The Planning of Emergency Seed Supply for Afghanistan in 2002 and Beyond: a draft concept paper prepared for the Tashkent Conference by John Dennis 1 , Ayman Diab 2 , Peter Trutmann 3 This paper provides the beginning of a strategy for emergency seed supply for Afghanistan. This version focuses largely on wheat, but the plan is to broaden it, with the help of contributors to many other agricultural crops as well. This version has been prepared as a resource for use at the relief planning meeting to be held in Tashkent, 20-21 January 2002. The most complete and current version of the paper is located at www.afghanseeds.org This paper consists of three parts: ◊ Part I provides guidelines for the emergency provision of wheat seed to Afghanistan’s wheat farmers over the next two- three years. It emphasizes, in particular, immediate strategies for rain-fed areas and the need to build in robustness in the whole system especially through appropriate strategies that provide adequate relevant genetic diversity. ◊ Part II presents some rough estimates of the amounts of cereal seed needed in Afghanistan in 2002-2003. Some assumptions are discussed and a methodology for planning seed aid is outlined. ◊ Part III describes how provision of short-term emergency seed aid can be linked to further capacity building and expansion of the existing seed industry has been ably led by the FAO Seed 1 Consultant, Sustainable Development Associates, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA; e-mail [email protected]2 Microbiologist and graduate student, Dept. of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853; USA, e-mail:[email protected]3 Director, International Integrated Pest Management, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA e-mail [email protected]
Transcript
The Planning of Emergency Seed Supply for Afghanistan in 2002 and Beyond:
a draft concept paper prepared for the Tashkent Conference
by John Dennis1, Ayman Diab2, Peter Trutmann3
This paper provides the beginning of a strategy for emergency seed supply for Afghanistan. This version focuses largely on wheat, but the plan is to broaden it, with the help of contributors to many other agricultural crops as well. This version has been prepared as a resource for use at the relief planning meeting to be held in Tashkent, 20-21 January 2002. The most complete and current version of the paper is located at www.afghanseeds.org
This paper consists of three parts:
◊ Part I provides guidelines for the emergency provision of wheat seed to Afghanistan’s wheat farmers over the next two-three years. It emphasizes, in particular, immediate strategies for rain-fed areas and the need to build in robustness in the whole system especially through appropriate strategies that provide adequate relevant genetic diversity.
◊ Part II presents some rough estimates of the amounts of cereal seed needed in Afghanistan in 2002-2003. Some assumptions are discussed and a methodology for planning seed aid is outlined.
◊ Part III describes how provision of short-term emergency seed aid can be linked to further capacity building and expansion of the existing seed industry has been ably led by the FAO Seed Program, established in 1988, and subsequently assisted by UNOCHA and various NGOs.
Comments and co-authors sought. Various appendices and reference materials not included in the e-mail version are located at the web site as is a “discussion board” where readers can leave comments. If you provide additional text for the paper please e-mail it to the authors’ e-mail addresses below. This 18 January version of the paper is being circulated by e-mail to various persons covering a wide range of expertise including the areas of agriculture, climate forecasting, mapping/GIS, and emergency relief operations.
Anyone with relevant expertise is invited to comment on and edit this draft as well as submit additional material for inclusion in expanded versions this paper. Edits to this MS Word document should ideally be done by going to “Tools/Track Changes” on the MS Word command bar and then clicking on “Highlight Changes” and then checking the “track changes while editing” box in MS Word 2000 (similar commands in other versions).
1 Consultant, Sustainable Development Associates, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA; e-mail [email protected] Microbiologist and graduate student, Dept. of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853; USA, e-mail:[email protected] Director, International Integrated Pest Management, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA e-mail [email protected]
Thanks already to the numerous individuals in various countries who have already shared expertise and advice by e-mail and telephone. Thanks also for pro bono research assistance to graduate students Amanda Luongo and Frank Kutka in Cornell University’s Department of Plant Breeding, and to graduate student, Siddarth Krishnaswamy, International Agriculture Program, Cornell.
Abbreviations
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural ResearchCIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement CenterGOA Government of AfghanistanFAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsGRIN Germplasm Information Network of the USDAICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areass/j seer per jerib, seeding rate in Afghan terminologySCA Scandanavian Committee for AfghanistanSINGER System-wide Information Network for Genetic Resources of CGIAR SGRP System-wide Genetic Resources Programme USDA United States Department of AgricultureUXO Unexploded Ordnance
Glossary
Facultative wheat: -wheat cultivars with a medium vernalization requirement (usually 3-4 weeks) and good cold tolerance
Jerib -Afghan unit of land area equal to 2000 sq. meters or 0.2 hectaresLalmi -rainfed Landrace -a traditional crop variety that has not been improved by scientists,
typically having more variability and genetic diversity that a cultivar
Seer -Afghan unit of weight equal to 7.08 kg1 seer/jerib = 35.4 kg/hectarespring wheat -wheat cultivars (SW) that require little (≈2 weeks) or no
vernalization requirement prior to flowering, plant 1 Mar-30 April in Afghanistan, depending on the region
Valayat -provinceVernalization -the requirement of young plant to be subject to a certain amount of
cold temperature in order for flowering to occur later in the growing season
winter wheat -wheat cultivars with good cold tolerance and with vernalization requirements, planted Sept 1-Dec 30 in Afghanistan, depending on the region
1. Scope of cereal seed aid needed in 2002. Assessments of village-level seed aid requirements are urgently needed in cereal-growing areas. Afghani farmers may need about 80,000 MT of wheat seed aid in 2002 of which—by as yet untested assumptions--20,000 MT would be needed in irrigated areas and 60,000 MT in rainfed areas. Rice, maize, and barley seed aid requirements may be on the order of 8000, 7000, and 7000 MT, respectively. Both actual needs and ability to deliver may be much lower.
2. Local versus imported procurement. For rainfed wheat seed aid, an appropriate locally-based strategy to supply 60,000 MT in 2002 may be simply impossible, but perhaps it could take the form of:
a) redistribution of existing stocks of seed, including unmilled grain still stored as a single variety with good germination; 15,000 MT;
b) replication of rainfed variety seed, including Dayima 94, Ghori 94, and local landraces (subject to vernalization & photoperiod issues) in irrigated fields this spring to produce 35,000 MT;
c) import of international variety seed identical or (similar?) to Lalmi 1, Lalmi 2 and Lalmi 3; 10,000 MT.
For the hypothetical 20,000 irrigated wheat seed aid, perhaps it would be possible to import for the spring planting 10,000 MT of modern variety seed from Pakistan and elsewhere for distribution only in areas where it has already been found to be well-adapted. And for the other 10,000 MT, relying on the existing FAO-led seed production network and the hiring of additional skilled farmers to produce about 10,000 MT of quality seed for redistribution to farmers.
3. Strengthening of the formal seed sector in Afghanistan including the top end of the seed chain. Further programs involving CGIAR centers and National and Foreign University breeding programs would complement the existing seed network created by NGOs and the FAO-Afghanistan Seed Program. Support and capacity-building should target both the formal and informal seed sectors and the public and private seed sectors in Afghanistan. Review of crop germplasm collected in Afghanistan over the past 80 years and of exotic crop germplasm tested in Afghanistan over the past 40 years would provide a stronger foundation for the planning of new breeding and crop improvement programs in country. Provision for training of Afghani scientists in the area of seed technology to the graduate degree level would be important to this longer-term undertaking. In the short term, tendering for seed supply at the provincial level coupled with oversight and training of contract farmers may help the more competent contract farmers to upgrade to the status of Small Seed Enterprises.
4. Rescue, conservation, and enhancement of landrace wheat germplasm. Afghanistan lies within two of Vavilov’s seven historic centers of crop diversity, but collection of germplasm of crops and their wild relatives virtually ended about 1970. Nonetheless, within the USDA’s National Small Grains Germplasm Research Facility, Afghani accessions make up 14% of all landrace accessions of bread wheat
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(T. aestivum subsp. aestivum) and 31% of wild barley (Hordeum sp.) accessions. All seed need assessment missions to Afghanistan should include expert staff to collect wheat, barley, chickpea and other crop germplasm along with related socio-agronomic data. Similar to Seeds of Survival/Ethiopia, a program of farmer participatory landrace assessment, enhancement and release should be launched. Concurrently, research on the function of the genetic diversity in increasing systems robustness should be promoted.
Part One. Context of Providing Seed Aid to Afghanistan
1. Introduction
Planners of post-conflict and post-famine seed supply operations must frequently confront a situation in which “local seed is safe but scarce, international seed can be imported but may be riskier.” A bias toward large commodity purchases of externally-sourced seed needs to be confronted in the early design phase of a relief operation. This is critical if seed aid is to be of equal benefit to both small and large farms, to both remote and centrally-located farms, and to both irrigated and rainfed farms. Planners of seed aid should try to avoid aggravating a situation in which permanent loss of in situ genetic diversity of traditional crops may already be likely.
Those providing support to Afghanistan need to be clear that the primary concern at this time is that farmers are supported to enable them to start supporting themselves again. First, what has been grown and how it was grown should be promoted. This includes ensuring that crop systems maintain their robustness and are not exposed to additional risks. We oppose moves to launch an emergency seed program that aims primarily to promote introduced HYVs. At this time, programs must ensure the maintenance or reestablishment of effective genetic diversity within village-level agroecosystems. The primary aim must be to provide farmers with varieties and landraces that they were growing in the past and know. Providing new germplasm and technology should be done as part of a second phase, after the primary aim of replenishing time-tested germplasm to farmers has been achieved and the market, infrastructure and incentives are available to farmers to enable them to benefit from new technologies.
