The Power of the Nudge - Clarion University of...

The Power of the NudgeA Guide to Behavioral Interventions for Student Success

The Power of the Nudge 1

Millions of students set out every year to earn a

college degree, but only 60 percent will succeed

within six years. While inadequate funding,

insufficient academic preparation, and personal

disruptions contribute to attrition, many decision

points in college can activate students’ underlying

cognitive biases and cause them to make poor

choices. Understanding these biases, and learning

to design behavioral nudges to overcome them,

affords student success leaders an opportunity to

help students at scale.

Overview

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Introduction

Introduction / Processing Information / Perceiving Time / Where Do We Go from Here?

Nudges have proliferated as a popular behavior-modification tool in design and policymaking circles, across domains like health care, personal finance, and voter turnout. But the term has been used to the point of ubiquity, a catchall for interventions as diverse as opt-out organ donor registration, automated increases in retirement contributions, bill pay text message reminders, and more. Student success leaders looking to these examples for inspiration should understand what “nudging” means, and where it can be most effective. So what exactly is a “nudge”?

Take, for example, the punch card. A punch card is designed to turn buyers into frequent customers. Establishments offer a free item when a certain number of purchases are completed. In this case, nine coffees get you one free. Researchers designed a punch card that would offer the 12th coffee free once you buy 11—but two of the holes come pre-punched.¹

Even though the freebie incentive requires the exact same number of purchases, customers filled out the second one 20 percent faster. We call this small change a nudge. It works by hijacking unconscious, “irrational” impulses to influence people’s actions in a predictable way. In this case, the nudge takes advantage of the phenomenon in which people will work harder to achieve a goal the more the gap to the goal seems to shrink.

COMMON PUNCH CARD DESIGN

REDESIGNED PUNCH CARD

BUY 9, GET THE 10TH FREE

BUY 11, GET THE 12TH FREE


Behavioral economists like Daniel Kahneman have illuminated many systematic deviations from rational thinking that prevent people from making optimal choices. These cognitive biases, as they’re called, can lead us to put off difficult tasks for the future or be overconfident in our ability to accomplish something. How often do we resolve to save more money or eat healthier, only to fail to follow through at the cash register or restaurant?

These same cognitive biases can impede college students from acting in their own self-interest. How many students promise that they will get started on that term paper early, only to scramble the days before the deadline? College creates conditions that amplify the effect of these cognitive biases by posing many decision points that are complex, novel, and have outcomes that are difficult to perceive. Some choices, like major selection, do not produce immediately evident consequences until students pursue

postgraduate opportunities several years later. Others, like determining the right mix of funding to pay for college, pose trade-offs between time and money in the short- and long-term that are hard to compare.

The principles of nudging emerged from the field of behavioral economics to help people navigate complex decisions like the ones students struggle with in college. Unlike the typical carrot-or-stick approach, nudges don’t use incentives or punishment to resolve choice dilemmas. Instead, nudges help decision-makers by making it easier to 1) process information and 2) perceive future consequences.

Deployed at critical milestones in the college journey, these nudges can yield measurable benefits for students on their path to degree. The case studies that follow demonstrate opportunities for nudges in student success.

What is the purpose of a nudge?

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A barrier to sound decision-making involves one of its most essential inputs: information. In situations where information is confusing or overwhelming, students can end up making poor choices—if they take any action at all. The following section outlines two of the cognitive biases that relate to how we process information.

Cognitive Depletion

People make poorer choices when they face an overwhelming amount of information, and it has become an increasingly common scenario. Neuroscientist Daniel Levitin observed that in 2011, Americans consumed four times more information than they did 25 years ago, and that outside of work we process roughly 100,000 words every day. This is even worse for members of Generation Z—their screen time leads them to consume far more digital content than the generations before them. As a result, analytical abilities fatigue, and people will often respond based on convenience or surface appeal, rather than make the most beneficial choices. This bias is called cognitive depletion.2

Students who rely on financial aid are more prone to cognitive depletion than students who don’t have to worry about how they will pay for school. Resource scarcity leads to attentional scarcity, a phenomenon that behavioral psychologists calls “tunneling.” 3

