The Odyssey of Ancient Greek Diet According to myth, Promethius was caught stealing fire from the gods and consequentially brought the harsh necessity of agricultural labour upon the Greeks. It was seen as a punishment imposed by a vengeful Zeus because without this labour seeds could not be converted into edible plants (Garnsey 1999). While this myth is concerned with the origins of ancient Greek agriculture, what is of greater interest to the aims of this paper is the actual diet of classical Greece. Historians and archaeologistshave long been interested in the study of food in classical antiquity. From the research I have done, it is clear that the majority of evidence related to food in classical Greece is archaeological in nature. Of course this would be expected when dealing with a civilizationthat existedover two thousand years ago. I propose that, although archaeological evidence should remain the primary source of information, it can be accompanied by classicalliterary material as well. For example, no one would argue that Virgil's Aeneid, or the story of Promethius mentioned above, are legends. These legends, however, were written by real people, in real space, and time and I believe that they can reveal certain cultural truths that existed. I will be using Homer's Otfyssf!)' as my literary source because not only is it abundant with references to food, but also because it continued "through all the centuries of the classicaltradition, to fire the hearts of all Greeks" (Marrou 1956:146). I will then look at the archaeological record for confirmation of whether or not the foods mentioned by Homer were actually consumed by the Ancient Greeks; specificallywine, cereals, olive oil, meat, fruits, and dairy (milk and cheese) (Garnsey 1999). Before I proceed, an apparent contradiction in my thesis must be explained and justified. The Otfyssf!)' by Homer, in short, is an epic poem about the homecoming of the Greek Odysseus after the Trojan War. Here is where the contradiction is evident; why am I searching in a text conceived around 750BC that is based on events that are supposed to have occurred around 1250 BC when I am looking for clues about food being consumed in the classical period, approximately 480-300 BC? The answer to this question is simple, but often overlooked. The Otfyssf!)', as mentioned, is an epic poem and was therefore recited orally for centuries and not written down until the invention of the book in the classical period. The poem was recited by rhapsodes (song- stitchers) from the time of Homer until the classicperiod (Marrou 1956). No one knows for certain when Homer lived or composed The Otfyssf!)' and The Iliad, but it is fashionable to place the date around the middle of the eighth century BC (Rieu 1950).This implies that during the almost three hundred years that it was being
Transcript
The Odyssey of Ancient Greek Diet
According to myth, Promethiuswas caught stealing fire from the gods andconsequentially brought the harshnecessity of agricultural labour upon theGreeks. It was seen as a punishmentimposed by a vengeful Zeus becausewithout this labour seeds could not beconverted into edible plants (Garnsey1999). While this myth is concernedwiththe origins of ancient Greek agriculture,what is of greater interest to the aims ofthis paper is the actual diet of classicalGreece.
Historians and archaeologistshavelong been interested in the study of foodin classical antiquity. From the research Ihave done, it is clear that the majority ofevidence related to food in classicalGreece is archaeological in nature. Ofcourse this would be expected whendealingwith a civilizationthat existedovertwo thousand years ago. I propose that,although archaeological evidence shouldremain the primary source of information,it can be accompanied by classicalliterarymaterial as well. For example, no onewould argue that Virgil's Aeneid, or thestory of Promethius mentioned above, arelegends. These legends, however, werewritten by real people, in real space, andtime and I believe that they can revealcertain cultural truths that existed.
I will be using Homer's Otfyssf!)'asmy literary source because not only is itabundant with references to food, but alsobecause it continued "through all thecenturies of the classicaltradition, to fire
the hearts of all Greeks" (Marrou1956:146). I will then look at thearchaeological record for confirmation ofwhether or not the foods mentioned byHomer were actually consumed by theAncient Greeks; specificallywine, cereals,olive oil, meat, fruits, and dairy (milk andcheese) (Garnsey 1999).
Before I proceed, an apparentcontradiction in my thesis must beexplained and justified. The Otfyssf!)' byHomer, in short, is an epic poem aboutthe homecoming of the Greek Odysseusafter the Trojan War. Here is where thecontradiction is evident; why am Isearching in a text conceived around750BC that is based on events that aresupposed to have occurred around 1250BC when I am looking for clues aboutfood being consumed in the classicalperiod, approximately 480-300 BC? Theanswer to this question is simple, butoften overlooked. The Otfyssf!)', asmentioned, is an epic poem and wastherefore recited orally for centuries andnot written down until the invention ofthe book in the classical period. Thepoem was recited by rhapsodes (song-stitchers) from the time of Homer untilthe classicperiod (Marrou 1956). No oneknows for certain when Homer lived orcomposed The Otfyssf!)'and The Iliad, but itis fashionable to place the date around themiddle of the eighth century BC (Rieu1950).This implies that during the almostthree hundred years that it was being
recited orally, these song-stitchers couldadd their own cultural touches dependingon where and when they were located.Therefore, I believe the version of TheOtfyssry with which we are all familiar andthe food mentioned within it is theaccumulation of centuries of culturalelements from approximately 750 BC upto and including the classical period. Ofcourse the food mentioned in The Otfyssf!Yis not fully representative of all the foodchoices available to the classicalpopulations but their reference andrepetition in the poem lead me to suspectthat they were the most significant.
