The Principle of Environmental Sampling Guide Practicum James Landry 2014

EnvironmentalSampling

Health, Safety & Environmental Processes

November 2014Guided Practicum

Prepared for University of Fredericton

by James Landry.

Sampling is an attempt to choose and extract a representative portion of a

physical system from its surrounding and sampling itself is an important issue

that has less status than analytical methods. Samples are taken for a number

of reason, monitoring, regulatory activities, quality control, scientific study or

just curiosity. The objective is to take representatives samples so that

decisions can be made concerning the entire system. But it can be

complicated .

The complexity of the matrix ( water, air, solids, sludges and liquid wastes)

interferences during the transportation and storage before analysis and

instability of the analytes. Sampling is often considered to be the weakest

part of the planning. This sampling guide will be useful to anyone interested

in environmental sampling to obtain reliable environmental samples .

In the coming years, there will be a need in field of environmental technology

for technical personnel at all levels of education and training. The protection

of public health and environmental quality will be the top priorities for most

citizens.

iv

Table of Contents

Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Taking water samples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Grab Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Composite sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Storage and Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Communicable and non-communicable diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Coliforms Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

What is E Coli, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

On site testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17pH reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Dissolved Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Air sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Ambient Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Source Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Indoor Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Carbon Monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Particulate air Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Conclusion Principles of Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Environmental Sampling 1

Sampling

Correct sampling and storage are critical to the accuracy of each test.

Minimize contamination from sampling devices, remove residues of previous

samples from sample container and preserve samples properly. Special

precautions in handling the sample also may be necessary to prevent natural

interferences such as organic growth or loss or gain of dissolved gases.

Taking water samples.

Samples for analysis should be collected to make sure the most

representative samples is obtained. Use only clean containers and rinse

container several times first with the water to be sampled.

Samples taken in home’s faucet should be allowed to run for a sufficient time

to flush the system, and gentle stream to avoid turbulence and air bubbles.

Water samples from wells should be collected after the pump has run long

enough to deliver water representative of the ground water feeding the well.

Sampling representative surface water if difficult. Best results can be obtained

by running a series of tests with samples taken from several locations and

depths at different times.


Proper sampling procedures are important part of the survey to assess water

or wastewater quality and to check compliance with water quality standards.

A sample witch has been improperly collected, preserved, transported, or

identified will result in invalid and useless test results. There are two basic

sampling methods: grab sampling and composite sampling.

Grab Sampling

A grab sample collected over a very short period time. A quick scoop or it

could take up to 15 min to fill the sample. It is important to note that the test

results from a grab sample only represent the conditions of the water or

wastewater at the particular time and location. Grab samples are most

suitable when testing for chlorine residual, pH, coliforms and dissolved

oxygen. They are usually collected manually. For stream or waste water

grab sampling devices that provides easy access to flow channel from boats,

spillways, or docks are available. Special containers that allow samples to

be collected at specific depths below the surface, without mixing with air, are

also available.


Composite sampling

Composite sampling is more appropriate when it is necessary to determine

overall or average condition ver a certain period of time. Composite sampling

are obtained by mixing individual grab samples taken at regular intervals over

the sampling period. Automatic sampling equipment is usually used for

composite sampling. The cost of the equipment is balanced by saving on the

labor involved in the manual collection and composite.

Storage and Preservation

Planning is the most important step in sampling. This process necessitates

a discussion between the laboratory staff and the sampling crew to address

factors such as sample containers, field preservation, proper documentation,

packaging, shipping and receiving dates at the laboratory. Planning the

shipment schedule and method of shipment should be specified before the

sampling .The field crew has the responsibility for ensuring that the laboratory

receives properly preserved samples. The field activities start with a check

of all samples bottles, preservation and labels on-site to ensure that

everything agrees with the sampling plan. All sample bottle labels, chain of

custody records, and other pieces of documentation must be clearly

completed.


The methods for taking and preserving samples vary depending on specific

water quality parameter and analysis to be made. Four general

considerations that apply for any type of samples. Source : ( Safe drinking water act self

study handbook) The American water works association.

1.The sample must be truly representative of the existing conditions. Example:

Collecting water from a faucet without first letting the water run for a while will not

give results representative of conditions in the water main, but only of the water that

was stagnant in the service line for an unknown period of time.

2.The time between collection and the analysis should be as short as possible for

the most reliable results.

3.Appropriate preservation techniques should be applied to slow down the biological

or chemical changes that may occur in the time between sample collection and

sample analysis. This usually involves refrigeration to cool sample

4.Accurate and thorough sampling records must be kept to avoid any confusion.

What, when, where of the sample as well as to satisfy legal requirements. All

sampling bottles should be properly identified, and records of the date, time, place,

and type of sampling should be kept.


Groundwater

Part of the precipitation that falls upon the land may infiltrate the surface,

percolate downward through soil under the force of gravity and become what

is known as groundwater. After the water infiltrates the ground surface, it

seeps downward through the layer of soil called the zone of aeration. This

is a layer of soil in witch the small spaces between the solid soil particles are

partially filled with air as well as water. As water continues to percolate

downward, it eventually reaches the zone of saturation, a layer of soil or rock

in which all pore spaces or rock fissures are completely filled with water. The

dividing line between the zone of aeration and the zone of saturation is called

the water table. An excavation or well that is deep enough to penetrate the

zone of saturation would fill up with water to the height or elevation of the

water table. The elevation of the water table is not constant. It depends on

weather conditions and a\varies seasonally. The water table is generally

closer to the ground surface in the spring or during rainy periods and deeper

during dry spells. The water table can also be lowered by pumping.

