participate in a federal program for a flood project. The legislation also contains provisions that ensure eligible projects demonstrate cooperation
† House Joint Resolution 4 of 2019 created a constitutional amendment (Proposition 8), setting aside $800 million from the state’s “rainy day fund” for the Flood Infrastructure Fund. The proposal was approved by 76 percent of the voters on November 5, 2019.
8 THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE
among political subdivisions and have included an analysis of whether the proposed project could use floodwater capture techniques for water supply pur-poses, including floodwater harvesting, detention or retention basins, or other methods of capturing storm flow or unappropriated flood flow.67
The Texas Infrastructure Resiliency Fund (TIRF), also established by Senate Bill 7, likewise exists as a special fund in the state treasury outside of the General Revenue Fund and consists of four separate accounts: Floodplain Management Account, Hurricane Harvey Account, Federal Matching Account and the Flood Plan Implementation Account. Funds allocated to the Floodplain Management Account may be used for the collection and analysis of flood-related information; flood planning, protection, mitigation, or adaptation; provision of flood-related information to the public; or evaluation of the response to and mitigation of flood incidents affecting residential properties located in floodplains. Funds in the Hurricane Harvey Account only may be used by the Division of Emergency Management to provide financing for projects related to Hurricane Harvey. The Federal Matching Account may be used to help local communities raise matching funds for projects eligible for partial federal funding. Meanwhile, the Flood Plan Implementation Account
only may be used to provide financing for projects included in the state flood plan.68
Senate Bill 8 establishes the state’s first flood plan and creates the framework for the development of the plan through regional watershed groups, placing an emphasis on watershed planning.69 The measure also requires the state Water Development Board to develop a state flood plan every five years, with the first plan due by September 1, 2024. The plan must include an evaluation of the condition and adequacy of flood control infrastructure on a regional basis; a statewide, ranked list of ongoing and proposed flood control and mitigation projects; an analysis of completed, ongoing and proposed flood control projects, including which projects received funding; an analysis of development in the 100-year floodplain areas; and legislative rec-ommendations the state Water Development Board considers necessary to facilitate flood control planning and project construction.70
Recognizing the significant vulnerability and national importance of the state’s natural and eco-nomic resources, the United States Army Corps of Engineers also has committed to undertaking flood mitigation planning studies within the state in part-nership with the General Land Office. The Coastal Texas Protection and Restoration Feasibility Study is
Mississippi River Flooding
In May 2019, the city of Baton Rouge set a new flood record, with the Mississippi River at or above the flood stage of 35 feet for 136 consec-utive days.93 The impact of these record-breaking flood levels is not limited to populations and businesses along the river. As one of the world’s most important waterways, the Mississippi River is a conduit for hundreds of millions of tons of shipped goods per year. When water levels are too high, freighters must lighten cargo; in extreme cases, barges are stalled entirely.94,95 Such disruptions in freight transit can ripple across the global economy. Pictured: Mississippi River at flood stage
SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES 9
a comprehensive effort focused on coastal storm risk management and ecosystem restoration. As of late 2018, a narrow list of viable projects aimed at pro-viding a barrier system–sometimes called the Coastal Spine–for the Houston-Galveston and Galveston Bay region have been identified, along with a suite of shoreline protection and habitat restoration proj-ects.71 Based on Netherlands’ Delta Works project, the Coastal Spine is a proposal for a 70-mile-long coastal barrier system along the upper Texas coast.72 While still in the study phase, the protection system likely will include a combination of structural, natural and nonstructural measures to strengthen the resiliency of the Texas coastline. The final feasibility report is expected in 2021, at which time Congress will consider the proposals and whether to authorize funding.
Although there have been previous efforts to enhance the state’s resiliency to flood-related disasters, namely through grants and loans from the state Water Development Board, the Texas coast has remained vul-nerable. The widespread damage caused by Hurricane Harvey in 2017 was a pivotal moment for the state. Concerted efforts by the Legislature to enhance risk assessment, create and maintain a state flood plan, and provide substantive, dedicated funding for planning and mitigation are significant steps toward reducing and preventing property damage and loss, death and injury, and impacts to all sectors of the state’s economy caused by flooding.