Processing Information


Cognitive depletion: the decline in decision-making ability when fatigued by overwhelming amounts of information

DEFINITION


AWARDS

2016–2017 Aid Year Fall 2016

Pell Grant $2,908.00

Sup. Ed. Op. Grant $250.00

Tex Pub Edu Grant (In $500.00

Direct Subsidized Loa $1,750.00

Direct Unsubsidized L $1,000.00

Direct Parent Plus Lo $258.00

Texas Grant Initial $2,500.00

Term Total $9,166.00

Grand Total $18,330.00

SAMPLE AWARD LETTER

The word “loan” does not appear in any of the three entries listing loan funding

The complexity of the financial aid process results in students struggling (or failing) to secure aid. As students apply for financial aid through the FAFSA, they’re asked for proof of their parents’ finances in the form of documents they’ve never heard of, much less seen.

The cognitive toll doesn’t end even after a student successfully submits their aid application. Financial aid award letters create additional confusion for students and their families over how much they will owe and what help they are being offered. Award letters frequently fail to distinguish grants and other gift aid from loan options that require repayment. To make matters more confusing, financial aid terminology is often incomprehensible to families—and can make them feel like they’re being misled. A 2018 New America Foundation and uAspire study found 136 variations for the term “Federal Direct Unsubsidized Loans” across 455 institutions’ aid letters. In 24 letters, the nomenclature used did not contain the word “loan” at all.4

Ultimately, the opaque language and intimidating formatting of award letters lead recipients to interpret the size of their aid packages incorrectly and accept aid without understanding true cost or later responsibilities.

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To preserve the attentional bandwidth of students and their families, schools should use straightforward language and format their aid letters to ensure they are easy to understand. To the right, we’ve diagrammed the steps that schools have taken to design clear and approachable aid letters. One large Midwestern public university broke out loans from gift aid, and clearly defined the latter as “not-to-be-repaid.” Implementing this change made it clear that loans are an option to pay for out-of-pocket costs, not an automatic part of the aid package. This helped reduce unnecessary borrowing and resulted in a 3-percentage-point decrease in average debt at graduation.

By carefully directing student focus with a redesigned award letter during the otherwise overwhelming financial aid process, schools can significantly mitigate cognitive depletion and improve students’ ability to make decisions about how they will pay for school.

Case Study



REDESIGNED AWARD LETTER

Congratulations! Your Aid Package:

Total Cost of Attendance……………………………………….…….…….….

----(no hidden fees!)

Total Gift Aid (no repayment)…………………………………….…….……

---- Scholarships

---- Grants

Your Total Estimated Financial Contribution……………………….

(How much you pay):

We appreciate the cost of a degree can be daunting, but there are several resources to help families finance the cost of an education.

Options to Cover Contributions

Work-Study…………………………………………………………………………......

Loan Aid (repayment necessary)……………………………………………..-

Anna’s Award Letter:

$30,000

$13,000

$17,000

$2,000

$15,000

Present a total cost of attendance, before aid, and include all miscellaneous fees.

Break out the “free money”: scholarships and grants. State explicitly that this aid doesn’t need to be repaid.

Highlight out-of-pocket expenses to the family in similar terms. It’s better to state costs clearly and present payment options than to

shroud them. Present “options” to pay for the out-of-pocket costs. PLUS, loans and federal work-study should be separated from gift aid.

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Sometimes you cannot change the form itself—especially if it’s a federal document—but you can repackage the form to make it easier to navigate. The behavioral economics lab ideas42 created a paper folder with strategically placed cut outs, called a document jacket, to help student borrowers apply for federal loan relief. The document jacket helped boost application submissions by 48 percent. Read more here


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Choice deferral: the tendency to delay making a decision

when faced with choices that are difficult to understand


DEFINITION


Choice Deferral

A corollary to cognitive depletion, choice deferral is the phenomenon of delaying a decision indefinitely when the choices are difficult to understand. When alternatives are conflicting and the trade-offs are large, it can be easier to not decide at all.5

In many areas of decision-making, policymakers have incorporated defaults so that the inability to choose doesn’t result in inaction. For example, employers will enroll, or reenroll, their employees in a default health insurance plan if they don’t make a choice during the annual period of open enrollment.

