The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Concluding LectureConcluding Lecture

What this course has discussed What this course has discussed The Politics of InformationThe Politics of Information (1) What the politics of information involves(1) What the politics of information involves (2) Who are the key actors(2) Who are the key actors (3) What are the forces that are likely to drive (3) What are the forces that are likely to drive

change in the future.change in the future. (4) What has happened in key areas of (4) What has happened in key areas of

information.information. (5) What are the possible futures that we may see (5) What are the possible futures that we may see

emerging.emerging. (6) What lessons can we draw.(6) What lessons can we draw.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12The politics of informationThe politics of information

The politics of the Internet = politics The politics of the Internet = politics of informationof information

Who controls information of different Who controls information of different kindskinds

Big stakes – since information is Big stakes – since information is valuable to individuals, firms and valuable to individuals, firms and governmentsgovernments

And may also have knock-on political And may also have knock-on political consequences (i.e. for values)consequences (i.e. for values)

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Internet and informationInternet and information

Internet – originally a means for the Internet – originally a means for the dissemination of academic informationdissemination of academic information

Became much more than that – academic, Became much more than that – academic, commercial, personal, etc etc.commercial, personal, etc etc.

Technologies of the Internet have Technologies of the Internet have implications for informationimplications for information

But technologies themselves can be But technologies themselves can be changed …changed …

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Internet and control of informationInternet and control of information

Internet makes it more difficult to control Internet makes it more difficult to control information – at least if you are able to information – at least if you are able to access the Internet.access the Internet.• People in countries with limited access (e.g. People in countries with limited access (e.g.

North Korea) aren’t seeng much in the way of North Korea) aren’t seeng much in the way of change.change.

Cyberlibertarians and cypherpunks – saw Cyberlibertarians and cypherpunks – saw this as the advent of the Golden this as the advent of the Golden Age/collapse of civilizationAge/collapse of civilization

But failed to foresee the development of e-But failed to foresee the development of e-commerce and how governments might commerce and how governments might fight backfight back

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Technological indeterminacyTechnological indeterminacy

Many early accounts of the Internet Many early accounts of the Internet were were technologically deterministtechnologically determinist• i.e. argued that the technologies of the i.e. argued that the technologies of the

Internet had fixed and irrevocable effects Internet had fixed and irrevocable effects for societyfor society

Instead, we are seeing technological Instead, we are seeing technological indeterminacyindeterminacy

Technology has some obvious effects, Technology has some obvious effects, but in general its consequences are but in general its consequences are hard to predict, and it itself is subject hard to predict, and it itself is subject to change.to change.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Determining technologyDetermining technology

New debates and struggles are about New debates and struggles are about reshaping technology and its reshaping technology and its consequences for the control of consequences for the control of informationinformation

Who is getting to set the rules? (who Who is getting to set the rules? (who is winning, who is losing?)is winning, who is losing?)

How is the battle playing out with How is the battle playing out with regard to different kinds of regard to different kinds of informationinformation

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Different actors have different interestsDifferent actors have different interests

Governments – want control of Governments – want control of information on their citizensinformation on their citizens

Firms – want control of commercially Firms – want control of commercially valuable informationvaluable information

Individuals want control of personally Individuals want control of personally important informationimportant information

Each may use control for good or bad Each may use control for good or bad endsends

But key point is that their aims and But key point is that their aims and interests are partly incompatibleinterests are partly incompatible

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12GovernmentsGovernments

Governments seemed like early Governments seemed like early losers – emphasis on how Internet losers – emphasis on how Internet would undermine themwould undermine them

But have re-established control in But have re-established control in many areasmany areas

Law has increased its grip on InternetLaw has increased its grip on Internet Governments increasingly using new Governments increasingly using new

technologies to control the spread of technologies to control the spread of informationinformation

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Governments IIGovernments II

New technologies to block access to New technologies to block access to information on Internetinformation on Internet• Chinese blocking of Google and other websitesChinese blocking of Google and other websites

Influence over firms/ISPs, which states can Influence over firms/ISPs, which states can induce to block information on their behalf.induce to block information on their behalf.• Yahoo! Case and FranceYahoo! Case and France• Online gambling in AntiguaOnline gambling in Antigua

New abilities to gather informationNew abilities to gather information• Does ISP now mean “Internet Secret Police”???Does ISP now mean “Internet Secret Police”???