South CarolinaAccording to NOAA, South Carolina ranks seventh among all states in coastal flooding vulnerability, with 5 percent of its population at risk of coastal flooding.73 The coastline of South Carolina is approximately 187 miles in length and characterized by 2,876 miles of tidal shoreline and more than 500,000 acres of coastal marshes.74 With approximately 1,008 miles of inland water and 72 square miles of coastal waters under state jurisdiction, South Carolina is vulnerable to both inland and high tide flooding.75
Since 2015, the state has experienced historic levels of rainfall and four hurricanes.76 These flood events have occurred not just along the coast, but also near rivers
and low-lying interior parts of the state, resulting in 37 deaths and damage or destruction of more than 1,500 homes.77 Flooding during this time resulted in the breach or failure of 81 regulated dams throughout the state and caused estimated losses of $320 million to the tourism industry, with infrastructure repairs total-ing an estimated $680 million.78 In a state that relies heavily on the economic impact of tourism ($22.6 billion in 2018), these weather-related disruptions to the economy are unsustainable.79
Recognizing this vulnerability and the negative eco-nomic impact of flooding events, the state has begun to take important action to increase resilience. Drawing inspiration (both directly and indirectly) from the Netherlands, these actions include the establishment of the South Carolina Floodwater Commission and the Dutch Dialogues Charleston.
The South Carolina Floodwater Commission was established in October 2018 by Governor Henry McMaster to facilitate collaboration among govern-ment, academia, military, environmental groups and the nonprofit sector to comprehensively analyze and address flooding in the state.80 The commission con-sists of 10 task forces, each with a different area of focus: artificial reef systems, living shoreline infra-structure, shoreline armoring, smart river and dam security, grid security, landscape beautification and protection, national security, stakeholder engage-ment, federal funding, and economic development.81 On November 8, 2019, the commission released its final report, outlining recommendations in each of the 10 focus areas. Among the recommendations are structural and non-structural mitigation strategies, including creating new canals and lakes to divert floodwaters, encouraging green infrastructure, imple-menting man-made reefs, and increasing coordination across agencies.82 The commission’s report also gave support to legislation similar to Senate Bill 259 (2019), which passed in the Senate but stalled in the House Ways and Means Committee.83 The measure would establish a low-interest revolving loan fund to help communities finance the purchase of repetitive loss properties from homeowners volunteering to relo-cate.84 Properties purchased under this plan would
10 THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE
be returned to open space in perpetuity, providing the opportunity to restore the natural functions of the floodplain in the affected area.
One of the state’s most important economies, the Charleston-North Charleston metropolitan area, is particularly vulnerable to flooding. During the 1970s, exceptionally high tides and storm surges caused an average of two days of flooding per year in Charleston. During the 2010-2015 period, flood days in Charleston rose to an average of 25 per year.85 A major tourist destination, the Charleston area’s natural beauty also is the source of its vulnerabilities.86 Charleston, like the Netherlands, can best be described as the “Lowcountry,” with half of all home elevations at less than 10 feet above sea level.87 To create a plan for resil-ience, while preserving the city’s historical and natural aesthetic beauty, officials in 2019 engaged experts from the Netherlands, launching the Dutch Dialogues Charleston. The Dutch Dialogues Charleston focused on strategies to mitigate and adapt to flood and other natural disasters threatening the city, creating a com-prehensive plan to guide investment in both structural and nonstructural mitigation projects.88 One of the projects recommended in the final report, the exten-sion of a tunnel system in the city’s medical district to connect it to a deep-tunnel drainage system, is set to receive funding in the state’s forthcoming budget. In November 2019, Governor McMaster announced plans to include $10 million in funding for the project in his budget proposal, a figure which represents the full estimated cost of the project.89
The synergy and vision created by the two studies recently undertaken in South Carolina–facilitated by the South Carolina Floodwater Commission and Dutch Dialogues Charleston–paired with the sense of urgency fostered by recent flood-related disasters likely will prompt additional action by the General Assembly in 2020. As plans for coordinated management of floodplains and mitigation projects are identified and prioritized, the state is poised to pursue policies to develop a sustainable funding source to support long-term resilience planning and implementation.