" ... and a herald, going back and forth,poured the wine for them ... " (Lattimore1965:143)." ... grape cluster after grape cluster ... "(Lattimore 1965:121).
The only drinks that were availableto the Greeks in antiquity were water,wine, milk, and fruit juice (Craik 1997).Wine is mentioned over ten times in TheOtfyssry, and most involved feasts orreligious ceremonies of some sort. Inthese ceremonies, the men drank the winein moderation and only when mixed andconsumed with the food. Wine, cereals,and olives are what Braudel called theeternal trinitl and they provided the base ofthe traditional Greek agricultural anddietary system (Garnsey 1999).
Excavations on the island of Cretehave provided archaeologists with manyclues regarding the making, storage, andconsumption of wine. There they havefound residues in jars that indicate thatthey had once contained liquids, mostlikely olive oil or wine. Moreover, on themainland in the ancient city of Tiryns, theonly physical remains of food discoveredwere grape seeds. Because of the large
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quantity of seeds, it is assumed that theywere used in the production of wine(Vickery 1936). Further evidence of theuse of grapes in making wine is furnishedby a discovery made by Britisharchaeologists near Sparta, where theyfound a seal from the mouth of a jar. Theclayimprints clearlyshow that it had beencovered with leaves that have beenidentified as grape leaves (Vickery 1936).Although this doesn't prove the presenceof wine, the evidence of grape leaves inthis context certainly allows for thatpossibility..
Another place to look forevidence of the presence of wine ispottery. There are numerous amphorareliefs showing the consumption of wine.One such example is an Attic black-figureamphora dated to approximately 500 BCshowing Dionysus, the god of wine,consuming his drink from a large cup.Besides the reliefs found on pottery,sometimes the actual shape of the potterycan dictate its function. For example, therhyton is a ritual pouring vessel thatsometimes appeared in the shape of ananimal head and is believed to have beenused to pour wine (pedley 1993). Thereare numerous examples of these types ofvessels; specifically,a rhyton in the shapeof a bull's head from Crete and oneshowing a hilltop sanctuary from the cityof Zakro (pedley 1993).
By examining the archaeologicaldata, supplemented by paleobotanicalevidence, pottery art, and potteryfunction, it is clear that wine was knownprior to and into the classicalage.
" ... housekeeper brought in the bread ... "(Lattimore 1965:175)." ... there is wheat and millet here andwhite barley, wide grown ... " (Lattimore1965:604).
Cereals are the second group ofBraudel's eternal trinity and must be seen asa whole group of seed crops, the mostimportant cultigens being wheat andbarley (Garnsey 1999). The ancientGreeks used cereals not only asdomesticate food, but also and moreimportantly, for bread. There is asignificant amount of archaeologicalevidence to show the importance ofcereals.
At Knossos there are a number ofindications that the ancient Greeks wereheavy cereal eaters. In a smallroom laterdiscovered to be a stable, archaeologistsfound stores of wheat, and it is interestingto note that it was not kept in a container(Vickery 1936). Vickery also claims that"wheat and barley certainly were theprinciple grains of the Aegean world"(Vickery 1936:112). In the north, inThessaly and Olynthus, samples of millethave been found as well aswhat might berye (Vickery 1936). Moreover, Germanarchaeologists working near Melos havediscovered what they believe to be amodel of a granary (pedley 1993). Thecereals used in ancient Greece are areflection of the variable Greek climateand soil quality; for example, barley istolerant to poorer soils and a range ofclimactic conditions and was, therefore,probably grown in Greece;while the moreintolerant wheat was most likelyimported(Craik 1997).
Bread was a staple commodity tothe ancient Greeks. Archaeologicaldiscoveries of certain pottery coverssuggest that they had been used in ovens.Bread could be placed on a slab of stoneor pottery ware, covered with a lid of thesort referred to, and placed in an oven orover coals. There is an ongoing argumentto whether these ovens were known inHomeric times because mention of themis absent in his work (Vickery1936).
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According to archaeological andhistorical data, Garnsey (1999) believesthat over the years barley lost ground towheat, husked grains lost ground to nakedgrains, and eventuallybread was preferredover porridge. Nonetheless, it is clear thatcerealsplayedan important role in ancientGreek diet.
" ... oozes the limpid olive' oil.. ."(Lattimore 1965:107)." ... and the flourishing olive... "(Lattimore 1965:116).