But students face many decisions where they do need to make a proactive choice—there’s no “default major” if a student remains undeclared. What kind of nudge can help students surmount decision avoidance?

Social science researchers have found that when asked what they intend to do, people are more likely to do it. For example, studies show that simply asking eligible voters if they plan to vote the day before the election increases the likelihood they make it to the polls by as much as 25 percent.6 But the measurable impact of this nudge, known as mere-measurement effect, extends beyond voting. Behavioral researchers have observed its effects on car purchasing,7 blood donations,8 and yes, even college success.

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Schools often wait on pins and needles to see who registers for the next term. Registration is the best proxy measure of whether students will return the following term. As the deadline for registration approaches, which students simply need a reminder to complete the task? And which ones aren’t coming back?

To improve reregistration rates, the University of Central Florida began experimenting with text message campaigns using EAB’s Navigate in 2016. UCF’s registrar office started with small pilots to assess which kinds of registration reminders would be most effective. For their first pilot, UCF identified 260 upperclassmen who hadn’t registered for several weeks after enrollment had opened. None of these students had holds on their account that prevented them from registering. The registrar sent a text message reminder about the registration deadline. Fifteen students, or 6 percent of the text message recipients, registered.

UCF Registration Reminder: The deadline to add classes is today, Fri, Jan 13. To register, please visit my.ucf.edu

260 15 6%

UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL FLORIDA

Students contacted Students registered Registration rate

Case Study University of Central Florida



The registration gain was a good start, but modest. So the registrar’s office decided to rewrite the message with the aim of engagement. Like the questions posed to prospective voters, the registrar asked if the student planned to return next term. The second pilot contacted 655 students at the end of their second semester. Like the first pilot, these students had not yet registered for several weeks and did not have registration holds on their accounts.

When the message switched to a Yes/No question, 70 percent of recipients responded within the first few hours. More than 40 percent of the contacted students registered for their next term.

But beyond the significant jump in registrations, the new message captured valuable—and previously unavailable—student data. For students who responded “yes” but didn’t register within the next few days, an advisor would follow up to make sure they weren’t encountering logistical hurdles. For those who responded “no,” a more hands-on retention specialist would intervene to see what they could do to change the students’ plans.

This is the UCF registrar. We notice you haven’t registered. If you’re planning on returning, reply Y. If you’re not planning on returning, reply N.

No problem. We’ll get you in touch with an advisor.

Yes, but I’m having trouble registering for the class I need!

655 70% 458

UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL FLORIDA

Students contacted Response rate Students registered

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Tailor the message to a specifi c student population. Campus-wide messages feel irrelevant and lack urgency. Students will more likely engage if it feels customized to them.

Don’t send your text too far in advance. A text has more immediacy than email, which is in part why it’s more eff ective. But if you send the reminder more than a week in advance, the message will fall down the inbox—just like email.

Prepare to respond. Ensure you have capacity allocated to respond to texts from students after sending out mass communications.

Make it actionable. Nudges without next steps are a road to nowhere. Give your students something they can do immediately.

UCF shared the following guidelines for all staff interested in

using text message campaigns in Navigate, but they serve as

great tips for any school starting a nudging program:


What else can you do with a text message nudge?

Arapahoe Community College

Because SMS is so good at claiming students’ attention, it also runs a higher risk than other channels of annoying and alienating them. The good news is that there is a clearly defined set of message types that students don’t mind receiving via text: information about things that need to get done, reminders for those tasks, and prompts to finish incomplete tasks.

Administrators at Arapahoe Community College noticed that some students who had signed up for their advising appointments failed to show up. While unexpected conflicts can prevent students from attending, they knew

it was possible that students were forgetting their appointment times.

Arapahoe sent appointment reminders to roughly half of students who had advising appointments scheduled. Only 8.9 percent of students who received the reminder texts failed to show up to their appointment, one-third of the 25.4 percent no-show rate for students who did not receive text messages.