ConclusionThe frequency and costs of flood-related disasters is increasing in Southern states, a trend that does not seem to be abating. These events cause serious disruptions to states’ economies through damage to buildings and infrastructure, agriculture losses, delays or disruptions in critical services and decreased output. Given these risks, states must set aside the question of what may be causing this increase and, instead, focus on planning and funding solutions aimed at reducing or eliminating damage caused by floods, as have Louisiana, Texas and South Carolina.
Proactively planning for these inevitable events, lever-aging available research and projections, demonstrates good stewardship of both states' financial resources and the environment. Doing so not only will buffer state economies from the impact of catastrophic floods, but also will contribute to sustained economic growth through the creation and expansion of jobs and invest-ment in areas of construction, engineering, research,
Managed Retreat
The concept of managed retreat—the assisted, strategic relocation of residents and property owners who have suffered repeated catastrophic loss–long has been impermissible in policy discussions in the United States. However, the cavalcade of major flooding disasters—both inland and coastal—has catalyzed the conversation. Now, discussions sur-rounding one of the most controversial facets of mitigation policy increasingly is commonplace.96 Small-scale managed retreats already have begun in states like Texas, Louisiana and Florida, assisted by funding from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.97
SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES 11
and planning, as demonstrated by Louisiana’s growing water management workforce.
As FEMA begins to assess states’ ability to cope with these disasters on their own, federal support and disas-ter relief may be less abundant and accessible as it has been in the past two decades. Recently, FEMA reiterated that states ultimately are responsible for the well-being of their citizens and must plan for future disasters, pre-identify funding and resources, and assist their citizens after a disaster. The final rule issued by the agency in March 2019 noted that these state disas-ter mitigation plans should include the establishment of funding and improvement of state-level individual assistance programs. Additionally, FEMA actively is exploring further strategies to encourage states to adopt these safety measures.90 Ultimately, states must take steps to protect their populations and economies from future disasters, moving from a recovery-oriented approach to one of resilience.
While mitigation efforts are costly and require an enormous mobilization of resources and community support, such efforts often are a fraction of the cost of losses incurred by major flood events. The creation of a
dedicated funding stream to support and sustain long-term resiliency likely will result in less costly disasters, saving states money in the long term. A recent study by the National Institute of Building Sciences found that for every dollar spent on disaster prevention, $6 are saved in future disaster costs.91 Without funding, even the most promising resiliency project will go unimplemented.
Natural disasters, flood-related or otherwise, are not compelled to occur only when the economy is strong. A lack of preparedness and preventative mitigation strategies can place additional fiscal strains on a state or region already experiencing economic distress, compounding the myriad challenges inherent in the recovery process. With the nation as a whole, and Southern states particularly, currently benefiting from a robust economy, now is the time for policymakers to begin addressing these issues. Taking a cue from Texas, seeking to establish sustainable, dedicated funding for flood planning and mitigation projects are appropriate policy considerations for vulnerable states. States also should draw from established expertise and “lessons learned” by others to maximize the return on their investments toward a more resilient future.
Economic Costs
In April 2019, the Congressional Budget Office found that expected annual economic losses to the U.S. economy caused by hurricane winds and storm-related flooding will total $54 billion, or approximately 0.3 percent of GDP. Cost to the federal government is expected to total $17 billion. From 2005-2016, the federal government spent an esti-mated $153 billion addressing economic losses from 58 coastal and inland storm events. This includes $71 billion in financial assistance to state and local governments, $72 billion spent by federal agencies for disaster recovery efforts led by the federal government, and $10 billion in administrative costs. Pictured: aftermath of Hurricane Harvey in Houston, Texas
12 THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE
Endnotes
1. William Sweet et al., “2018 State of U.S. High Tide Flooding with a 2019 Outlook,” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, June 2019, https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/Techrpt_090_2018_State_of_US_HighTideFlooding_with_a_2019_Outlook_Final.pdf.