If the ICARDA-led program decides to adopt an HYV-centered path, then the FAO and CGIAR and funding organizations risk being criticized for providing only lip service to genetic diversity whilst promoting their own agenda. In the absence of a viable economic infrastructure to support a highly developed market system that would provide on-going seed supplies and ensure profitable returns and markets for farmers, some organizations might then view the program cynically, arguing that HYV-centered seed aid is being used to make farmers dependent on foreign seed and outside enterprises at the expense of their security. Market systems that would provide on-going seed supplies and ensure profitable returns and markets for farmers need to be developed over time in an environment of political stability.
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A seed relief operation that focuses on the delivery of modern variety seed from other countries may pose a complicated array of potential benefits and problems. Modern varieties of wheat and rice are usually short-stemmed, fast-maturing, fertilizer-responsive, and bred with high-yield potential. Having, say, a third of one’s wheat crop planted to such an early-maturing wheat variety may be a valuable protection against the risk of a drought that begins late in the cropping season. On the other hand, the tight “physiological time table” of many modern cereal varieties means that they may be more susceptible to yield loss and crop failure than local longer-maturing varieties when stressed by drought, nutrient deficiencies, insect predation or crop disease.
Civil war and famine are themselves major causes of the erosion of in situ crop genetic diversity. Emergency seed aid will hopefully not compound these losses if careful efforts are taken to collect and replicate scattered remnants of local seed supplies at the same time that imported variety seed is being extended. If landrace and other local variety seed is subsequently re-extended, farmers are then free to chose the varieties they prefer. There may also be some traditional wheat and barley agroecosystems in Afghanistan where in situ conservation of landrace varieties,--now more often likely to be found in relatively remote hinterland areas-- may merit variety-specific subsidies or other steps to motivate farmers to continue growing these traditional varieties with lower yield potential.
On the other hand, variety-diverse monocultures of wheat or rice may be far more sustainable over the longer term than a monoculture that is dominated by only one or two varieties, be they modern, landrace, or locally-improved. Dennis (1987) found that innovative rice farmers in northern Thailand who were the first to experiment with modern rice varieties in their villages were often “diversity maximizers” who also reached out to other valleys to bring back long-out-of-favor landrace varieties. These farmers explained their “bottom feeding” rotation of rice varieties by saying “the variety gets tired of the site.” There was, in effect, an indigenous knowledge at work to stay ahead of insect and disease problems. If no one cereal variety was allowed to become dominant in the local cropping system, there was less selective pressure on insect pests and pathosystems to become highly virulent.
Afghanistan is a center of genetic diversity for wheat and barley production as well as for chickpea and lentils(Vavilov,1992). An operating assumption of this paper is that it is critically important that the genetic diversity of Afghanistan’s wheat crops be maintained on the landscape and that a seed procurement strategy that only provides outside modern varieties may put farmers—including those in stressed, low-input farming situations--more at risk than would the provision of seed of more rugged, locally-adapted varieties.
The best approach is a balanced one that, on the one hand, seeks to stimulate the protection and use of remaining local supplies of wheat seed and, on the other hand, seeks to identify, procure, and distribute seeds of well-adapted outside varieties of wheat. An overall approach that focuses on only one of these sources to the exclusion of the other is risky and more likely to fail.
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Although this paper focuses on the provision of seed for Afghanistan’s most important food crop, wheat, the goal to “protect and utilize local seed resources” applies to barley and many other crops as well.
The Seeds of Survival/Ethiopia Program may provide an excellent model for the conservation of crop genetic diversity in Afghanistan (Beyene,1997). This program, now in operation for more than 10 years, seeks to protect local crop diversity using a three-phase approach: a) rescue and conservation, b)farmer-participatory evaluation, selection, and enhancement, and c) production and utilization of indigenous varieties.
1.1 Food Production
Afghanistan is a country where 85% of the population depends for their livelihood on agriculture (FAO,2001). 75% of the population is characterized as rural. Only 12% of the land is arable (Cooperative Institute for Applied Meteorology at University of Missouri-Columbia), and 50% of agriculture is located north of the Hindu Kush mountains. Wheat provides the bulk of calorie intake in Afghanistan accounting for about 75% of food grain production.
The highlands of Afghanistan have some of the most marginalized areas and poorest communities of the region. Crops are grown under harsh conditions, on shallow soils, with minimum inputs and often under severe biotic and abiotic stresses including cold and drought. A map entitled, hypsometry, at www.afghanseeds.org, shows that much of central and northern Afghanistan lies between 2000 and 5000 feet AGL. National wheat production was estimated to be 2.9 million tons in 1976 (Nyrop& Seekins), dropping to 1.7 million tons in 1993 (ICARDA), and rising back to 2.8 (2.124 Tunwar) million tons in 1998 (FAO,2000). Often bread and yogurt alone constitute a full meal in rural areas. Paddy rice is usually sold by farmers and not retained for family consumption. Maize is used mainly as feed, while potatoes and various fruit crops are produced for both domestic consumption and as cash crops. Afghan dried fruits and nuts (mainly almonds and apricots) accounted for 60 percent of the world market in 1982, but declined to around 16 percent by 1990; the share is much lower now, but these products are still important foreign exchange earners. (Barley after wheat, appears the most important food crop in the Lalmi, or rainfed, areas and traditionally occupying about 300,000 ha. A map and graphs of winter wheat production can be found in the following site: (http://www.fas.usda.gov/pecad2/highlights/2001/06/afghanistan/index.htm)(see “satellite vegetation index.)( The maps “Cereal I” and “Cereal II” at www.afghanseeds.org show the distribution of wheat, barley, maize, rice, and sorghum production in the early 1980s.
Rural Afghanistan is characterized by abysmally low income levels, not even adequate to ensure a minimum quality of life compatible with physical well being (FAO,2001). Drought and political instability have devastated Afghan agriculture especially in the rain-
fed areas. The drought affected almost each and every sector of the farming i.e., the draft oxen, fertilizer use, sheep, goats, etc. (FAO,2001). Small holders, especially in rain-fed (non favored environments) “have lost all worldly possessions and are waiting for some miracle”(FAO,2001).
Nearly 50 percent of the arable land is irrigated and three-quarters of it is located north of the Hindu Kush Mountains. The irrigated areas are known as ‘Abi’ and the dry farmed areas are called ‘Lalmi.’ The General Economic Map at www.afghanseeds.org shows lalmi areas in yellow. The map, water resources and irrigation, shows the local of irrigation systems as well surface water availability. (According to pre-1978 figures, irrigated area provides roughly 77 percent of all wheat and 85% of all food and industrial crops (Tunwar,1998. p. 3). According to FAO’s Land Cover Atlas of Afghanistan (http://www.grida.no/cgiar/awpack/newimg/pic12.jpg) and FAO AQUASTAT data(http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agricult/agl/aglw/aquastat/afgha.htm), annual irrigated land amounts to some 2.5 million hectares.
This is in contrast to earlier figures that note: “Of Afghanistan's surface area of 63 million hectares, only 8 million were arable, the remainder being high mountain land and arid wasteland. The arable land was scattered throughout the country, primarily in valleys along rivers and other water sources. The total irrigable area was about 5.3 million hectares, of which half was irrigated annually while the other half remained fallow. Only 1.4 million hectares of the land irrigated in sequence had sufficient water throughout the year to allow double cropping. Before 1978 the irrigated land area provided Afghanistan with 85 percent of all food and industrial crops produced. Another 1.4 million hectares of cultivated rain-fed land supplemented the irrigated areas. Thus, about 4 million hectares of land were cultivated annually before 1978 by 1.2 million farm families" (http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/Agriculture.html).
The pre-1978 figures need adjustment as an estimated 30 percent of all irrigation systems are believed to have been damaged or destroyed by the war. Adding in the effects of abandonment, neglect and lack of maintenance, another 15 to 20 percent of the irrigation infrastructure is probably unusable for agricultural purposes. Hence, the actual irrigated land amounts to about 1.2–1.3 million hectares, decreasing every year. The decline in irrigation availability and efficiency has exacerbated the already-failing crop production (http://www.fas.usda.gov/pecad2/highlights/2001/06/afghanistan/index.htm).
Climate Change? Further adjustment may need to be made for the effects of three years of drought. Even if rains in the 2001-2002 cropping season and the following year are normal, water table recharge in many parts of Afghanistan may take several years to return to normal. Weather predictions based on surface sea temperatures in September 2001 were neutral for the fall-winter season in Afghanistan (http://iri.ldeo.columbia.edu/works/highlight/Oct2001.pdf). But, as of Sept. 2001, precipitation in Southwest Asia since 1998 remained at less than 55% of long-term averages. In some areas this has been the worse drought seen in 50 years. Planners of relief aid cannot rule out the possibility that global warming climate change could have persisting
adverse affects on Afghanistan’s agricultural potential. Drought and salinity tolerance in crop cultivars may be more important than yield potential.
1.2 Recent wheat improvement efforts
The CIMMYT bread wheat program began targeting germplasm for dry environments in 1990, with the introduction of the Semi-Arid Wheat Yield Trial (SAWYT). Prior to the deployment of this nursery, the Elite Spring Wheat Yield Trial (ESWYT), containing advanced material developed under optimal, irrigated conditions, was distributed and sown in wheat growing environments around the world . Some promising materials have been identified.
ICARDA plant breeders with national partners made considerable advances in identifying specific cultivars that are well adapted to different growing areas . They also developed improved strains of winter wheat with good tolerance to drought and they conducted research to identify the ideal characteristics for bread wheat in different regions (ICARDA,1998) .