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12FirmsFirms

At first firms played no role in At first firms played no role in Internet – but then began to become Internet – but then began to become more involved in Internet governancemore involved in Internet governance

Some loss of power – governments Some loss of power – governments have begun to use their influence have begun to use their influence over firms more.over firms more.

But have been quite successful in But have been quite successful in pushing their agenda.pushing their agenda.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Firms IIFirms II

Have been quite successful in Have been quite successful in assuming control of informationassuming control of information

Some setbacks from pirate operators–Some setbacks from pirate operators–KazAa, BitTorrent etcKazAa, BitTorrent etc• But working with governments/courts to But working with governments/courts to

redress these defeatsredress these defeats Arguably, future is relatively rosyArguably, future is relatively rosy Little threat of government restricting Little threat of government restricting

them hugely, or of private individuals them hugely, or of private individuals being able to restrain thembeing able to restrain them

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Private individualsPrivate individuals

Internet supposed to be all about Internet supposed to be all about empowerment of individualsempowerment of individuals

Would allow them to communicate Would allow them to communicate more freely, maintain their privacy more freely, maintain their privacy more readilymore readily

Increase in individual freedoms Increase in individual freedoms would inevitably result from spread would inevitably result from spread of Internetof Internet

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Private Individuals IIPrivate Individuals II

What has happened?What has happened? Wild predictions of early years of Wild predictions of early years of

Internet have not come to pass Internet have not come to pass (perhaps unsurprising)(perhaps unsurprising)

But individuals may be losing as But individuals may be losing as much as they are gaining in terms of much as they are gaining in terms of control over information.control over information.

States and business are setting the States and business are setting the agendaagenda

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Forces driving information politicsForces driving information politics

What forces are leading to one group of actors (in What forces are leading to one group of actors (in broad terms) prevailing, and another losing out?broad terms) prevailing, and another losing out?

In order to answer this, we need to be aware that In order to answer this, we need to be aware that information politics are a little different from information politics are a little different from everyday politics.everyday politics.

Usual assumptions of politics – that results flow Usual assumptions of politics – that results flow from: from: • The authority of the state (in national politics.The authority of the state (in national politics.• Force or the threat of force (in international politics).Force or the threat of force (in international politics).

Information politics are a little different – results Information politics are a little different – results are less overtly shaped by the threat of force, than are less overtly shaped by the threat of force, than by actors’ ability to control the flow of information.by actors’ ability to control the flow of information.

Power doesn’t flow directly from the barrel of a gun Power doesn’t flow directly from the barrel of a gun (Mao) but from control over who has access to (Mao) but from control over who has access to what information.what information.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Forces shaping information flowsForces shaping information flows

We’ve discussed several different forces affecting We’ve discussed several different forces affecting information flows in this semester.information flows in this semester.

Some of the most important:Some of the most important:• AccessAccess: how easy or difficult is it to access the network.: how easy or difficult is it to access the network.• Network TopologyNetwork Topology (the shape of the network). (the shape of the network).• CodeCode (in Lessig’s sense): the programming rules (in Lessig’s sense): the programming rules

governing the network.governing the network.• Transaction CostsTransaction Costs: How expensive is it in relative terms to : How expensive is it in relative terms to

disseminate information, or act upon it.disseminate information, or act upon it.• Positive Feedback Loops and Network EffectsPositive Feedback Loops and Network Effects: How : How

information flows can create their own dynamics, and thus information flows can create their own dynamics, and thus affect the relative ability of different actors to control it.affect the relative ability of different actors to control it.

• External LeverageExternal Leverage: How easy or difficult is it for actors : How easy or difficult is it for actors withoutwithout direct control over information flows to exert direct control over information flows to exert external pressures on those actors that external pressures on those actors that dodo have direct have direct control, and thus have indirect influence.control, and thus have indirect influence.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12AccessAccess

The most basic source of power is the The most basic source of power is the ability to define who can, or cannot, have ability to define who can, or cannot, have access to the network.access to the network.

When an actor can selectively grant or When an actor can selectively grant or withdraw permission to other actors to use withdraw permission to other actors to use the network, then it can have a strong (and the network, then it can have a strong (and often decisive) impact on what kinds of often decisive) impact on what kinds of information are shared on the network.information are shared on the network.• Has an effective veto power on who says what, Has an effective veto power on who says what,

when and where.when and where.• Can also perhaps deny access wholesale to a Can also perhaps deny access wholesale to a

population of actors, and thus cut them out population of actors, and thus cut them out completely. completely.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Network TopologyNetwork Topology

Second – the shape of the network can Second – the shape of the network can have clear and important effects for who have clear and important effects for who can communicate with who (and who can can communicate with who (and who can try to block communications).try to block communications).