The initial pilot was so successful that Arapahoe administrators began to pilot multichannel nudges to encourage students to enroll in summer courses, create their degree plans at the career center, and check for graduation eligibility.

What else can you do with a text message nudge?

“Appointment reminder for general advising 11:00–11:30 a.m.”

Students were nearly 3x more likely to miss their appointment if they did not receive a text reminder

NO NUDGE NUDGE

APPOINTMENT REMINDER TEXT MESSAGES SENT TO HALF OF STUDENTS

no-show rate no-show rate

25.4% 8.9%

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Distorted perceptions of time can also thwart students’ attempts to make good choices. These time-based cognitive biases can manifest in two major ways: first, students struggle to grasp the long-term consequences of their near-term actions, and second, students imperfectly allocate and prioritize their time. The next section explores these two cognitive biases and how they can impact critical college milestones.

Present Bias

It’s easy to disconnect present-day behaviors, like increasing salary contributions to 401(k) accounts, from the desired future outcome, like retiring comfortably with enough savings. This cognitive bias is known as present bias, which causes us to prefer smaller rewards in the present over larger rewards in the future.

Present bias commonly plagues college students. To students, the college experience can feel disconnected from future goals.9 If a student ultimately wants to secure a career with financial security, the near-term tasks of writing research papers and registering for classes can feel abstract and unrelated.

A nudge that reinforces the connection between current behavior and future well-being can improve the decisions people make today. In a 2011 study, researchers asked participants how much they wanted to set aside for retirement.10 The experimental group was shown realistic renderings of their own faces aged forward that smiled if they set aside more money and frowned if the participant invested less. Participants who were shown age-progressed renderings allocated more than twice as much for their savings. A similar nudge that shows students how their present-day choices impact their long-term success can go a long way in cultivating healthy student behaviors.

Perceiving Time


Present bias: the prioritization of immediate rewards

at the expense of long-term payoff (see also: hyperbolic discounting)

DEFINITION


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Case StudyKennesaw State University

Could a simple nudge help students get to 15 credits?

The more credits a student attempts in a given term, the more likely they are to graduate on time.11 The typical bachelor’s degree requires an average of 15 credits per term to graduate in four years, which has led to the proliferation of campaigns like 15 to Finish that focus on getting students to take more credits.

But many students either don’t know they should be taking 15 credits or still choose to underload credits in order to accommodate other commitments, promising themselves that they’ll catch up next term. The fact that federal fi nancial aid policies count 12 credits as full-time only confuses the matter.

Good evening! I noticed that this spring you are registered for fewer than 15 credits. While this is still full-time and everyone’s situation is diff erent, you could potentially graduate a little sooner by picking up more hours now. Also, on average, students who take 15+ credits each semester earn higher GPAs than those who take under 15.

Registration opens tomorrow; let me know if there is anything I can do to help!

To test that theory, Kennesaw State University’s advising leaders sent an email to 1,610 students in good standing who had registered for 12–14 credits. The email encouraged them to enroll in one more class.



A few students responded to say that they were working full-time and couldn’t fi t an additional course into their busy schedules. Others wanted to register for that additional course but were waiting to get off a waitlist for a certain course. There were a few who had made prerequisite, major change, or simple registration errors. Once advisors uncovered these administrative hurdles, they could override them and help students get into the classes they needed.

Quite a few students simply didn’t know the benefi ts of taking 15 credits—and they were excited at the opportunity to choose another

course and asked for recommendations. Some even followed up to schedule an advising appointment. By using an email to prompt students to think about their future selves, KSU created a space for new conversations and smarter choices.

The results from this intervention were impressive.

11%enrolled more

credits

After registration for spring had closed, 187 out of the 1,610 students, or 11%, enrolled in at least one additional 3-credit course.