Some experiences of neighboring countries may be of use in supporting Afghanistan. For example, over 60% of wheat in Iran is grown under rainfed conditions. Drought spells are frequent and a prolonged drought occurred in the 1999/2000 season. The landrace ‘Sardari’, selected from local germplasm by ICARDA, is widely grown in Iran, due to its ability to withstand such harsh conditions. Although improved cultivars are now grown in irrigated areas, until recently ‘Sardari’ remained the only choice available to Iranian farmers cultivating wheat in drought-prone areas. New breeding lines have become available. Released in 1999, ‘Azar 2’, a cross with ‘Sardari’, retains the drought tolerance of ‘Sardari’ and is less liable to damage by strong winds, is resistant to yellow rust (a major disease of winter wheat in this area) and it gives a yield advantage of 4 -18% over ‘Sardari.’ Other improved breeding lines are scheduled for release in Iran. They include ‘Ogosta/Sefid’ and ‘Fenkang 15/Sefid’.
1.3 Are different strategies needed for the irrigated and non-irrigated areas?
1.31 The nature of robustness: traditional use of genetic diversity
Afghan agriculture has been robust. The resilience and robustness of Afghan agriculture is reflected in the fact that from 1978 to 1999 rural production systems in Afghanistan continued to support the rural population under conditions of extreme difficulty. Although malnutrition and hunger have been constantly observed, the situation did not degenerate into a situation as catastrophic as in some other less fortunate countries of other continents.
Crop robustness is a condition that to a large degree is conferred by the use of relevant genetic diversity. In highly diverse and stressed agroecosystems genetic diversity has been
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shown to be an important risk-reducing mechanism for farmers. In addition, it has been shown again and again that relevant diversity will in stressed environments generally increase yield over genetically-homogenous crops (Wolfe,1985). Genetic diversity is an ancient time-tested mechanism that has been used in agriculture. Its value has in the last decades been discovered again scientifically and is increasingly being used again in modern agriculture. Local landraces and mixtures contain a diversity of characteristics, including resistance to many diseases. They are the source of resistance for virtually all resistance used in modern breeding programs. The landraces and mixtures have been little studied and hence little is known of how farmers manipulate resistance genes in genetically diverse systems. However, it is known that farmer varietal mixtures of Phaseolus beans contain a substantial number of component varieties that are resistant to disease and that the proportion that these varieties occupy in the mixture increases with increased disease pressure (Trutmann et al., 1993). It is likely that a similar mechanism of gene deployment is used in landraces of other crops. The value of using genetic diversity in the form of multilines and mixtures has been demonstrated also for wheat(Browning,1967,1974). Most recently it was shown that that significant disease reductions as well as substantial yield increases, equal or better to the best yields in single HY varieties, could be obtained over large areas by enhancing the spatial distribution of genetic diversity by intercropping a hybrid and a local variety of rice (Zhu et al.,2000). Under the intercropping of varieties approach, farmers no longer needed to use pesticides.
Genetic diversity, especially in the case of landraces and varietal mixtures, works in a unique manner to mitigate the effects of especially biological stresses and to increase yield. In genetically variable crops that vary in the level of resistance to diseases, the resistant plants in the crop will act to protect susceptible plants. The mechanism is multiple and includes resistant plants acting as barriers, increased space between susceptible plants, induced resistance of susceptible plants to virulent strains by non-virulent races of the pathogens, and compensation by resistant plants growing into photosynthetic space lost from killed plants. The overall phenomenon of disease reduction and increased yield over the expected is called ‘the mixture effect’(Wolfe, 1985,Trutmann and Mukishi,1994).
Genetic diversity also acts simply as a means of reducing risk. For instance, if 45% of a landrace or mixture is more tolerant to drought, then, if there is a drought that kills susceptible plants, the farmer will still retain 45% of a normal crop.
1.32 Rain-fed systems
In the traditional northern ‘bread basket’ of Afghanistan rain-fed communities depend on lalmi wheat. These have been especially severely hit by the drought (Fitzherbert, 2000).
In the rain-fed areas landraces are still grown widely. Landraces are made up of similar but highly diverse germplasm adapted over centuries by selection to the local conditions. Under broad local conditions where no external inputs are used, these landraces perform better than most if not all ‘improved’ varieties. Although no studies are known to have been conducted in Afghanistan, it is likely that the reasons for the very limited, slow diffusion and acceptance of improved varieties by farmers in rainfed and some irrigated
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regions have a sound basis that should be respected. In the absence of a viable economic infrastructure to support a highly developed market system that would provide on-going seed supplies and ensure profitable returns and markets for farmers. In some cases when farmers move into a new area, or if seed is lost and farmers have to start from scratch, as much as possible farmers will collect local seed, but will sow seed from as many sources as possible and harvest the surviving seed. In this manner a selection is made for a new locally-adapted landrace.
This is not to suggest that farmers are averse to trying out new germplasm. On the contrary, farmers, even the resource-poorest, in most countries have been found to be eager to try out new technologies including new germplasm. New germplasm is tested separately (Voss, 1992), or if already tested locally used quite readily. However, it typically is not used to replace the local landrace outright, but rather to augment the available diversity.
Table 1.1. Exotic Improved Rainfed Rice Cultivars Recently Extended in Afghanistan# Year of
releaseName of cultivar Introduce
d fromArea for which recommended
1 1996 Ghori- 96 Mexico/Syria
Western rainfed area
2 1996 Diama-96 CIMMYT Northern Rainfed areas
3 2000 Lalmi-1(Fow-1)
CIMMYT and ICARDA
rainfed areas
4 2000 Lalmi-2(Bobwhite1//Mn..)
CIMMYT and ICARDA from Syria
Rainfed areas
5 2000 Lalmi-3(Florkwa-3)
CIMMYT and ICARDA
Rainfed areas
Table 1.1 above is a list of exotic improved rainfed varieties that FAO-Afghanistan has released to rainfed farmers since 1996. To our knowledge, none of these cultivars contains any genetic material originating from Afghanistan. No local wheat variety, rainfed or irrigated, is named in the two recent FAO reports we have accessed (Tunwar, 1998; FAO,2001) which gives the impression that wheat farmers are “on their own” when it comes to replicating and reselecting local variety seed. Although rainfed wheat farmers make up approximately 44%4 (the 1998 areal percentage) of all households growing wheat in Afghanistan, only five of 23 modern varieties released in recent years, or 22%, is a rainfed variety. This sort of bias towards irrigated cropping systems can have adverse effects on social equity.
It is unclear what areas these five rainfed varieties—all of them released in the last 2-6 years--occupy on farm and thus what proportion of rainfed wheat is grown with improved
4 This number would be smaller by the extent that average rainfed farm wheat area is larger than average irrigated farm wheat area.
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varieties. Such information would seem critical to making objective assessments of need and for implementing the “replicating what has been there” principal of emergency relief.
1.33 Irrigated systems
The irrigated systems, are the principal agricultural production areas in Afghanistan. It is here that input-responsive high yielding dwarf wheat appears to have been adopted on a larger scale. However, again we have been unable to obtain reliable figures on areas covered by various HYVs. Table 1.2 below lists the newer HY wheat varieties that have been tested and released by FAO-Afghanistan. Again, for varieties appropriate for irrigated areas, we have so far not been able to find a single local wheat variety named in either FAO report we have accessed (Tunwar, 1998; FAO,2001), and, again, we find this troubling. It appears that local wheat varieties have just not been a part of FAO-Afghanistan’s strategy of support to Afghani farming communities.
We are concerned that apparently no maps yet exist showing the distribution of HY wheat varieties, let alone the distribution of particular varieties. We suggest that the Russian 1:50,000 map series, possibly using a digitized version, could be overlayered with survey information showing areas of cereal cropping taken from RS imagery—perhaps 2-3 sets from a base year in order to distinguish winter wheat from Spring wheat—and another layer indicating SCA survey data. The map, “Cereal I,” shows the location and size of yield of wheat and barley-growing areas as of the early 1980s. The map, “Cereal II,” shows the location and size of yield of the maize, rice, and the “millet and sorghum” crops for the same time period. And the “General Economic Map” shows the location of irrigated farming in the early 1980s and distinguishes between double cropping for rice, wheat, maize and barley and single-cropping for wheat, maize, and barley. The same map displays rainfed areas (wheat and livestock) in yellow.
Due to the need to keep this version of the report readily e-mailable, these and other maps are viewable at www.afghanseeds.org and are not displayed here in the paper. We think it likely that the extent of modern wheat varieties in Afghanistan today is limited to some subset of the olive green (yearly irrigated double cropping) and orange (irrigated yearly single cropping) and much less frequent in the beige areas (irrigated wheat, maize, and barley, one crop every two or three years).
Prof. Azam Gul states that “about 90% of the irrigated wheat grown in Kabul province is modern variety wheat” (conversation with J.Dennis, 16 Jan. 2002).
However, a survey of four districts in three provinces lying between Kabul and the Pakistani border in year 2000 gives us considerable concern about the percentage of wheat and maize farmers who would chose to grow modern varieties. We have so far only seen Appendix L of the study report and that does not indicate whether any of the 350 villages surveyed grew rainfed wheat and maize, but were think most of the survey involved irrigated agriculture. Tables 1.3 and 1.4 below summarize the survey findings in the report’s Appendix L.
Of 350 villages surveyed, some farming households in 292 of them, or about 83% of survey villages, reported using at least one kind of chemical fertilizer. By contrast, there was no use of modern wheat varieties reported by any surveyed household in 68% of the villages surveyed and no modern maize varieties reported by any household surveyed in 91% of the 350 villages surveyed. As these three provinces bracket the main transport route between Peshawar, Pakistan and the capital, Kabul, and as chemical fertilizer is used in the majority of villages, neither expense nor difficulty of access would seem to plausibly explain the gap between chemical fertilizer use and the much lower use of modern variety seeds. M. Omar Anwarzay, director of the Afghan Survey Unit that carried out the survey in 2000 for UNOPS has explained that farmers in this area do not care for the eating quality of the two modern maize varieties available.