Olives represent the third andfinar element of what Braudel labeled theeternal trinity and were seemingly veryimportant to the ancient Greeks'traditional agricultural dietary regime(Garnsey 1999). The olive needs a dryseason in which to develop its oil content,and a cool winter in which to rest.Moreover, they are intolerant to frost andto elevationsabove 800 meters (Mattingly1996). Thus in Greece, the olive thrivedand soon found itself an integral part ofthe Aegean diet. The cultivation of theolive, and use of its oil, dates back to theearly part of the bronze age, andfortunately there are many strands ofarchaeological evidence pertaining to theolive: paleobotanical data, traces ofancient orchards, olive mills and presses,and plenty of amphorae that were used totransport and store oil (Mattingly1996).
On the island of Naxos, the actualremains of olive oil were found in a jugdiscovered in a tomb. Interestingly, twolampswere found alongside the oil leavingarchaeologiststo wrestle with the idea thatthe oil was actually fuel. Putting thatthought aside, the discovery of an olivepress and great quantities of storage jarsleads us to believe that the oil wasprobably a Greek export (Vickery 1936).
It appears that the olives themselves wereprepared for eatingwhile the oil was usedfor cooking, salad oil, and applied to theskin for hygienicand cultural reasons.
Moreover, olives and olive oil arerepresented in the art of the ancientGreeks. In Cretan art, olive trees (at fIrstquestionable) are now being identifIedwith confIdence due to the quantity ofexamples. One such example is found ona painted ceilingblock entitled, The Diver,dated to 480 BC that shows two distinctrepresentations of olive trees (pedley1993).
Because of the extensivearchaeological evidence, it can be saidwith a fair deal of certainty that olivesalready existed for centuries prior to theclassical period. The olive tree wasAthena's gift to the Athenians after shedefeated Poseidon for possession ofAthens (Mavromataki1997). It thereforerepresented the strength, peace, andcontinuity of the Greek state. Although itis of great nutritional importance, itscultural signifIcance must not beoverlooked.
" ... and sacrifIceour oxen and our sheepand our fat goats... " (Lattimore 1965:55)." where his herds of swinewere pennedin sacrifIced them ... " (Lattimore1965:73-74).
Small domestic animals such asfowl were most likely prepared andcooked privately in the home while thelarger animals, like the ones listed above,were most commonly cooked publicly andeaten at festivals (Craik 1997). In TheOcfySSf!y, there are countless numbers ofdetailed descriptions of sacrifIcialarrangements, and they usually involvedthe blood letting of the animal followedby the consumption of the meat. Some of
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these sacrifIcialelements are hard to tracein the archaeologicalrecord, but the actualconsumption itself is easier to distinguish.
Bones of domestic animals havebeen found in such great quantities it iseasy to assume that the ancient Greekslived largelyon meat, but this would be amistake. Meat in the Aegean area was inrelatively short supply (Vickery 1936).There is evidence that the Greeksdomesticated and ate the flesh of sheep,goats, swine, and cattle. The threearchaeological clues pointing to the factthey practiced domestication are"representations of men capturing cattlealive; evidence of the long-homed oxenbeing kept in captivity;and direct evidenceof domestication" (Vickery1936:14).
An example of one of thenumerous sites found that contain animalremains is Thebes. Here archaeologistshave discovered the processed remains ofsheep, swine, cattle, wild boars, rabbits,and even small amounts of fIsh vertebra(Vickery1936). These vertebrae representa rare fInd because, to the ancient Greeks,fIshwas more of a delicacy than a regularpart of the diet (Craik1997).
Other forms of archaeologicalevidence can be found by examiningreliefs found on both walls and pottery. Abeautiful fresco from Corinth dated 500BC shows a procession approaching analtar with a sheep for sacrifIce (pedley1993). Another good example is theDionysus amphora mentioned above,which also shows two maenads holdingup a slaughtered hare to their wine god(pedley 1993).
Meat and other foods of animalorigin in the Greek world were inrelativelyshort supply and, therefore, wereprobably of minor importance in the dietsof the population (Garnsey 1999). Meatwas never a staple to the ancient Greeksand although its dietary importance wasrelatively small, its cultural significance
(i.e., sacrifices, rituals, etc.) was muchgreater.
" ... pear trees and pomegranate trees andapple trees ... " (Lattimore 1965:115)." ... rows of greens, all kinds, and these arelush... " (Lattimore 1965:128).
The four main fruits listed in The04Yss~ are apples, pears, grapes, and figs.Grapes and figs were usually dried forpreservation because they are betteradapted to this process than apples orpears (Craik 1997). Among vegetables,the ancient Greeks made the distinctionbetween root vegetables and leafy greensand it appears that onions and garlicwerethe most popular. Herbs and spices werealso present, and were not only used forfood preparation, but were also often usedfor medicinal purposes (Craik1997).