2. “Billion-Dollar Disasters: Calculating the Costs,” accessed September 3, 2019, https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/monitoring-references/dyk/billions-calculations.
3. Ibid.
4. Stacey Stewart, “National Hurricane Center Tropical Cyclone Report Hurricane Matthew,” National Hurricane Center, April 7, 2017, https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL142016_Matthew.pdf.
6. John Cangialosi, Andrew Latto and Robbie Berg, “National Hurricane Center Tropical Cyclone Report Hurricane Irma,” National Hurricane Center, June 30, 2018, https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL112017_Irma.pdf.
7. John Beven II, Robbie Berg and Andrew Hagen, “National Hurricane Center Tropical Cyclone Report Hurricane Michael,” National Hurricane Center, May 17, 2019, https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL142018_Michael.pdf.
8. Anne Brody, “Weathering the Storm: Assessing the Agricultural Impact of Hurricane Michael,” SLC Regional Resource, Southern Office of The Council of State Governments, April 2019, http://www.slcatlanta.org/Publications/AgRD/Hurricane_Michael.pdf.
9. Stacy Stewart and Robbie Berg, “National Hurricane Center Tropical Cyclone Report Hurricane Florence,” National Hurricane Center, n.d., https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL062018_Florence.pdf.
10. “Sunny-Day Flooding May Break US Records: What to Expect in 2019, 2050 - Business Insider,” accessed September 3, 2019, https://www.businessinsider.com/sunny-day-flooding-expected-to-break-us-records-2019-7.
11. Sweet et al., “2018 State of U.S. High Tide Flooding with a 2019 Outlook.”
12. Ibid.
13. “Billion-Dollar Disasters: Calculating the Costs.”
14. Ibid.
15. “Climate at a Glance: Statewide Time Series,” NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, September 2019, https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cag/.
16. “FLOODING: States Boost Prevention as Damage Costs Soar,” accessed September 24, 2019, https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060924017.
17. “Billion-Dollar Disasters: Calculating the Costs.”
18. Ibid.
19. “Weather Disasters and Costs,” accessed September 16, 2019, https://coast.noaa.gov/states/fast-facts/weather-disasters.html.
20. “U.S. Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters,” NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI), 2019, https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/billions/.
21. “Billion-Dollar Disasters: Calculating the Costs.”
22. Thomas Frank et al., “INVESTIGATION: Why the U.S. Disaster Agency Isn’t Ready for Catastrophes,” accessed August 19, 2019, https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060992591.
SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES 13
23. “In Harvey’s Wake, Dutch Have Much to Teach Houston,” Houston Chronicle, December 22, 2017, https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/houston/article/In-Harvey-s-wake-Dutch-have-much-to-teach-Houston-12445243.php.
24. “Dutch Masters: The Netherlands Exports Flood-Control Expertise,” EARTH Magazine, August 31, 2018, https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/dutch-masters-netherlands-exports-flood-control-expertise.
25. Kiah Collier, “What Can Texas Learn From the Netherlands About Flood Prevention?,” Pacific Standard, accessed August 20, 2019, https://psmag.com/environment/international-experts-working-to-solve-texas-sized-problem.
26. Andrew Higgins, “Netherlands Sets Model of Flood Prevention,” The New York Times, November 14, 2012, sec. Europe, https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/15/world/europe/netherlands-sets-model-of-flood-prevention.html.
27. “Dutch Masters.”
28. “Hurricane Katrina Statistics and Facts,” CNN, August 8, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2013/08/23/us/hurricane-katrina-statistics-fast-facts/index.html.
29. Higgins, “Netherlands Sets Model of Flood Prevention.”
30. “In Harvey’s Wake, Dutch Have Much to Teach Houston.”
31. Higgins, “Netherlands Sets Model of Flood Prevention.”
32. “In Harvey’s Wake, Dutch Have Much to Teach Houston.”