Table 1.2. Improved Wheat Cultivars Currently Grown in Irrigated Areas of Afghanistan near Seed Production Stations No. Variety Characteristics01 Ataya-85 Winter Wheat. Susceptible to Rust.
Being gradually phased out.02 Bakhtawar92 (Kauz) Facultative
03 Gul-96 Facultative and cold tolerant.
04 HD 2232 (Balkh 66) Facultative
05 HD 2285 Facultative
06 HD 2329 Facultative
07 Inqilab-91 Facultative
8 Pamir-94 Facultative and cold tolerant.
9 PBW 154 Facultative
10 PS-85 Facultative. Susceptible to rust. Being gradually phased out.
11 Rana-96 Facultative and cold tolerant.
12 Roshan-96 Facultative
13 Sonali (HP 1633) Spring Wheat. Rust Prone. Being phased out
14 Takhar-96 Facultative
15 WH-542 Facultative
16 Mazar-99 Facultative
17 Amu-99 Facultative
18 heart-99 Facultative
Source: adapted from FAO, 2001.
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Table 1.3 Summary of HY Wheat and Maize and Fertilizer Use in Four Districts in 2000.
District, Province
No. of VillagesSampled
Villages withChemical Fertilizer
Used
Villages withHY Wheat
Used
Villages with HY Maize
Used
Hesarak, Nangahar Prov. 97 89 30 8Kahk-e-Jabar, Kabul Prov. 37 34 12 1Gardez Dist.,Paktia Prov. 107 82 35 6Sayed Karam, Paktia Prov. 109 87 35 16Total: 350 292 112 31% of villages using input: 83.4% 32.0% 8.9%Source: data derived from Appendix L of Year 2000 Survey for UNOPS Carried out by Afghan Survey Unit.
Table 1.4 Modern Wheat and Maize Varieties Reported in Three Provinces in 2000.Province Paktia Paktia Nangarhar KabulDistrict Sayed Karam Gardez Hesarak Kak-e-jabarVillages surveyed: 109 107 97 37%Villages using HY Wheat varieties 32% 33% 31% 32%Atay85 X X XBakhtawar X XInqila91 X XPamir94 X X XPirsabak85 XUnknown modern X X X X%Villages using HY Maize varieties 15% 6% 8% 3%Sarhad X XShaheen X X XUnknown modern X X X XSource: data derived from Appendix L of Year 2000 Survey for UNOPS Carried out by Afghan Survey Unit.
Pending further information, possible explanations include:
►Villages reporting no use of modern variety seed perhaps don’t realize that they are using modern variety seed introduced many years ago and now thought to be local;
►Modern variety seed has been tested from time to time in the past, but has not been found to be well-adapted to the village areas where it is not used.The higher incidence of modern wheat varieties compared to modern maize varieties could be explained by:
►Some sample villages not growing any maize;►Wheat varieties remaining true to type over many crops due to self-pollination; and ►HY wheat varieties being better adapted to this area than HY maize.
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1.34 Genetic Diversity and Stability. HYVs have been developed for irrigated areas where the environmental factors important to crop production, especially nutrients and water, are best controlled. Crops like wheat were grown in genetically homogenous uni-varietal monoculture. Still, despite the introduction of progressively better resistant high yielding varieties, the crop loss due to biotic stresses in these systems are staggering.
In Hazarajat, a predominantly irrigated region, a 2000 base line study showed that there was severe crop loss due to biological constraints. It states, “throughout Hazarajat problems of rust and smut are common. ACF in 1998 reported 20–35% of the fields on the Miridineh-Shinideh road being seriously attacked by rust, whilst in the same year Oxfam reports repeatedly underlined the seriousness of rust infestation in the irrigated wheat crop in the districts in which it worked and estimated crop losses at around 40%5. The problem is not new — back in 1988 the Swedish Committee for Afghanistan reported that 82% of farmers in Bamiyan identified crop disease as a consistent problem”(SCA,1988).
The reasons for the serous damage caused by rust and smut can be multiple. However, clearly an insufficient level of resistance exists in the varieties grown. Although the main source of seed for farmers appears to be local, it appears that some if not most varieties grown in the irrigated areas are HYVs often derived from breeding programs of CGIAR centers like CIMMYT and ICARDA and evaluated, selected and extended by the national research and extension programs. We have no figures at this time on the extent to which this new germplasm has been adopted and is grown. We are assuming that FAO has good information and is correct in it’s strategy to multiply the dominant wheat varieties.
We are assuming it likely that under a top-down, fairly centralized seed program that releases mostly HYV seed, a relatively few HY wheat varieties could come to dominant the total area of irrigated wheat in Afghanistan. In such cases if a variety is, or becomes, susceptible to a pathogen, then the pathogen will find a large expanse of an available food source and under favourable conditions will multiply rapidly. These are the conditions for epidemics and,--“Appendix L” (see below) not withstanding—the direction in which Afghanistan’s irrigated wheat systems seem to be moving. The phenomenon is explained well by Wolfe (Wolfe, 2000). Commonly, the option has been to provide farmers with new varieties resistant to the new pathogen or races of the pathogen, preferably before the problem reaches epidemic proportions. As a result much of the budgets of national programs, companies and CGIAR centers has been devoted to activities to replace varieties, or maintenance research. For example in 1989, CIMMYT spent 2/3s of its total research efforts on wheat on maintenance research (McKenzie, 1989). For many countries, this is a big expense for which resources are not available.
Analysing varietal diffusion and replacement patterns in Pakistan in the 1980s, Byerlee and Heisey (1990) noted that Pakistan’s wheat breeding program had been unable to produce a sufficient number of popular new varieties to replace older wheat varieties, some of which had diminished resistance to rust. While we accept this point, we suggest that a phytosanitary approach that actually bans the use of wheat varieties that have “lost 5 http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:-rHCrEOiJMgC:www.db.idpproject.org/Sites/IdpProjectDb/idpSurvey.nsf/wBannerSources/409D3EE25FD7252BC125691C00432AE6/%24file/hazarajat_studyI_March_2000.pdf+Afghanistan+wheat+lalmi+distribution&hl=en )
resistance” to rust is in the end self-defeating. By restricting the number of varieties on the landscape in any given crop season, it generates the intense selection pressure on local pathosystems and insect pests and the “homogenous substrate” that results in the emergence of virulence and the breakdown of resistance.
A second option to farmers (but unlikely to be common during the present emergency in Afghanistan due to the cost) is to spray with pesticides. Unless used judiciously, pesticide use increases costs, is often dangerous to farmer and consumer health, and has negative impacts on the environment. More over, pesticide use usually encourages the development of resistance to the compounds by the pest (in this case, fungal pathogens). This leads do less effectiveness of the pesticide and often to increased pesticide use by farmers, unless other chemicals are available. If so, the same cycle starts again.
Part II. A Methodology for Appropriate Emergency Seed Aid Response: cultivar choice, seed quantities needed, and capacity-building approaches to seed replication and delivery
2.1 Cultivar Selection Process
Although, a number of processes are available to select cultivars for seed aid, here are some considerations that should be included:
● Seed variety types and needs based on local information with community input.
● Land races should not be neglected for reasons of perceived yield potential. Restoring agricultural capacity and food security is the first step. Improving the systems with new technologies is the second step in a process. Here we are dealing with the first step.
● If no local seed is available, than seed from nearby localities or similar environments should be provided.
● New varieties adapted to local conditions could be added to provide farmers with more choice, but not given exclusively unless the varieties are already extensively grown in the locality.
● Close collaboration with local authorities and respected local agriculturalists should be developed.
● In the first year of emergency response, provide the crop and variety seed that the farmers are already familiar with when at all possible.
● When appropriate seed is not available, consider providing food aid, livestock, rural credit and other components of agricultural rehabilitation until adequate supplies of local variety seed can be replicated.
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● In carefully researched instances approved by thoroughly-informed local communities, engage in outside sourcing of the same or similar type variety seed from sources in other countries. These transfers should involve transporting seed the shortest “environmental distance” possible.
● Under no circumstances succumb to the patronizing outsiders’ perspective that goes along the lines of:
“Poor farmers, many have lost all their seed; what a marvelous opportunity to provide them with high-quality, modern variety seed and—whether they are psychologically ready or not—propel these conservative farmers into a more modern level of agricultural production all in one cropping season.”
Particularly during the first year of emergency response, the previous ratio of modern to local varieties of wheat and other major crops should be kept as it was.
2.2 Recommendations regarding UXO
The senior author’s experience in delivering emergency seed aid to Cambodia and to northern Ethiopia led to some principles regarding delivery of emergency seed aid in post-conflict, war-impacted, resource-challenged situations:
► Try to prevent seed aid from creating exposure to new risks for recipients. Seek the declassification of information regarding the location and types of UXO thought to be in agricultural areas,6 and promote the mapping, demarcation, and related public awareness training for all UXO-contaminated areas in or near these areas.
► In UXO-contaminated zones, insist that the donor community finance and certify successful demining and removal of all UXO prior to release of seed aid for use on UXO-contaminated fields.
2.3 The risks associated with an over-emphasis on modern variety seed
While most farmers in the developing world are more exploratory and innovative than the conventional wisdom holds them to be, farmers are not likely to innovate in the “jaws of an emergency.” They will do “what has worked in the past” because those methods are a proven and sure thing. So if, for example, a farmer who grows only traditional varieties of a cereal crop receives modern variety seed during an emergency period, he or she will persist in planting it the same way he or she would plant traditional variety seed. In non-emergency situations in Thailand, individual rice farmers who lacked prior experience with modern varieties sometimes took 4-5 years to adopt even that set of appropriate cropping practices that was not tied to ability to afford purchased inputs. Some of these are listed in Text Box 2.1 below.