Recognized in much of the early literature Recognized in much of the early literature on the topic – Paul Baran (discussed in on the topic – Paul Baran (discussed in lecture on Internet history) discusses lecture on Internet history) discusses differences between centralized, differences between centralized, decentralized and distributed networks.decentralized and distributed networks.

While networks may not have the exact While networks may not have the exact kindkind of effects on politics and of effects on politics and communications that libertarians predicted, communications that libertarians predicted, they still may have very important they still may have very important consequences indeed.consequences indeed.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Network topology IINetwork topology II

Also important to recognize in this context Also important to recognize in this context that random networks may give rise to that random networks may give rise to certain patterns of growth in which some certain patterns of growth in which some nodes of the network become more nodes of the network become more important than others.important than others.

E.g. Barabasi suggests that many networks, E.g. Barabasi suggests that many networks, including the Internet are characterized by including the Internet are characterized by a “rich get richer” phenomenon in which a “rich get richer” phenomenon in which some nodes in the network get many links, some nodes in the network get many links, while others get very few.while others get very few.

These nodes become more important – and These nodes become more important – and may be tempting targets for those who wish may be tempting targets for those who wish to control information flows …to control information flows …

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Code, and other forms of lawCode, and other forms of law

As Lessig notes, the underlying code of the As Lessig notes, the underlying code of the Internet (and of spaces of interaction built Internet (and of spaces of interaction built on the foundations of the Internet) may on the foundations of the Internet) may have its own consequences for information have its own consequences for information flows.flows.

Code provides a kind of Code provides a kind of architecturearchitecture; ; shaping the places to which individuals can shaping the places to which individuals can or cannot go, and the kinds of things that or cannot go, and the kinds of things that they can, or can’t do.they can, or can’t do.

Thus, in a very important way, it defines the Thus, in a very important way, it defines the options available to individuals, and options available to individuals, and reinforces (or perhaps even reshapes over reinforces (or perhaps even reshapes over time) the topology of the network in time) the topology of the network in constraining action.constraining action.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Code and changeCode and change

As Lessig notes, code is fundamentally As Lessig notes, code is fundamentally political political in its nature.in its nature.

Reflects choices made collectively or Reflects choices made collectively or individually, consciously or unconsciously, individually, consciously or unconsciously, and thus is the product of a political process and thus is the product of a political process of choice.of choice.

Also has effects for politics, by constraining Also has effects for politics, by constraining the sorts of choices that individuals can the sorts of choices that individuals can make in future.make in future.

Contrary to some early assumptions, it is in Contrary to some early assumptions, it is in no sense ‘natural’ – even the fundamental no sense ‘natural’ – even the fundamental underlying code of the Internet (TCP/IP) underlying code of the Internet (TCP/IP) could be rewritten.could be rewritten.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Transaction costsTransaction costs

The lowering of transaction costs may The lowering of transaction costs may affect how people use information.affect how people use information.

When transaction costs are greatly When transaction costs are greatly reduced in a particular area, then reduced in a particular area, then actions which were previously actions which were previously prohibitively expensive or difficult to prohibitively expensive or difficult to undertake, become easy.undertake, become easy.

Thus, information technology may Thus, information technology may lower, or perhaps very nearly lower, or perhaps very nearly eliminate, previously existing barriers eliminate, previously existing barriers to undertaking certain kinds of action.to undertaking certain kinds of action.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Network effects/positive feedback loopsNetwork effects/positive feedback loops Both network effects and positive feedback Both network effects and positive feedback

loops generate loops generate self-reinforcing phenomenaself-reinforcing phenomena.. That is, something that perpetuates itself in That is, something that perpetuates itself in

a virtuous or vicious cycle.a virtuous or vicious cycle. Both are highly important in the area of Both are highly important in the area of

information technology, where choices are information technology, where choices are interdependent.interdependent.

My decision to adopt technology My decision to adopt technology xx or to or to take actiontake action y y will often depend on how will often depend on how many others have adopted many others have adopted xx or done or done yy..