33. “Dutch Masters.”
34. Higgins, “Netherlands Sets Model of Flood Prevention.”
35. “In Harvey’s Wake, Dutch Have Much to Teach Houston.”
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid.
38. “Dutch Experience Shows That America’s Coastal Cities Don’t Have to Drown,” accessed August 28, 2019, https://phys.org/news/2016-10-dutch-america-coastal-cities-dont.html.
39. “In Harvey’s Wake, Dutch Have Much to Teach Houston.”
40. “Water Governance in the Netherlands: Fit for the Future?,” OECD Studies on Water, OECD, 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264102637-en.
41. “Louisiana,” accessed November 6, 2019, https://coast.noaa.gov/states/louisiana.html.
42. “Louisiana Seeks Federal Dollars for $258M Fisheries Disaster,” Baton Rouge Business Report, November 18, 2019, https://www.businessreport.com/politics/louisiana-seeks-federal-dollars-for-258m-fisheries-disaster.
43. “Master Action Plan for the Utilization of Community Development Block Grant Mitigation Funds.”
44. “Louisiana’s Comprehensive Master Plan for a Sustainable Coast,” Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana, June 2, 2017, http://coastal.la.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/2017-Coastal-Master-Plan_Web-Single-Page_CFinal-with-Effective-Date-06092017.pdf.
46. “A Long-Term Vision for Statewide Sustainability and Resilience,” Louisiana Watershed Initiative, August 2018.
47. Ibid.
14 THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE
48. Louisiana Senate Resolution 172 (2017).
49. “A Long-Term Vision for Statewide Sustainability and Resilience.”
50. “South Carolina Floodwater Commission Report,” South Carolina Floodwater Commission, November 8, 2019, https://governor.sc.gov/sites/default/files/Documents/Floodwater%20Commission/SCFWC%20Report.pdf.
51. Ibid.
52. “Billion-Dollar Disasters: Calculating the Costs.”
53. Peter Lake et al., “State Flood Assessment,” Texas Water Development Board, January 2019, http://www.texasfloodassessment.com/doc/State-Flood-Assessment-report-86th-Legislation.pdf.
54. “Sunny-Day Flooding May Break US Records: What to Expect in 2019, 2050 - Business Insider.”
55. Ibid.
56. Lake et al., “State Flood Assessment.”
57. “Texas Rainy Day Fund Lays Groundwork for Disaster Recovery Savings,” accessed September 16, 2019, https://pew.org/2UOhjG8.
58. “Hurricane Costs,” accessed September 16, 2019, https://coast.noaa.gov/states/fast-facts/hurricane-costs.html.
59. “Billion-Dollar Disasters: Calculating the Costs.”
60. Lake et al., “State Flood Assessment.”
61. “In Harvey’s Wake, Dutch Have Much to Teach Houston.”
62. Texas Senate Bill 339 (2019).
63. Ibid.
64. The Texas Tribune and Lara Korte and Connie Hanzhang Jin, “After Harvey Surprised Thousands with Unexpected Flooding, New Law Aims to Better Inform Homebuyers,” The Texas Tribune, August 22, 2019, https://www.texastribune.org/2019/08/22/texas-law-requires-buyers-to-disclose-flood-risks/.
65. Carlos Anchondo, “Legislation with $1.7 Billion for Flood Control and Mitigation Projects Goes to Governor,” The Texas Tribune, May 27, 2019, https://www.texastribune.org/2019/05/26/lawmakers-approve-bill-to-help-fund-floor-control-projects-in-texas/.
66. Texas Senate Bill 7 (2019).
67. Ibid.
68. Ibid.
69. Texas Senate Bill 8 (2019).
70. Ibid.
71. Lake et al., “State Flood Assessment.”
72. “In Harvey’s Wake, Dutch Have Much to Teach Houston.”
73. “States At Risk: America’s Preparedness Report Card,” accessed November 23, 2019, http://reportcard.statesatrisk.org.