6 through Freedom of Information requests for ordnance deployed by the U.S. military.
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While it is true that introducing a small area of earlier-maturing cereal variety into a landscape where later-maturing varieties are being grown may cause the last two problems listed in Text Box 2.1 above, on balance, incremental adoption of modern cereal varieties over a period of years is the safer approach with respect to the “learning curve” for agronomic practices. Apart from this is the whole other issue of whether the modern variety(s) will prove to be well-adapted to a particular agroecosystem. We suspect that the apparent low rate of adoption of modern wheat reported in the “Appendix L ” discussed in Section 1.33-1.34, has more to do with the poor fit with consumer demand and the poor fit between modern varieties and local cropping conditions, than it does with the availability of modern variety seed. As wheat is a self-pollinated crop, farmers should be able to readily pass improved wheat seed from one farm to another after every harvest.
Recommendations:
Present:
FAO and its independent seed producers (IPs) may be in position to produce more than 2,500 MT seed of rainfed and as much as 10-15,000 MT of irrigated varieties in the current season if necessary financial support is made available.
.
Recommended Procurement for irrigated areas
The state of wheat and other crop seed supplies in the irrigated areas needs to be assessed through a Rapid Rural Appraisal and market availability survey. Since irrigated areas were able to produce crops during the drought, sowing seed for spring and fall 2002 may be able to be procured locally. There may be less of a need to begin multiplying various varieties or
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Text Box 2.1. Mistakes some farmers of traditional indica rice varieties make when initially growing short-stemmed modern varieties. ● leave seedlings in seedbed much too long; ● trim off tops of seedlings with knife● transplant seedlings 4-8 seedlings per hill rather than recommended 1-3● plant in fields with water conditions too deep for short-stemmed varieties● use highly inefficient methods of applying chemical fertilizer in terms of rates, timing, and methods of placement● inability to control severe insect or bird predation due to crop being “out of sync” with fields of later-maturing rice growing nearby● inability to deliver irrigation water at key growth periods due to crop being “out of sync” with fields of later-maturing rice growing nearby
to import seed. The additional seed could be multiplied based on figures provided by FAO and ICARDA.
Recommended Procurement for Rainfed Areas:
It is likely that after three years of drought that the areas most lacking in seed are the rainfed regions These should be prioritized in the seed procurement program. Rainfed areas are far more stressed environments than irrigated areas. Hence a procurement strategy that builds stability and resistance into germplasm for these areas must be given priority. A situation such as that mentioned above where government in Iran had for a period of time only one recommended variety for rainfed wheat farmers seems to us fraught with risk.
It is important that the seed provided to the region should reflect what is grown not what is desired from our perspective of what farmers should grow. This means that as much as is possible, germplasm for multiplication and distribution should be sought locally, together with local communities or if unavailable in regions close or agro-ecologically close to where the seed is to be used. Promising or released improved varieties could also be provided to farmers as options but should not be provided exclusively.
Small seed multiplication schemes for rainfed areas should be promoted locally in available irrigated areas if planting date and vernalization requirements are not a problem
2.4 Hypothetical Seed Aid Needs in 2002
This paper is the result of a “desk study” and has not benefited from any survey work carried out in Afghanistan in the past six months. We wish to emphasize the “hypothetical” nature of our calculations and the urgent need to adjust our desk study assumptions on the basis of actual field survey work and on field experience in Afghanistan that we do not have.
2.11 Working assumptions for generating the data Table 2.1
Columns 1-3 in Table 2.1 are copied from a World Food Program Report whose url is indicated at the bottom of the table. It cannot be emphasized enough that the numbers in columns 4,5, and 6 are simply hypothetical numbers based on the illustrative assumptions. They are by no means numbers that any agency should “act upon;” they are simply indicative of what the regional seed requirements might look like if the various assumptions were correct. An excel spreadsheet of this table is located at www.afghanseeds.org so that anyone wanting to change the assumptions in accordance with other hypotheses or with ground-truthed, survey information can do so.
As befitting a desk study, we simply took the WFP estimates of areas cropped to wheat in the most recent year, 2001, and the most recent non-drought year, 1998, and averaged these two figures for each agricultural zone to predict areas likely to be cropped to wheat in Year 2002.
We have reason to believe that this formula could be overly-optimistic in view of the fact that drought seems to be persisting for a fourth year, some areas have been recently rendered unsafe and inaccessible as a result of aerial bombardment and possible use of land mines, some irrigation systems may have been further damaged in the recent warfare, and some rivers that normally provide water for irrigation are reportedly flowing at very low levels or not flowing at all.
A more realistic scenario may be to take WFP’s estimated 2001 area figures and multiply by a factor of 0.75, particularly for rainfed area and those areas irrigated areas impacted by recent warfare.
Seeding rates:
-irrigated wheat: We selected the low end of the reported seeding rate for irrigated wheat in Afghanistan of 110-170 kg/ha. -rainfed wheat: We selected the low end of the reported rate for rainfed wheat in Afghanistan of 80-100 kg per hectare.7
Seed Aid needed:
-irrigated wheat: We assumed that enough seed and unmilled grain stored as an unmixed single variety exists that farmer-to-farmer and NGO- or GOA-to-farmer redistribution of these stocks could provide most of the seed needed for year 2002. We put seed aid for the irrigated areas at a “generous” 15% of estimated total seed needed in the irrigated area.
-rainfed wheat: We assumed that enough and unmilled grain stored from harvests in rainfed areas in the 1999, 2000, and 2001 cropping seasons is virtually non-existent. We therefore put seed aid for the rainfed wheat areas at 95% of the estimated total seed needed in the rainfed areas.
7 Perhaps seeding rates need to be increased as access to animal traction decreases and quality of soil preparation is reduced. We noted that in Alberta, Canada, machine seeding rates of only 25-30 kg ha gave optimal yields when drought stress was very high(Tompkins, Hultgreen, Wright and Fowler, 1991 & shown at www.usak.agriculture/plantsci/ winter_wheat/imgs/chap11/figure8.gif ). If drought is assumed to be a significant constraint, perhaps Afghan farmers in rainfed areas can similarly reduce can reduce risk by halving their usual seeding rate.
Risks of introducing exotic varieties to farmers without prior testing in-country
► Recommendation: We recommend that no exotic variety wheat seed be extended directly to farmers if the variety has not been previously tested in-country and found to have acceptable results in the area for which distribution is being considered, or in an area with similar environmental conditions.8
Winter-Hardiness.
Vernalization requirements. Winter wheat typically needs 6 weeks of cold weather to vernalize. This is a biological process that is necessary to enable to plant to flower and produce grain later in the season. The temperature range for vernalization is from -1.3˚ C. to 15.7˚C. with the ideal temperature being 4.9˚C. The vernalization process begins as soon as the seed imbibes water. For example, a winter wheat normally planted in November, will sprout and establish a lawn of small plants before they become dormant as colder winter weather sets in. In this case there is plenty of time for vernalization to take place. However, if this same winter wheat was planted in March, there may be a high risk that the crop would begin to grow, but would never flower and produce a crop. The same variety planted in January or February may still vernalize and produce a crop, but the later start would make the plants smaller and more vulnerable to drought or other stresses. Yields would likely be reduced.
Photoperiod. Another “risk factor” is that some cultivars may require a certain day-length to trigger flowering. Moving these cultivars to another latitude may result in flowering not occurring or occurring at the wrong time.
Disease and insect resistance. Adequate and appropriate resistance to local disease and insect pests is an obvious requirement for exotic varieties, but one that can only be determined by local, longer-term testing. Yellow rust, for example, is the most serious disease of wheat in Afghanistan.
Straw characteristics. Afghan farmers use wheat and barley straw for livestock fodder and therefore they would not favor dwarf wheat varieties (<0.75 meters plant height) or tough-strawed cultivars that livestock would find hard to chew and digest. Tough-strawed varieties are developed to be lodging resistant, but may also be more difficult to harvest by hand.
Eating characteristics. Afghan cuisine is likely to favor soft red wheat rather than hard red wheat.
8 Prof. Azam Gul has expressed concern to us about the possibility that 1500 MT of Inqilab 92, a facultative spring wheat grown in Pakistan may have been ordered from the Punjab Seed Company for use as seed aid in Afghanistan despite the possible lack of trial data for this variety in Afghanistan. Inqilab 92 is apparently no relation to Inqilab 91, which according to Appendix L is grown in eastern Afghanistan.
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Part III. Linking emergency seed aid to building capacity for a local and national seed industry
3.1 The FAO-led approach.
Starting with the launch of its Seed Program in 1988, FAO has worked consistently and with good results to enhance national capacity to provide quality seed to Afghani farmers. Under the able leadership of Mr. N.S. Tunwar, FAO-Afghanistan has adopted a polycentric approach to seed provision that has included investment in government-owned seed production farms, testing of CGIAR and other exotic crop cultivars, food-for-seed exchanges (with WFP), contact seed production with private farmers, the sale of seed and fertilizer to farmers, and collaboration with NGOs.
We think that this creative and dynamic approach should continue. Some broadening to include replication of popular local variety seed would be desirable. As FAO is now likely to also focus its program on capacity building for the Ministry of Agriculture of the Interim Government, it is not too early to plan systematic support to the entire seed chain within the formal seed sector as depicted in Figure 3.1 below.
