The PRACTICE of

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Second Edition

Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber Boston College

Patricia Leavy Stonehill College

USAGE Los Angeles | London | New Delhi

Singapore | Washington DC

Detailed Contents

Preface xiii

Acknowledgments xviii

About the Authors xix

PART I: QUALITATIVE PRACTICE

Chapter 1: An Invitation to Qualitative Research 3 What Is Qualitative Research? 3 A Holistic Approach to Research 6 Quantitative Research and Positivism 8 What Kinds of Questions and Problems

Can Be Addressed With Qualitative Methods? 9 Illustrations of Qualitative Studies 10 What Do We Want You to Learn From This Book? 12

Glossary 13 Discussion Questions and Activities 13 Resources 13

Chapter 2: Approaches to Qualitative Research 15 What Are the Major Methodological (Theoretical)

Approaches to Qualitative Research? 15 Post-positivism 16 The Interpretive Strand 17 The Critical Strand 20

Conclusion 26 Glossary 27 Discussion Questions and Activities 28 Resources 28

Chapter 3: Designing Qualitative Approaches to Research 31 How Do We Know What We Know? 31 What Is a Qualitative Approach to Research?

Qualitative Research Inquiry: A Dynamic Dance 33

What Is the Role of Methodology in the Research Process? 38 Formulating Research Questions:

What Do You Want to Ask? 39 Deriving Research Topics and Questions 40

Research Methods: How Will You Answer Your Research Questions? 44

Sampling 45 Validity 48 Reliability 52

Conclusion 54 Glossary 55 Discussion Questions 56 Resources 57

Chapter 4: The Ethics of Social Research 59 Why Is Ethical Practice Important? 59 A Short History of Ethics in Research 60

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study 60 Further Developments in the History of Research Ethics 61

How Are Research Subjects Protected Today? 63 Beyond Informed Consent: What Are the Ethical Dilemmas

in Social Research? 72 The Ethical Predicament of Deception in Research 72 Divided Loyalties: An Ethical Researcher Dilemma 76

How Can I Observe Ethical Values in My Research Practice? 77 Key Ethical Issues Generated by Student Research

and Strategies for Overcoming Them 78 How Do New Technologies in Social Research Impact

the Practice of Ethical Research? 80 Overcoming Ethical Dilemmas of

Social Software Technologies 82 Conclusion 82 Glossary 85 Discussion Questions 85 Resources 86

PART II: METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Chapter 5: In-Depth Interview 93 Becoming a Member of a Religious Cult 93

What Is an In-Depth Interview? 94 When Is It Appropriate to Use In-Depth Interviews? 95

How Do You Design and Conduct an In-Depth Interview Study? 99 Ethical Considerations in In-Depth Interviewing 100 Interview Structures and Levels of Control 102 Preparing an Interview Guide 103

How Do You Conduct an In-Depth Interview? 105 How Do I Interview Across Differences

Between Myself and My Respondent? 111 Insider or Outsider? 116 Doing Difference: Examples of Taking

Account of Difference in the Research Process 117 Reflexivity and Difference 120

How Do You Analyze and Interpret Interview Data? 123 Conclusion 126 Glossary 126 Discussion Questions 128 Resources 128

Chapter 6: Oral History 131 What Is Oral History? 131 How Is Oral History Distinct From In-Depth Interview? 133 What Techniques Facilitate Data Collection in Oral History? 138

Building Rapport and Dealing With Difference 138 Listening 140 Storytelling and Narrative Styles 144

What Are the Issues of Collaboration and Authority in Oral History? 149

Decentering Authority and Democratic Practice 150 Empowerment, Ethics, and Conflict Within Collaboration 153 Archiving Oral Histories 157

Conclusion 159 Glossary 160 Discussion Questions 160 Resources 161

Chapter 7: Focus Group Interviews 163 What Are Focus Group Interviews? 163

Some Background on Focus Groups 164 The Differences Between Focus Group Interviews

and In-Depth Interviews During Data Collection 166 How Do You Design a Focus Group Study? 171

Mixed Method Designs: Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Data 172

Qualitative Multimethod Designs 176 Sampling and Standardization 178 The Role of the Researcher in Focus Groups: Moderator 181

How Is Focus Group Data Analyzed and Represented 187 Concept Mapping 187

Conclusion 188 Glossary 189 Discussion Questions and Activities 190 Resources 191