SLC REGIONAL RESOURCE THE NETHERLANDS MODEL: FLOOD RESILIENCE IN SOUTHERN STATES 15
76. “30 Years after Hugo Tore It down, SC Coast Builds Back in the Danger Zone,” accessed September 23, 2019, https://www.thestate.com/news/weather-news/article235034477.html.
77. “Column: S.C.’s Unique Approach to Battling Disastrous Flooding,” accessed August 20, 2019, https://www.chronicle-independent.com/viewpoint/columns/column-scs-unique-approach-to-battling-disastrous-flooding/.
79. Emily Williams, “Economic Impact of Tourism in SC Grew Again, Reaching $22.6 Billion Last Year,” Post and Courier, accessed November 23, 2019, https://www.postandcourier.com/business/economic-impact-of-tourism-in-sc-grew-again-reaching-billion/article_32269c48-2e31-11e9-816d-771fa7777b39.html.
80. “Column: S.C.’s Unique Approach to Battling Disastrous Flooding.”
81. Ibid.
82. “SC Releases Plan to Address Climate Change and Routine Flooding: ‘Now Is Our Opportunity,’” Myrtlebeachonline, November 8, 2019, https://www.myrtlebeachonline.com/news/local/article237158769.html.
88. “Dutch Dialogues Charleston: Final Report,” September 2019, https://wbarchitects-my.sharepoint.com/:b:/g/personal/lex_wbae_com/ETjBCy5fcAFGmMRq9VyfDh4BaR_xKLchpF35xw5Ul6Ez8A?e=PVowzI.
89. “McMaster to Budget $10M for Charleston Medical District Flooding,” accessed November 23, 2019, https://charlestonbusiness.com/news/government/77523/.
90. Peter Gaynor, “Factors Considered When Evaluating a Governor’s Request for Individual Disaster Assistance for a Major Disaster,” Federal Register, March 21, 2019, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2019-03-21/pdf/2019-05388.pdf.
91. “Dutch Masters.”
92. “Hurricane Costs - Hurricane Harvey.”
93. J. R. Ball, “A Rising Mississippi River Is Raising Industrial Sector Worries,” Baton Rouge Business Report, September 17, 2019, https://www.businessreport.com/industry/mississippi-river-rise-industry-worriesl-sector-worries.
94. “The Mississippi River Is Under Control—For Now,” Time, accessed October 1, 2019, https://time.com/5635375/mississippi-river-flooding/.
95. Bloomberg News, “Barges Stalled as Floods Hinder Movement,” Finance & Commerce, June 10, 2019, https://finance-commerce.com/2019/06/barges-stalled-as-floods-hinder-movement/.
97. “America’s Great Climate Exodus Is Starting in the Florida Keys,” Bloomberg.com, September 20, 2019, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2019-09-20/america-s-great-climate-exodus-is-starting-in-the-florida-keys.
Southern Legislative Conference and SLC are trademarks registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
This report was prepared by Anne Roberts Brody, policy and program manager and committee liaison of the Agriculture & Rural Development Committee of the Southern Legislative Conference. This report reflects the policy research made avail-able to appointed and elected state officials by the Southern Office of The Council of State Governments (CSG).
Opened in 1959 as the final regional office of CSG, the mission of the Southern Office is to promote and strengthen intergovernmental cooperation among its 15-member states, predominantly through the programs and services provided by its Southern Legislative Conference (SLC). Legislative leadership, members and staff depend on the SLC to iden-tify and analyze solutions for the most prevalent and unique state government policy issues facing Southern states. Member
outreach in state capitols, leadership development and staff exchange programs, meetings, domestic and international delegation study tours, and policy fly-ins by the Southern Office support state policymakers and legislative staff in their work to build a stronger region.
Established in 1947, the SLC is a member-driven organization and serves as the premier public policy forum for Southern state legislatures. The SLC Annual Meeting and a broad array of similarly well-established and successful SLC programs — focusing on both existing and emerging state government innovations and solutions — provide policymakers diverse opportunities to interact with policy experts and share their knowledge with colleagues.