The organization for a formal seed sector depicted in Figure 3.1 could involve a mix of private sector, NGO, and government entities. We leave this to others to design, but would simply suggest that a decentralized network of seed production sites with both private sector and government involvement is more likely to be “diversity friendly” than the more centralized state-owned approach that has been the case in, for example, Syria. World Bank consultant David Gisselquist (1997) suggests that a network of private sector Small Seed Enterprises (SSEs) is more likely to become involved in the production an sale of low margin but locally-appropriate self-pollinated crops that larger seed enterprises may not be interested in producing.
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Plant Breeding & Agronomy
Interface
Figure 3.1 Seed Chain - Establishment and Organization of Seed Development Systems
Improved Material from Breeding Programmes
Supplied once as whole plants (or product there of)
Maintenance Stock for Producing Breeder’s Seed of Released Varieties and
Hybrids
Small amounts of material cycled in a closely controlled systems to ensure genetic
National & international workshops / conferences / conventions
Restructuring into market economies
Synthesis & exchange of data, methodologies, technologies, & know-how.
Marketing
Note: * Hybrids, also
Stage I
Stage II
Stage III
Interface
Farmer’s Crop and Family Food Production
3.2 Rescue and conservation of plant genetic resources in Afghanistan.
In addition to the on-going role described in Section 1.2 that genetic diversity plays in stabilizing agroecosystems, Afghanistan’s contributions to genetic resource collections have been and will continue to be very significant, particularly in the areas of forage crops (grasses and legumes) and in various food crops including cereals, legumes, and fruits. During his 1924 expedition to Afghanistan, N.I. Vavilov noted that mountainous regions of Afghanistan served as “guardians” of the diversity of cultivated plants, and, as part of the Southwest Asian center of crop diversity, the country contained high levels of diversity for wheat, small-seeded flax, lentils, chickpeas and rye (Vavilov,1992). The diversity and uniqueness of Afghanistan’s genetic resources has been confirmed by phenotypic and molecular measures of diversity (Zeven and de Wet, 1982; Serret et al., 1997; Spagnoletti and Qualset, 1987). In addition to general diversity, germplasm from Afghanistan has been shown to harbor variation for specific traits of value, such as Russian wheat aphid resistance and boron toxicity resistance(Mornhinweg et al., 1999; Yau and Erskine, 2000). The latter is increasingly a problem in arid areas of West Asia.
“Figure 2” on the next page is a scatter diagram showing the unique “outlier” nature of Afghani durum wheats when compared to durum wheats from 25 other countries. The Afghani durum wheats are located by themselves within circle No. 5 in the far upper right hand corner of the scatter diagram. Afghanistan is “country no. 26” (Spagnoletti and Qualset, 1987).
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The decades of war in Afghanistan have undoubtedly reduced agrobiodiversity though displacement of farmers and destruction of seed stocks and have also prevented the ongoing collection of germplasm. The average rate of acquisition of new accessions of most crops from Afghanistan is significantly lower than that of other countries from the region (Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Morocco, Pakistan, the Syrian Arab Republic, Turkey) where collecting missions have continued past the 1970’s . Although it is not possible to quantify what is missing due to the hiatus in collecting missions, the level of diversity warrants a renewed effort to collect and characterize Afghani germplasm. Table 3.1 below shows the rate of Afghan contributions to global germplasm repositories. Despite the dearth of collection in the last 30 years, Afghanistan nonetheless has three times the regional average for Chickpea accessions compared to other countries in the region. Wheat accession rates are comparable to those in the region as a whole.
We recommend that germplasm collection teams be paired with emergency seed need assessment teams and that germplasm samples of wheat and other crops and their wild relatives be collected stored in an appropriate germplasm storage facility for later use by national breeding programs9. We also recommend that Afghanistan retain the intellectual property rights to all new germplasm accessions and that a legal basis for entitling local communities to a share of future revenues related to future uses of local germplasm be explored. Scientists at the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) may be interested in assisting in the organization and financing of such efforts. Some areas which merit the creation of in situ reserves may be identified in the process. Further, we urge that the mechanisms by which landraces function to promote more robustness and resilience in cropping systems be investigated in a second phase so that this knowledge can be added into the design of future systems for the country.
3.3 Linking emergency response to sustainable development
9Richards and Ruivenkamp (1995) describe how these teams can be organized.
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Table 3.1 Average collection rate(#accessions/#years of collecting) for selected crops
CropAfghanistan
Avg rate of other countries Algeria Egypt Iran Jordan Morocco Pakistan
National emergencies are times when large amount of donor funding may be raised and there is naturally considerable pressure to spent it quickly. With respect to seed aid, we urge a cautious approach that balances support to rainfed and irrigated areas and which relies largely on crop varieties that have been well-tested in Afghanistan and which are liked by farmers. We urge that attempts be made to rescue germplasm of landrace crop varieties that is at risk of being lost and that replication of local variety seed be given sufficient emphasis that the genetic diversity of local agroecosystems can be maintained. This paper is a preliminary attempt to describe how and why that should be done. We realize that some may disagree and we welcome comment on our proposed approach and assistance in improving the strategy of how this work should be undertaken. We continue to have the greatest respect for the agencies that have been working on seed issues in Afghanistan for many years including FAO, CGIAR Centers, and NGOs such as the Afghan Survey Unit, SCA, Mercy Corp and International Rescue Committee that have been working on seed provision issues in Afghanistan for many years. And we earnestly hope that weather, politics, and good science with all do their part to bring in a new era of agricultural prosperity for the Afghan people. References cited, not including urls cited in the text.
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Zhu Y.Y., Chen H.R., Fan J.H., Wang Y.Y., Li Y., Chen J.B., Fan J.X., Yang S.S., Hu L.P., Leung H., Mew T.W., Teng P.S., Wang Z.H., Mundt C.C. 17 August 2000. Letters to Nature: Genetic Diversity and Disease Control in Rice. Nature 406:718-722. http://www.nature.com/
2 Cropping Calendar in Afghanistan Below, p. 31-353 List of the Crop Cultivars Tested and
Released in Afghanistan during 1994-2000
Below, p.36-40
4 Exotic Wheat Varieties that May be Suitable for Planting in Afghanistan (information of CIMMYT-Turkey)
URL
5 Wheat seeds from Afghanistan stored in ex situ germ plasm collections
URL 4
6 FAO list of global distribution of Afghan Plant Germplasm in Ex Situ Repositories
URL; Ms Excel file:AfgWIEWS(jvd1-10).xls
3
Appendix One. Conversion table of Afghan to Julian months.
No. of month Afghan Name Julian Equivalent
No. 1 Hamal 21st March (Now Ruz) to 20th AprilNo. 2 Saur 21st April to 20th MayNo. 3 Jowza 21st May to 20th JuneNo. 4 Saratan 21st June to 20th JulyNo. 5 Asad 21st July to 20th AugustNo. 6 Sonbola 21st August to 20th SeptemberNo. 7 Mizan 21st Sept to 20th OctoberNo. 8 Aghrab 21st Oct to 20th NovemberNo. 9 Qaus 21st Nov to 20th DecemberNo. 10 Jadi 21st Dec to 20th JanuaryNo. 11 Dalowa 21st Jan to 20th FebruaryNo. 12 Hud 21st Feb to 20th March
Source: kindly provided by Anthony Fitzherbert.
34
Appendix Two. Cropping Calendar in Afghanistan, page 1 of 4
Date of Planting and Harvesting
Crop Autumn Spring Summer Harvesting Remark
1. North (Faryab; Jawzjan, Saripol, Balkh, Samangan) 15 Jun - 15 Jul Wheat 15 Oct - 15 Nov (01 - 30) Mar (Autumn & spring on rain-fed)
Barley (01 - 30) Mar 15 Jun - 15 Jul
Rice 15 Apri - 15 May 20 Jun - Jul(Tran) 15 Sep - 15 Oct Nursery (15 Apr - 15 May)
Maize 15 Apr - 15 May 15 Aug - 15 Sep
Pulses 15 Apr - 15 May 15 Jul - 30 Aug
Potato 15 Apr - 15 May 15 Sep - 15 Oct
Oil Seed 15 Mar - 15 Apri (01 - 30) Sep
Clover 15 Oct - 15 Nov (01 - 30) Apr 15 Jun - 15 Jul
Lucerne 20 Feb - 20 Mar Perennial
Cotton 01Apr - 30 Apr 30th Aug to 15th October
Melons 15 April - 15 May 15 Aug - 15 Sep
opium poppy V.little but increasing
2. North East a. (Badakhshan) 25th June to 15th September
Wheat 20 Mar - 30Apr 15 Aug - 15 Sep
Barley 20 Mar - 30Apr 15 Aug - 15 Sep
Rice
Maize (01 - 30)May 15 Sep - 15 Oct Fodder
Pulses 15 Apri - 15 May 15 Sep - 15 Oct (field peas, broad beans, lathyrus)
Potato 15 Apri - 15 May 15 Sep - 15 Oct (mainly white skinned)
Lucerne 15 Apri - 15 May Perennial
Melons 15 Apri - 15 May
opium poppy 15 Mar - 15 Apri Aug - Sep Important crop
3. North East b. (Baghlan, Kunduz, and Takhar)
Wheat 15 Oct - 15 Nov (01 - 30) Mar 15 Jun - 15 Jul Autumn. Spring on rainfed only
Wheat 15 Oct - 15 Nov (01 - 30) Mar 15 Jun - 15 Jul
Barley (01 - 30) Mar 15 Jun - 15 Jul
Rice 15 Apri - 15 May 20 Jun - Jul(Tran) 15 Sep - 15 Oct Nursery(15 Apr - 15 May)
Maize 15 Apr - 15 May 15 Aug - 15 Sep
Potato 15 Apr - 15 May 15 Sep - 15 Oct
Melons 15 April - 15 May 15 Aug - 15 Sep
opium poppy Not common
Cotton 01Apr - 30 Apr 30 Aug to 15th October
35
Appendix Two. Cropping Calendar in Afghanistan, page 2 of 4
Date of Planting and Harvesting
Crop Autumn Spring Summer Harvesting Remark4. East Central (Ghor, Bamiyan also agriculturally includes north Ghazni and Wardak)Wheat 01 Sep - 15 Oct (01 - 30) Apri (01 - 30) Aug Autumn & Spring sown
Barley (01 - 30) Apri (01 - 30) Aug Spring sown
Rice Apr(Nursery) 15Jun - 15Jul(Tr) October Lower Kahmard only
Maize 15 May - 15 Jun Fodder Grain & Fodder
Pulses (01 - 30) May September Beans.