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Planning Fallacy

The next cognitive bias is probably familiar to you, even if you’ve never heard it named before. It’s also the one that EAB’s User Experience team discovered most commonly afflicts your students. Planning fallacy causes us to consistently think tasks will take less time to complete than they do, which tempts us to procrastinate. This effect is exacerbated when the task is large, complex, or carried out over a long period of time

Research into the phenomenon of planning fallacy yielded a simple solution: break down larger tasks into smaller subtasks. In a study at MIT, students were asked to estimate the amount of time it would take to complete an assignment.12 But when they were asked to break that same assignment down to its component parts, students provided a much longer—and more accurate—estimate. When students set intermediate deadlines to these corresponding estimates, they were more likely to complete their assignment on time and improve the quality of their completed work.


Planning fallacy: the chronic underestimation of the amount

of time involved in completing a task

DEFINITION


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First-time students are especially prone to planning fallacy during the onboarding and orientation process. All the requirements are new, making it difficult to estimate how long they’ll take. Additionally, the sheer volume of steps makes it challenging to keep track and prioritize. Students can wind up feeling overwhelmed and behind before the semester even begins, preventing them from finishing the crucial tasks they need to succeed.

Like many community colleges, Pikes Peak Community College struggled with onboarding. They noticed that their yield rate (the percentage of applicants who enrolled) hovered around 38 percent for several years. When they sent their list of admitted students to the National Student Clearinghouse to see if students were choosing to enroll at other schools, the results shocked them. Pikes Peak was hardly losing any students to competition; nearly 90 percent of admitted students who did not enroll at Pikes Peak did not end up anywhere else.


38%enrolled at Pikes Peak

6% enrolled elsewhere

56%no

enrollment

Why were these students foregoing college entirely?

Case Study Pikes Peak Community College

When enrollment leaders surveyed admitted students who did not matriculate, their responses revealed a lot of confusion around the college transition, particularly financial aid and affordability. Many weren’t sure if they qualified for aid or if they had already missed the deadline.

It turned out that Pikes Peak’s post-acceptance communications weren’t doing these students any favors. Prior to partnering with EAB, Pikes Peak sent out a long admissions email with many paragraphs outlining every onboarding requirement, burying important information deep within the message that students rarely got to. As part of their 2017 Navigate launch, Pikes Peak’s admissions office simplified their initial message. The email now links admitted students directly to the Navigate student portal, where the home screen showed students the list of essential tasks in order by deadline. Each listed task links to the resources necessary to complete it. When students complete a task, they can check it off the list.

The results were significant. Admitted students who logged into Navigate were twice as likely to register as those who didn’t. Compared to the year before, Pikes Peak also saw a 17 percent increase in FAFSA submissions and a 7 percent increase in scheduled advising sessions compared to the previous year, a direct result of click paths through these two steps in Navigate.


This Week

RESOURCEConnect with campus resources that matter most to you.

RESOURCEExplore services designed specifically for first-generation students.

TO DOMeet with an academic advisor before your first term

TO DOTake and review your Assessment Examination

TO DOPick your courses and schedule your first term

APPOINTMENTOpen House: Campus Day Care

All Items

This Week Month Term

7%Increase in advising sessions for new students

And more likely to complete essential tasks

16%Increase in FAFSA Applications

NAVIGATE STUDENT PORTAL

NAVIGATE USERS:

50%registered

Applicants were twice as likely to register if they used Navigate

By segmenting the onboarding process into its component steps and setting intermediate deadlines, Pikes Peak made the transition to college more manageable for their students. Navigate’s at-a-glance checklist empowered more students to complete the steps necessary to pay for college and get started on the right foot.

NON-NAVIGATE USERS:

27% registered

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Recognizing the cognitive biases that stymie students’ own rational

judgment should help student success leaders understand why, despite

their best efforts, students continue to act in ways that harm their own

self-interest. By accounting for these underlying forces, schools can deploy

behavioral interventions to nudge students toward their goals. As you

embark on your nudging journey, take note of a few design principles.


Build bridges, not replacements. Nudges should not supplant existing support services such as advising or the financial aid office. They function better when they connect students to those services, not when they replace them. As the profiled case studies demonstrate, a nudge can create meaningful interactions that students would have missed otherwise.

Match nudges to students’ specific cognitive barriers. Experts at behavioral economics lab ideas42 warn against deploying a nudge simply because it appears easy to implement. Nudges should be customized to the student challenge at hand. Conduct focus groups to understand which barriers, both from a cognitive and logistical perspective, your students are experiencing. These findings will guide the development of your targeted nudge.