Chapter 8: Ethnography 193 What Is Ethnography? 193

Using an Ethnographic Approach: When Is It Appropriate? 197 How Do You Get Started? Negotiating the Research Setting 199

What Is Autoethnography? 210 How Do You Gather and Manage Your Ethnographic Data? 215

Keeping Fieldnotes 216 Conclusion 222 Glossary 223 Discussion Questions 224 Resources 225

Chapter 9: Content Analysis and Unobtrusive Methods 227 What Is Content Analysis? 227

The Uses of Content Analysis 228 Qualitative and Quantitative Traditions: What Are

the Main Approaches to Content Analysis? 232 Qualitative Textual Analysis: Postmodern

and Post-structural Approaches 236 Visual Research: Photographs, Images,

and Interactive Visual Research 242 Exercise on Coding Advertisements 245 Audiovisual Analysis: Working With Multiple Fields 248 Computer-Driven Content Analysis 250

Emergent Ethical Concerns With Computer-Driven Content Analysis 251

Conclusion 252 Glossary 253 Discussion Questions 253 Resources 254

Chapter 10: Case Study 255 What Is a Case Study? 255

Continuum of Perspectives on Case Study Research 260 How Do You Design Case Study Research? 264

Data Organization, Analysis, and Representation 265 A Case Study of a Sorority 266 Multiple Case Study 274

Conclusion 275 Glossary 275 Discussion Questions 276 Resources 276

Chapter 11: Mixed Methods Research 277 What Is Mixed Methods Research? 278

Reasons for Using a Mixed Methods Design 280 The Research Nexus 281

How Do You Design a Mixed Methods Research Project? 282

What Are the Problems and Prospects of Mixed Methods Designs? 286

How Do I Analyze Data From a Mixed Methods Study Using Computer-Assisted Software Programs? 287

The Process of Quantizing: An Example 288 The Process of Qualitizing: Using Quantitative Variables

to Directly Enhance Qualitative Analysis 290 Conclusion 292 Glossary 295 Discussion Questions 296 Resources 296

PART III: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Chapter 12: Analysis and Interpretation of Qualitative Data 301 What Are the Steps Involved in Qualitative

Data Analysis and Interpretation? 302 Step 1: Data Preparation Phase 302

Transcription Software for Qualitative Data Analysis 304 Steps 2 and 3: Data Exploration Phase

and Data Reduction Phase 305 What Is a Grounded Theory Approach

to Data Coding and Analysis? 307 How Do You Write Memos? 308

What Is an Example of the Coding Process? 309 Step 4: Interpretation 315 How Do You Establish Validity and Reliability

of a Qualitative Interpretation? 318 What Computer-Assisted Software Exists

for Qualitative Data Analysis? 319 What Computer Software Programs Are Out There,

and Which One Should I Choose? 321 How Can I Use a Computer-Assisted Program

to Analyze My Qualitative Data? 323 The Preparation Phase 326 The Exploration Phase 326 The Specification/Data Reduction Phase 328 The Reporting Phase 328

Conclusion 328 Glossary 330 Discussion Questions 330 Resources 331

Chapter 13: The Writing and Representation of Qualitative Research 333

Who Is Your Audience? 333 Writing Up a Qualitative Research Project:

Steps for Getting It Done 334

Title Page and Abstract 335 Introduction 335 Literature Review 336 Research Design 337 Data Analysis and Interpretation Procedures 338 Conclusions and Implications 342 References and Appendices 343

Editing and Revising Your Research Paper 344 How Do I Represent the Voices of My Respondents? 344

Qualitative Approaches to Representations 346 Alternative Arts-Based Approaches

to Writing: Beyond Prose 348 Conclusion 350 Glossary 351 Discussion Questions 351 Resources 351

Chapter 14: The Research Nexus 353 The Future of Qualitative Research 353 What Have We Learned About

Traditional Qualitative Methods? 354 What's New in Qualitative Research Practice? 354

Emergent Methods Emergent Methods Emergent Methods Emergent Methods

New Approaches to Old Methods 355 New and Underutilized Methods 355 Arts-Based Research Practices 356 Technological Practices 359

Conclusion: Staying Centered and Building Ethical Knowledge 362 Discussion Questions 362 Resources 362

References 365

Index 383