Potato (01 - 30) Apri 15 Sep - 15 Oct Mainly white skinned
5. Central ( Kabul; Parwan; Kapisa; Logar; Wardak) note. North/west Wardak really part of E.Centre)Wheat 15 Sep - 15 Oct 15Mar - 15 Apr August All Autumn sown
Barley 15Mar - 15 Apr August All spring sown
Rice Apr - May September Sorobi, Kapisa
Maize 15 Apr - 15 May September Up to 1,800 max 2,000 meters
Pulses April August Beans
Potato 15 Apr - 15 May September Mainly white skinned
Oil Seed 15 Apr - 15 May September (mustard etc)
Clover 15 Apr - 15 May August - October
Lucerne 15 Apr - 15 May Perennial Perennial
Vetches 15 Apr - 15 May September Winter forage
Vegetable(Onion) 15Mar - 15 Apr September Logar, Tagab
Opuim poppy April September Azro only (little)
36
Appendix Two. Cropping Calendar in Afghanistan, page 3 of 4
Date of Planting and Harvesting
Crop Autumn Spring Summer Harvesting Remark6. South East (I.e. South and West of the Spingar Mountains) Pakhtia, Paktika, Khost and Ghazni)Note: Agriculturally Ghazni is really more part of Central and E. CentralWheat 15Oct - 30 Nov 15 May - 15 June All Autumn sown
Barley 15Oct - 30 Nov 15 May - 15 June
Rice 15 - 30) Apri(Nur)June (transplant) November only a little in Khost & Pakhtia
Maize June - 15 Jul October
Pulses (01 - 30)May September Mung in Khost, others elsewhere
Potato February 15Apr - 15 May Nangarhar
Vegetable(Onion) September 15Mar - 15 Apr Mainly Khost
Oil Seed 15Oct - 30 Nov April
Clover 15 Sep - 15 Oct Mar - Apr
Lucerne 15 Sep - 15 Oct Perennial
Cotton 15 Jun - 15 Jul 15Oct - Nov (domestic production only)
Melons April 15 Jul - 30 Aug Mainly in Khost
opium poppy No opium poppy
Sugarcane January 15 Oct - Nov Little in Khost
7. East (i.e. North of the Spingar Mountains) (Kunar, Laghman, Nangarhar)Wheat 15Oct - 30 Nov 15 May - 15 June All Autumn sownBarley 15Oct - 30 Nov 15 May - 15 June Very littleRice 15/30 April -nurs. June (transplant) November Mainly Kunar & LaghmanMaize June - 15 Jul October Grain and ForagePulses (01 - 30)May September Mung bean mainlyPotato February 15Apr - 15 May Upper NangarharVegetable(Onion) September 15Mar - 15 Apr Oil Seed 15Oct - 30 Nov April mustard, linseed, sesameClover 15 Sep - 15 Oct Mar - Apr Lucerne 15 Sep - 15 Oct Perennial Commercial in lower SurkhrudCotton 15 Jun - 15 Jul 15Oct - Nov (domestic production only)Melons April 15 Jul - 30 Aug opium poppy 15 Oct - 30 Nov 15 April - 15 May Most important in NangarharSugarcane January 15 Oct - Nov Biannual: Lower elevations.
37
Appendix Two. Cropping Calendar in Afghanistan, page 4 of 4
Date of Planting and Harvesting
Crop Autumn Spring Summer Harvesting Remark
8. South West (Kandahar, Helmand, Zabol, Nimroz, Urozgan) (note Zabol & upper Uruzgan colder)Wheat 15th Oct - 30 Dec 15 May - 15 July All Autumn sownBarley 15Oct - 30 Nov 1 May - 30 June Very littleRice 15/30 April -nurs. June (transplant) November Very little in Helmand & UrozganMaize 01 May / 30 Jun October Grain and ForagePulses 01 Apr - 30 May September Mung bean mainlyPotato Feb / March July / Aug Upper Zabol & UruzganVegetable(Onion) September 15Mar - 15 Apr Oil Seed 1 Apr - 30 Jun 1 Nov / 31 Nov mustard, sunflwr, sesame, linseed etcClover 15 Sep - 15 Oct Feb - March Lucerne 15 Sep - 15 Oct Perennial Commercial in lower SurkhrudCotton 15 Jun - 15 Jul 15 Oct -15 Nov (domestic production only)Melons April 15 Jul - 30 Aug opium poppy 15 Oct - 30 Nov 15 April - 15 May v. Important cropSugarcane January 15 Oct - Nov V. little in HelmandCumin (black) Perennial mainly ZabolCumin (white) Biannual
38
Appendix Three. List of the Crop Cultivars Tested and Released in Afghanistan during 1994-2000
Source: FAO Afghanistan Annual Report 2000, Appendix III.
Wheat
# Year of release
Name of cultivar
Pedigree or name
Introduced from
Area for which recommended
Salient features
1 1994 Pamir-94 * 7M-0M-8M-2M-0YE
CIMMYT/Turkey
Adapted in all zones but its yield is Higher in cooler areas.
It is a facultative bread wheat The plant height is 97 cm, the grain color is light red and the chaff color is white. Days to maturity in cool areas such as Kabul, logar, Wardak and Ghazni is 279.While in mild winter areas it takes 189 days to mature. The response to leaf rust is 5R and to stripe rust is MR.
2 1996 Kauz CM7458-4y-1M-3Y-1M-3Y-08-OSY
CIMMYT Wide range of Adaptability in lower elevations
Facultative early maturity, amber grain color, white chaff color, 86cm height, resistant to rusts. In Pakistan it has been named Bakhtawar-92.
3 1996 Gul-96 2WM-OWM-OSE-1YC-OYC
Mexico/Turkey
cold and mild winter locations
Facultative with more winter hardiness, and prostrate growth habit. The grain color is amber the chaff color is white, rusts resistant are 0-MR. It is 98 cm tall. Days to maturity is 287 .
4 1996 Takhar -96 VEE#7/ OPATA
CIMMYT Low elevation and mild winter, good for north part
Facultative earliest maturing variety. The response to rusts is R. The grain color is between red and amber. The chaff color is white and the plant height is 99 cm.
5 1996 Roshan-96 Bloundan/3/Bb/7C*2//Y50E/Kal*3
CIMMYTICARDA
Wide adaptability Facultative medium maturity, has white grain and chaff color. It has erect to semi-erect growth habit. The response to rust is 0-R and to bunt also showed resistant. The plant height is 94 cm.
6 1996 Rana-96 2AP-2AP-2AP-1AP-OAP
CIMMYT/ ICARDA
Cold and mild winter areas
Facultative bread wheat with prostrate to semi erect growth habit. The maturity in Logar and Wardak is 286 days. The response to stripe rust is (0-R)to leaf rust is MS. The plant height is 95 cm and the grain color is white.
7 1996 Ghori- 96 CM59377-3AP-1AP-3AP-2AP-1AP-0AP
CIMMYT ICARDA
Rainfed areas(west part)
It is bread wheat, the response to stripe rust is (0-MR).It takes 175 days in Herat and 113 days in Baghlan to maturity. The grain color is amber and the protein content is 13 %.
8 1996 Diama-96 HD2206/HORK//BUC/BUL
CIMMYT Rainfed areas (North part)
The grain color is amber. It is an early variety. The Number of days to maturity in Herat is 175 and in Baghlan and Takhar is 113 days. It is resistant to all rusts.
39
9 1999 Amu-99(Bloyka)
ICW84-0008-013AP-300L-3AP-300L-0AP
ICARDA CIMMYT
Wide adaptability The growth habit is erect ,the chaff color is white and the grain color is amber. The maturity dates varies from place to place. In cold areas such as Ghazni it takes 267,in mild winter areas such as Takhar, Balkh and Herat it takes 204 days to mature. In warm areas such Kandahar and Nangarhar it an average of 185 days to maturity.
10 1999 Herat- 99(MYNA/VUL//PRL)
CM97958-0M-7Y-030M-030M-84-0M.
CIMMYT Wide adaptability but released from Herat.
The growth habit is erect and the average plant height is 96cm.The grain color is amber and the chaff color is white. The maturity dates varies from place to place. In cold areas such as Ghazni it takes 228,in mild winter areas such as Takhar, Balkh and Herat it takes 205 days to mature. In warm areas such Kandahar and Nangarhar it an average of 182 days to maturity. The response to rusts is (0-MR)
11 1999 Mazar-99(Pastor)
CM85295-0101TOPY-2M-0Y-0M-3Y-0M
CIMMYT Wide adaptability but released in Mazar
The grain color is amber and the chaff color is white. The plant height is 94 cm. The response to yellow rust is MR-R, while the response to leaf rust is 0-MR. The maturity dates varies from place to place. In cold areas such as Ghazni it takes more days to mature, in mild winter areas such as Takhar, Balkh and Herat it takes 206 days to mature. In warm areas such Kandahar and Nangarhar it an average of 175-187 days to maturity.