The likelihood that I do The likelihood that I do x x or or y y is a positive is a positive function of whether others are likely to do function of whether others are likely to do it.it.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Feedback/Network Effects IIFeedback/Network Effects II

The effects of both of these are to often to The effects of both of these are to often to create create cascadingcascading..

People begin to behave in similar ways, so People begin to behave in similar ways, so that a cascade of people do the same thing that a cascade of people do the same thing in a self-reinforcing process.in a self-reinforcing process.

Sometimes this is a fad (positive feedback Sometimes this is a fad (positive feedback loop); it can die away very quickly, when loop); it can die away very quickly, when the environment changes, because there the environment changes, because there are few sunk costs, and people can realign are few sunk costs, and people can realign towards a new cascade.towards a new cascade.

Sometimes it can have long-lasting effects Sometimes it can have long-lasting effects (network effects) because there are (network effects) because there are substantial sunk costs, and people are substantial sunk costs, and people are unwilling to realign themselves.unwilling to realign themselves.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Indirect leverageIndirect leverage

Finally, there are other forms of more Finally, there are other forms of more indirect power that should not be forgotten.indirect power that should not be forgotten.

Actors without Actors without direct direct control over control over information flows through any of the information flows through any of the previously mentioned phenomena (code, previously mentioned phenomena (code, architecture etc), may still have substantial architecture etc), may still have substantial indirectindirect control. control.

They may have leverage over the actors They may have leverage over the actors who have direct control, and thus be able to who have direct control, and thus be able to get those actors to obey their wishes.get those actors to obey their wishes.

Thus, even if I can’t shape information flows Thus, even if I can’t shape information flows directly, if I can influence somebody who directly, if I can influence somebody who can shape these flows can shape these flows indirectlyindirectly, I can still , I can still play a key role.play a key role.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Kinds of controlKinds of control

This is how traditional forms of power can affect This is how traditional forms of power can affect information flows, through the back door.information flows, through the back door.

Especially important for the authority of states.Especially important for the authority of states. States still have the States still have the ultima ratio regumultima ratio regum (the final (the final

argument of kings; military force, policing power argument of kings; military force, policing power etc).etc).

In the end of the day, they can threaten the use of In the end of the day, they can threaten the use of force against people who do not comply with their force against people who do not comply with their wishes.wishes.

They may also be able to make credible threats They may also be able to make credible threats with regard to the assets of actors who have direct with regard to the assets of actors who have direct control over information flows.control over information flows.• If an Internet firm has assets that are within the If an Internet firm has assets that are within the

jurisdiction of state jurisdiction of state XX, then state , then state X X may be able to may be able to threaten to confiscate that asset unless the Internet firm threaten to confiscate that asset unless the Internet firm does what the state wants.does what the state wants.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Other effects on political Other effects on political

communicationcommunication We also see how the Internet is changing We also see how the Internet is changing

political communication in political communication in democraticdemocratic societies.societies.

Is lowering transaction costs through Is lowering transaction costs through making it far easier and cheaper to publish making it far easier and cheaper to publish political opinions on the WWW.political opinions on the WWW.• Blogging – incredibly cheap form of Blogging – incredibly cheap form of

communication.communication.• MoveOn – new forms of communicating and MoveOn – new forms of communicating and

fundraising.fundraising.• MeetUp (and other social software) – allows MeetUp (and other social software) – allows

collective action to be coordinated more easily.collective action to be coordinated more easily.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Feedback effectsFeedback effects

But also subject to other forces than But also subject to other forces than transaction costs.transaction costs.

Blogging has its own Blogging has its own network topologynetwork topology..• The network of bloggers is one in which some The network of bloggers is one in which some

blogs get many more incoming links (and thus blogs get many more incoming links (and thus more attention) than others.more attention) than others.

• This means that blogs at the top of the This means that blogs at the top of the distribution become filters for outside readers distribution become filters for outside readers and the mainstream media.and the mainstream media.

Also, organizations like MoveOn and Also, organizations like MoveOn and MeetUp can lead to feedback effects.MeetUp can lead to feedback effects.• The ‘popular’ candidates can become more The ‘popular’ candidates can become more

popular because they’re already popular – a sort popular because they’re already popular – a sort of rich get richer phenomenon.of rich get richer phenomenon.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Long term political effects?Long term political effects?