The archaeological evidence forthe existence of these fruits and vegetablesis interesting and worth presenting. At theancient site of Dimini, there is a depositthat yielded the remains of wild pears anda large quantity of figs. Similarly,a site inOlynthus also yielded a significantquantity of figs (Vickery 1936).Furthermore, similar archaeological findshave revealed that the ancient Greeksconsumed plums, apples, date palms, andpomegranates (Vickery 1936). Finally,asalready mentioned in the section aboutwine, proof of the presence of grapes (forwine or other) has been identified inTiryns and Sparta (Vickery1936).
Vegetable remains are much moreabundant in the archaeological recordthan are fruits. On the mainland, the useof leguminous vegetables is proved to goback centuries before the onset of theclassical period. Excavations near Sedeshave produced jars containing these driedleguminous vegetables, specifically peas
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and beans. These and other similarvegetables were probably raised in thehousehold gardens as they are growntoday (Vickery 1936). Of the gardenvegetables, only the legumes listed abovecould survive, so for the other types ofvegetables we must rely on other forms ofevidence.
In a fresco found in Praeneste,there is an image of a vegetable garden infront of a house (pedley 1993). As forfruit, there exists a portrait of a priestessfrom Thera in which it appears that she isholding a vessel bearing fruit of some sort(grapes or berries) (pedley 1993).Additionally, a painting from Andriuolodated 350 BC shows a woman carrying anoffering that contains pomegranates(Garnsey 1999).
Ultimately it is easy to assume thatthe presence of the fruits and vegetablesin the archaeological record is proof thatthe Greeks consumed them but thiswould be a precarious assumption. Onlythrough careful excavation, taking intoaccount the context of the food andthrough cross-referencing with art andliterature can it be said with any degree ofcertainty that these fruits and vegetableswere actually eaten.
" ... baskets were there, heavy withcheeses ... " (Lattimore 1965:219)." ... he sat down and milked his sheep ... "(Lattimore 1965:244).
As mentioned earlier, the peopleof classical Greece kept sheep, goats, andcattle. It is certain that the goats andsheep yielded milk, and it is probable thatbesides being drunk as sweet or souredmilk it was also used for making cheese(Vickery 1936). Certain seals have beenfound that have illustrations depictingmilk jars but there is no direct evidence of
the milk's source. Although it is likelythat some cow's milk was used, the factthat there was a significantly largerquantity of goats, has lead archaeologiststo believe that goat's milk was morecommon (Vickery 1936).
Furthermore, because milk andcheese are perishable and not easilytransported, it was probably not kept in aregular supply (Craik 1997). A closerexamination of the archaeological recordcan produce further evidence of theconsumption of dairy. For example,German archaeologists discovered a lateclassic relief showing a peasant driving agoat to market with what appears to be ajar of milk and a sack of cheese (pedley1993). Moreover, there are countlessreliefs showing the milking of sheep andgoats.
Because of the short life and theperishable nature of milk and cheese, itwill be extremely difficult (if notimpossible) to ever fmd hard evidence inthe archaeological record. In thissituation, like that of the fruits andvegetables, proof must be sought in othermedia like art and literature.
"Between ancient history andmodern social science there is a large butnot unbridgeable gap" (Garnsey 1999:106)[emphasis mine]. I believe that this paperhelps to vindicate this statement. It wouldappear that with the exception of nectarand ambrosia the food of the gods, theseven major components of the Greekdiet mentioned by Homer withstand thescrutiny of scientific archaeologicalexamination. The archaeological record inGreece provides strong evidence thatwine, cereals, olive oil, meat, fruits, anddairy (milk and cheese) did exist in theperiod from approximately 750BC up to,and including, the classical period.
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Mentions of these products in The Otfyssry,therefore, were not just modifications inthe verse over time or liberties taken withthe translation.
I believe that since every foodmentioned by Homer was found in thearchaeological record, certain aspects ofclassical literature could be applied toanthropological research. I am notsuggesting that one attempt a search forHermes' sandals or jason's golden fleece,but I am suggesting that thearchaeological record can verify certaincultural truths found in classical literature.Clothing, custom, ritual, geography, andof course food can be sought in classicalliterature and eventually substantiated byarchaeology.
Craik, E. 1997. ''Diet, Diaita andDietetics."In: The Greek World. A. Powell, (ed.).pp.387-402.London: Routledge.
Garnsey, P. 1999.Food and Society in ClassicalAntiquity. United Kingdom:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Lattimore, R. 1965.The 04Jssry o/Homer.Translated by R. Lattimore.United States:Harper CollinsPublishers.
Marrou, H. 1956.Education in Antiquity. NewYork: Mentor Books
Mattingly,D. 1996."First Fruit?The Olive inAncient Rome." In Human Landscapes inClassicalAntiquity. G. Shipley,(ed.).pp.213-253. London: Routledge.