12 2000 Lalmi-1(Fow-1)
SWM11147-1AP-2AP-1AP-1AP-0AP
CIMMYT ICARDA
Well fit for rainfed areas
It has been selected from RWYT-FA( regional bread wheat yield favorable areas.)The grain color is red and the plant height is 97cms.It takes as an average 156 days to mature. The grain size is 2M(intermediate and medium) the response to stem rust is (0) and to stripe rust is MR. The protein content is 12 %.
13 2000 Lalmi-3(Florkwa-3)
ICW84-0074-02AP-3002-1AP-0L-0AP
CIMMYT and ICARDA
Rainfed areas It has been selected from RWYT-SA( regional bread wheat yield semi arid areas)The grain color is amber and the plant height is 78cms.It takes as an average 153 days to mature. The grain size is small and plump and the response to stem rust is (0) and to stripe rust is R. The protein content is 12 %. and 1000 kernel weight is 38 grams.
14 2000 Lalmi-2(Bobwhite1//Mn....)
IC88-063-1AP-0L-1AP-2AP-0TS-0AP
CIMMYT and ICARDA from Syria
Rainfed areas It has been selected from RWYT-SA( regional bread wheat yield semi arid areas)The grain color is amber and the plant height is 83cms.It takes as an average 153 days to mature. The grain size is plump and medium in size the response to stem and stripe rust is (0 ).The protein content is 12 %.and 1000 kernel weight is 32 grams.
40
Barley
1 1998 Hewad-98(Gloria-Bar/COMB-B//...).
CMB87-643-E11Y-1B-1M-0B-1M-0Y
IBYT CIMMYT and ICARDA
Wide adaptability This is a four row barley. The average number of days to maturity is 146. The growth habit is semi-erect and the grain texture is medium. The plant height is 79 cms and 1000 kernel weight is 37 grams. It is resistant to rust and bunt.
2 1998 Watan-98(LIBRAN/UNA 8271...)
CMB89A.291-2M-1Y-1M-0Y
IBYT CIMMYT and ICARDA
Wide adaptability This is a four row barley. The average number of days to maturity is 150. The grain texture is hard and the size is short. It is taller about 5 cm than Hewad -98 and matures a few days later .1000 kernel weight is 38 grams. It is resistant to rust and bunt.
Rice
1 1998 Afghan-98 PRP1670-7613-3-2
IRRI Rice growing areas It is a medium grain rice. It has an average height of 82 cm and matures 5-10 days earlier than Swat-2 and one week earlier than Basmati-385.Also it is 5-10 cm shorter than Basmati-385.The 3 years and 23 locations mean yield is 6127MT.
2 1998 Baghlan-98 IR62871-166-2-2
IRRI Rice growing areas It is a long grain rice . Tested since 1993 in long grain rice yield trials in rice growing areas. It is about 5-10 cm shorter and 3-5 days earlier in maturity and produces 0.5 MT/ha more yield than Basmati-385.
3 1997 Swat-2 Introduced in Pakistan
Pakistan Rice growing areas. It is a short grain rice developed in Pakistan. It was tested in Afghanistan from 1990-1999 and produced the highest yield among the short grain rice in multi locations. It matures in 147 days almost one week earlier than the local and the plant height is 103 cm. It is resistant to lodging.
41
Maize *
1 1994 SHAHEEN Cross of ‘Zia’ and very early maturing varieties ‘Nodak’and ‘Mandan’from USA and ‘Payette’from Canada.
Pakistan Maize growing areas. The grain color is white. It is an early maturing variety with cold tolerance habit, therefore it is being cultivated in the high elevation zones of Pakistan and Afghanistan.
2 1994 Azam (Pirsabak 7930xZia)xPirsabak 7930
Pakistan Lower elevation maize growing areas.
White, semi-flint, mid-season variety maturing in about 90 days. It is a medium height resistant to lodging and resistant to leaf blights. It is a very good variety for irrigated plains and is moderately drought tolerant.
3 1994 Kissan 90 Pirsabak 7930x Local germplasm using a full sib family selection scheme
Pakistan Maize growing areas. It is a white grain short to medium duration recommended for irrigated as well as good for high rainfall areas. It short plant type with lower ear placement and can tolerate high plant densities. Matures in about 85 days. Good in low lands of Afghanistan.
Pakistan Maize growing areas Yellow grain type variety. It takes 110-115 days to mature. The plant height ranges 230-250 cm. Ears long ,Kernels dent -flint. Also popular in the low land ,warm areas of Afghanistan.
5 1994 Sarhad White White version of Sarhad yellow.
Pakistan Maize growing areas It is comparable to Sarhad yellow in yield, maturity, and adaptation but it is susceptible to leaf blights.
6 1994 Ehsan Sarhad whitexlot 81 CIMMYT
Pakistan Maize growing areas It is a medium-season, white flint variety matures in 100 days. Ears of medium size, compact with 14-16 kernel rows. Even after the harvest , the plant stays green and its stalk remain sweet. It is resistant to stalk rots and leaf blight than any other varieties.
7 1994 Pahari (Ev-II) ‘Shaheen’x ‘Pirsabak 7930’
Pakistan Maize growing areas It is a short duration variety bred for production in the cool mountain environment. Developed in Kaghan for mid elevation zones from 1000-1800m above the sea level.
8 1994 Sunehri Pakistan Mid season areas It is a medium season June/early July planting. Takes 110 days at low altitude and 120 days at mid altitude up to 1300 m.
9 1994 Population-31 Pakistan Mid season areas The same as Sunehri.Note: The wheat variety Pamir-94 and Maize Varieties Data were compiled by FAO from SCA trials and recommendations were given.
42
Food Legumes
1 1999 Barakat-99 VIVA MSU(Machigan State University) USA
Baghlan, Logar ,Wardak The color is red or pink, and the average number of seeds per pot is 4. It is an early maturing variety and takes 90 days to mature. The plant height is 28 cm. and the growth habit is bush type.
2 1999 Salamati-99 UI 5229 MSU Adaptable in irrigated area Introduced from Wardak.
It is a bush type kidney bean and has dark red colorThe plant height is 35 cm and it has 4 seeds/pot. The number of days to maturity is 97.
3 1999 Bari-99 Aparaho MSU Introduced for irrigated area from Wardak.
It is a climbing and pinto type bean. The number of days to maturity is 91 days and has 4 seeds/pot. The plant height is 45cm.
4 1999 Arzo-99 CO-1760 MSU Introduced from Wardak for irrigated rea of the country.
This is a bush type bean with white color. The number of days to maturity is 96. The number of seeds/pot is 3 and the plant height is 43 cm.
5 1999 Sehat-99(Flip93-58C)
X90TH249 (ILC5342xFlip 84-78C) xILC 1272.
ICARDA/ICRISAT
North eastern North and North west.
This line matures in 103 days. The plant height is 55 cm and the plant type is semi-erect. The weight of 100 grain is 31 grams. The agronomy rating is very good and there is no lodging.
6 1999 Madad-99 Flip 93-53C ICARDA/ICRISAT
North and North eastern Provinces
It needs 103 days to mature. The plant height is 41 cm and the growth habit is erect. The weight of 100 seed is 32 grams. It was distributed to the farmers of Takhar, Kunduz and Badakhshan.
43
Appendix 4: Wheat Varieties released in Afghanistan and other countries and wheat varieties released in neighboring countries of Afghanistan with high likelihood of adaptation to Afghan wheat growing regions. (information of CIMMYT-Turkey)
This file provides information on winter/facultative and spring wheat varieties for Afghanistan. The table lists mainly varieties for which seed is available since they are cultivated in other countries. For winter wheats these countries are mainly Iran and Turkey, for spring wheats the countries are India, Iran, Pakistan and Turkey. From previous observations we know that related cultivars are grown all through the region from Turkey - to Pakistan, and that includes Afghanistan and this suggests that it would be of acceptable risk to introduce seed of these cultivars in terms of adaptation, disease resistance and quality properties
Name CIMMYT name / cross /name in other countries
Seed available Country released orcontact Institution
Comments
Facultative and Winter Wheat Varieties adapted to Afghanistan
Amber soft seed; MR to yellow rust seed available from BDMIKHAM, Konya, state farms and contracted farmers
GUL96 Alpu 1 = ID800994.W/VEE very little Afghanistan Turkey White seed; Sister line released by ANADOLU ARI, Eskisehir in Turkey as Alpu-01, little seed available
Atay 85 Hys/7C Yes TajikistanHard white seed; MS to Yellow Rust; Released by ANADOLU ARI, introduced in Afghanistan in 1991 and to Tajikistan; famers liked it
Selected by A. Gul in Mexico in 91 for rainfed areas
Ghori-96 Prl/Pew FAO/ICARDA
46
Other cultivars well adapted to the region Name CIMMYT name / cross /
name in other countriesSeed available
Country released orcontact Institution Comments
MH 97 Atilla selection Yes Pakistan Widely grown with good drought toleranceChamran Atilla selection Yes Iran Widely grown with good drought toleranceZiyabey Atilla selection Yes Turkey Widely grown with good drought tolerancePBW-343 Atilla selection Yes India Widely grown with good drought tolerance
Pastor Yes Iran Widely grown with good drought toleranceInquilab WL711/Crow Yes Pakistan Widely grown in PakistanSeyhan Kauz selection Yes Turkey Widely adapted and widely grown Basribey Kauz selection Yes Turkey Widely adapted and widely grownAtrak Kauz selection Yes Iran Widely adapted Bacanora Kauz selection Yes Mexico Widely adapted Mehdia Kauz selection Yes Morocco Widely adapted PBW343 Kauz selection Yes India Widely adapted Bakhtawar Kauz selection Yes Afghanistan Widely adapted