Don’t overdo it. Student success administrators need to make hard decisions and determine, out of all the priorities of different campus stakeholders, which parts of the student lifecycle would benefit the most from nudges. University of Virginia education professor Dr. Ben Castleman warns against over-nudging, as the efficacy of these techniques diminishes the more exposure students have.13

Where Do We Go from Here?


The array of nudges deployed across different junctures of the college

experience can make the possibilities feel endless and even overwhelming.

How should you get started?

2 Design in pursuit of interaction. The College Foundation of West Virginia operates a text message nudging program for students enrolled in both two- and four-year colleges across the state. Some of their most successful messages pose open-ended questions like “How’s the beginning of your semester going?” These questions can yield valuable information that flags a student in distress: one student couldn’t attend her first day of class because she forgot to get a parking pass, or another worried about paying for books because he didn’t know when financial aid checks will be paid out. The responses create opportunities for college staff to intervene with the appropriate resources—and demonstrate that the school cares about the needs of its students.

3 Assess the impact of your nudge interventions. You should replicate and scale only those interventions that improve your students’ college experience or outcomes. To evaluate the efficacy of your nudges, design your intervention with data collection and analysis in mind. Check out our Quantifying the Impact of Your Student Success Initiatives toolkit to get started.

The student challenges, nudges, and even institutions profiled in this paper are diverse, but they share an animating principle. Ultimately, the goal of a nudge is not to make decisions for students. The nudge helps them make decisions more deliberately and intentionally when they might have chosen carelessly or done nothing at all.

Here are three steps to get started:

1 Process-map your students’ experience. By attempting to complete the requirements students face, you’ll be able to uncover hidden bottlenecks and broken processes. When EAB researchers go undercover as newly enrolled students, they encounter all manner of challenges, from confusing communications and dead-end links, to being shuffled from office to office without answers. By stepping into the shoes of your students, you can identify the unintentional obstructions your institution places in their way and design new ways of helping them overcome those roadblocks.

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A clear degree pathway provides simple step-by-step directions that streamline the road to graduation

Relevant, timely nudges remind students to act at the pivotal moments in their college career

Self-service tools make it easy for students to follow through on the requirements for degree completion

Two-way multimodal communicationmakes it easy to reach to students when they hit a snag

Advanced search allow you to fi nd and intervene with students who need your help most

Data dashboards help you analyze the eff ectiveness of each nudge, both within and outside of the platform

Navigate is EAB’s Student Success Management System, a platform designed to help you support students at scale.

Hardwired with research and informed by extensive student testing, Navigate allows you to map the pivotal milestones along each student’s path, intervene with students who need help, and track the impact of your work.

FOR STUDENTS FOR ADVISORS AND STAFF

Powered by Research and Student Touchpoints

Research interviews and concept tests with students

Freshmen surveyed on technology and mobile habits

Students active on the Navigate Student platform

Annual touchpoints with students in their college search (EAB Enrollment Services)

400+ 9,000+ 310,000+ 1 Billion+

To learn more or request a demo, visit eab.com/studentsuccess

or contact us at [email protected].

How Can Technology Power Student Success Nudges?

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We help schools support students from enrollment to graduation and beyond

K12 | Community Colleges | Four-Year Colleges and Universities | Graduate and Adult Learning

Prepare your institution for the future

Find and enroll your right-fit students

Support and graduate more students

ROOTED IN RESEARCH

Peer-tested best practices

Enrollment innovations tested annually

7,500+

500+

ADVANTAGE OF SCALE

Institutions served

Students supported by our SSMS

1,500+

3.7 M+

WE DELIVER RESULTS

Of our partners continue with us year after year, reflecting the goals we achieve together

95%

To learn more, read:

Guiding Student Choice to Promote Persistence: Tools, Technologies, and Policies That Support Retention and Timely Completion by EAB (2015)

Decision Making for Student Success: Behavioral Insights to Improve College Access and Persistence, edited by Ben Castleman, Saul Schwartz, and Sandy Baum (2015)

Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness by Cass Sunstein and Richard Thaler (2008)

Nudging for Success: Using behavioral science to improve the postsecondary student journey by ideas42 (2016)

Txt 4 Success: College Counseling for West Virginia Students Toolkit by The College Foundation of West Virginia (2017)

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Supplemental Reading List

1) Kivetz R, et al., “The Goal-Gradient Hypothesis Resurrected: Purchase Acceleration, Illusionary Goal Progress, and Customer Retention,” Journal of Marketing Research, 43, no. 1 (2006): 39–58.