Long term political effects are a little uncertain.Long term political effects are a little uncertain. Schmitt – gives us reason to believe that lowering Schmitt – gives us reason to believe that lowering

of transaction costs may not provide a substitute of transaction costs may not provide a substitute for traditional forms of organization.for traditional forms of organization.• Easier to attract support – but also to lose it.Easier to attract support – but also to lose it.• Very different from traditional organizations like trade Very different from traditional organizations like trade

unions and churches where there is a long term unions and churches where there is a long term commitment.commitment.

Johnson – points to how feedback effects can have Johnson – points to how feedback effects can have negative consequences.negative consequences.• Hard to maintain – like a slime-mould model of Hard to maintain – like a slime-mould model of

aggregation.aggregation.• When Dean campaign lost momentum, it began to When Dean campaign lost momentum, it began to

flounder.flounder.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12What is happening nowWhat is happening now

How can we tie this all together?How can we tie this all together? Have argued that different factors play Have argued that different factors play

various roles across the different varieties various roles across the different varieties of information out there.of information out there.

Hard to reach a general conclusion.Hard to reach a general conclusion. Politics and Internet a big and complex Politics and Internet a big and complex

subjectsubject (indirect way of saying that it is hard for (indirect way of saying that it is hard for

anyone without a working crystal ball to anyone without a working crystal ball to predict what will happen in the future)predict what will happen in the future)

But some general lessons emerge, which But some general lessons emerge, which are worth taking awayare worth taking away

First correct errors – and make predictionsFirst correct errors – and make predictions

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Technology does not determine outcomesTechnology does not determine outcomes

Mistake of cyberlibertarians etc – to think Mistake of cyberlibertarians etc – to think that technology would determine politicsthat technology would determine politics

Instead – technology creates new political Instead – technology creates new political opportunities for certain actorsopportunities for certain actors

Other actors may respond in various ways Other actors may respond in various ways including changing the technology or including changing the technology or introducing new technologiesintroducing new technologies

This follows from the study of code as a This follows from the study of code as a means of governance.means of governance.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12ExamplesExamples

ExamplesExamples Copyright and its evolutionCopyright and its evolution

• New technologies emerge to threaten New technologies emerge to threaten copyrightcopyright

• Copyright holders respond with crypto Copyright holders respond with crypto etcetc

Authoritarian states and the InternetAuthoritarian states and the Internet• New threats to their authority emergeNew threats to their authority emerge• Again they respond with new meansAgain they respond with new means

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Internet is not “outside” politics or lawInternet is not “outside” politics or law

A second argument often made – A second argument often made – that Internet is outside politics and that Internet is outside politics and lawlaw

Cannot be controlled through Cannot be controlled through traditional political meanstraditional political means

Again, wrong (or only slightly right)Again, wrong (or only slightly right) Internet is becoming more and more Internet is becoming more and more

like everyday life – governed by like everyday life – governed by political institutionspolitical institutions

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Internet technology and politicsInternet technology and politics

So what does the Internet mean?So what does the Internet mean? First, many traditional political First, many traditional political

questions have increasingly become questions have increasingly become technical onestechnical ones

Copyright, control of content etcCopyright, control of content etc So that politics has to take account So that politics has to take account

of technological side of thingsof technological side of things And vice versa – And vice versa – technology is not technology is not

neutralneutral

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12ImplicationsImplications

Bits and bytes are politicalBits and bytes are political May seem boring questions of May seem boring questions of

technical standards etctechnical standards etc But this is where many of the key But this is where many of the key

political issues of today are being political issues of today are being foughtfought

Whatever your opinions – this is Whatever your opinions – this is important to know – can’t be left only important to know – can’t be left only to firms, “experts,” governmentsto firms, “experts,” governments

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12International politicsInternational politics

Second, international politics is more Second, international politics is more complex in many issue-areascomplex in many issue-areas

Increased interdependence because Increased interdependence because of Internetof Internet

Different countries’ value systems Different countries’ value systems affect each other much more than in affect each other much more than in pastpast

Likely to lead to new conflicts – but Likely to lead to new conflicts – but solutions? – hard to say.solutions? – hard to say.

The Politics of the Internet 12The Politics of the Internet 12Code MastersCode Masters

Third, insofar as computer code is Third, insofar as computer code is political, mastery of code is a key political, mastery of code is a key political advantagepolitical advantage

Hard to say in advance how new Hard to say in advance how new issues will pan out, and who will winissues will pan out, and who will win

But what one can say is that control But what one can say is that control of code is perhaps the single most of code is perhaps the single most important weapon in these battlesimportant weapon in these battles