2) Levitin D, The Organized Mind: Thinking Straight in the Age of Information Overload, The Penguin Group, New York, NY (2014): 7.

3) Mullainathan S, Shafir E, Scarcity: why having too little means so much, Times Books, Henry Holt and Company, New York, NY (2013).

4) Burd S, et al., “Decoding the Cost of College: The Case for Transparent Financial Aid Award Letters,” New America, June 2018.

5) Bhatia S, Mullett T, “The Dynamics of Deferred Decision” Cognitive Psychology, 86 (2016): 112–151.

6) Greenwald AG, et al., “Increasing Voting Behavior by Asking People If They Expect to Vote,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 72 (2): 315-318.

7) Morwitz V, “Consumers’ Purchase Intentions and Their Behavior,” Foundations and Trends in Marketing, 7, no. 3 (2012): 181–230.

8) Godin G, et al., “Asking Questions Changes Behavior: Mere Measurement Effects on Frequency of Blood Donation,” Health Psychology, 27, no. 2 (2008): 179–184

9) Shireman R, Price JA, “Prepare for Class, Attend, and Participate! Incentives and Student Success in College.” In Decision Making for Student Success: Behavioral Insights to Improve College Access and Persistence, ed. B Castleman et al., 124–142. Routledge, 2015.

10) Hershfield H, et al., “Increasing Savings Behavior Through Age-Progressed Renderings of the Future Self,” Journal of Marketing Research, 48 (November 2011): S23–S37

11) Belfield C, et al., “Momentum: The Academic and Economic Value of a 15-Credit First-Semester Course Load for College Students in Tennessee,” Community College Research Center, Working Paper No. 88, June 2016.

12) Buehler R, et al., “Exploring the ‘Planning Fallacy’: Why People Underestimate Their Task Completion Times,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, no. 3 (1994): 366–381.

13) Castleman B, “Knowing When to Nudge in Education,” Brookings Institution, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2015/08/06/knowing-when-to-nudge-in-education.

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member. Each member is authorized to use this Report only

to the extent expressly authorized herein.

2. Each member shall not sell, license, republish, distribute, or

post online or otherwise this Report, in part or in whole. Each

member shall not disseminate or permit the use of, and shall

take reasonable precautions to prevent such dissemination

or use of, this Report by (a) any of its employees and agents

(except as stated below), or (b) any third party.

3. Each member may make this Report available solely to those

of its employees and agents who (a) are registered for the

workshop or membership program of which this Report

is a part, (b) require access to this Report in order to learn

from the information described herein, and (c) agree not to

disclose this Report to other employees or agents or any

third party. Each member shall use, and shall ensure that its

employees and agents use, this Report for its internal use

only. Each member may make a limited number of copies,

solely as adequate for use by its employees and agents in

accordance with the terms herein.

4. Each member shall not remove from this Report any

confidential markings, copyright notices, and/or other similar

indicia herein.

5. Each member is responsible for any breach of its obligations

as stated herein by any of its employees or agents.

6. If a member is unwilling to abide by any of the foregoing

obligations, then such member shall promptly return this

Report and all copies thereof to EAB.

AuthorsAnnie Yi, Associate Director

Contributing ConsultantsLindsay Miars, Senior DirectorCody Light, Senior Director

DesignerJoy Drakes

Endnotes:

Image Credits

Cover image: iStock

36698

Cover image: iStock

Washington DC | Richmond | Birmingham | Minneapolis

202.747.1000 | eab.com

Date post:	22-Sep-2020
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