Aquifers An aquifer is a layer of soil or rock in which groundwater cam

move relatively freely. An aquifer that is sandwiched between two

impermeable layers that block the flow of water is called a confined or

artesian aquifer. An imaginary line, representing the piezometric surface, can

be used to represent the height to which water would rise in a well that


penetrates the aquifer. The recharge for an aquifer is where precipitation

infiltrates the ground to replenish the water flowing through the aquifer.

Covering with pavements and parking lots blocks the infiltration process and

reduces the amount of water that can be withdrawn from the aquifer

Wells

The most common method for withdrawing ground water is to penetrate the

aquifer with a vertical well and then pump the water up the surface. Wells

may be constructed in a variety of ways depending on the depth and nature

of the aquifer. A dug well is a shallow excavation up to about 10 m (30 ft)

deep. It is generally lined with stones or masonry to support the side walls.

Figure 1.1 Dug well


A well point ( Figure 1.2) is a section of perforated pipe with an internal

screen and a point on the power en. Constructed in soft soils by driving a well

point into the ground up to about 20 m ( 65 ft.)

Figure 1.2 point well (source: activerain.com)

The most commonly used, Deep wells, Figure 1.3, for public water supplies

with depth of more then 30 m. (100 ft.) can penetrate aquifers with more

dependable yields of water and better water quality then shallower wells.

Deep wells are 100 to 300 mm ( 4 to 6 in.) drilled using percussion or rotary

drilling techniques and are lined with metal pipe, called casing. The annular

space around the casing is filled with cement grout. The casing and grout

serve to seal off poor quality water coming from the surface and upper soil

layer, protecting the well from contamination. A sanitary seal is installed at

the top of the casing with a well number identifying the well company with ID


plate number and ministry well tag number. Unfortunately not all wells are

constructed with seal-off top and it explains why many wells end up with

coliforms from surface water.

Well drilling requirements is regulated by the New Brunswick ”Clean Water

Act” . A licensed well driller must comply with minimum well construction and

location requirements as specific in the “Water Well Regulation” under the”

Clean Water Act”. Mandatory testing for water quality of all newly drilled or

re-drilled well in NB was introduced under the “Potable Water Regulation” in

1994.

Inorganic and bacteriological test are required. In-organic components such

as: total hardness, alkalinity, calcium, chloride, copper, fluoride, iron,

potassium, magnesium, manganese, sodium, nitrite, lead, sulfate, antimony,

arsenic, boron and zinc. Bacteriological testing looks for the presence of total

coliforms and faecal coliforms.

The contractor will attach a sequentially numbered permanent identification

tag to the completed well. This well tag number is also recorded on the

testing voucher along with the NB GIS property Identification number, PIN.

When the well construction and plumbing is complete and the well has

experience some normal usage, the well owner is responsible to collect the


sample. This sampling is mandatory, and must be done within 12 months of

the well construction. The samples and the voucher are then returned to the

office where the bottles were picked up. Usually at the Service of New

Brunswick, SNB. The samples are forwarded to the department of

Environment Analytical Services Laboratory. The results of the analysis are

interpreted by Department of Health and Community Services and returned

to the well owner by mail.

Figure 1.3 Diagram of a water table well (Source bhomes.org)


Communicable and non-communicable diseases

Communicable diseases are caused by microbes include bacteria, protozoa

and viruses. Water contaminated domestic waste water is generally the

most common cause of intestinal diseases. The pathogens are excreted in

feces of infected people. Symptoms of intestinal diseases include diarrhea,

vomiting, nausea and fever also include typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera,

infection hepatitis and gastroenteritis.

Generally, the contamination is caused by cross-connection in the water

distribution system witch may allow back flow of waste water into drinking

water supply, inadequate well construction, and surface water wells.

Preventing the spread of disease and protecting the health of general

population is the goal of environmental technology and public health . The

application of basic sanitary principles and environmental technology have

eliminated serious outbreaks of water related diseases

Non infectious diseases

Public health problems related to environmental pollution are considered to

be the result of contaminated of water, food, and air with toxic chemicals.

Group of substances known as the heavy metals are notorious in this regard.

Diseases may take years to develop and can involve chronic or long lasting


health problems. Various synthetic organic substances cause this type of

problem and some are considered to be carcinogenic, having the potential to

cause cancer to humans.

Lead is one of the heavy metals involved in non-infectious diseases. Lead

poisoning can lead to blindness, kidney disease, and mental retardation,

particularly in children. Lead is cumulative in human tissue and can built up

to toxic levels over time. St-Francois pre-school in Edmundston New

Brunswick was closed down in 1998 after James Landry, a concern

environment technologist, tested his son’s school water for lead. After

several testing and pressure on the city of Edmundston and the school district

# 3, the school was closed. The plumbing of the school and the main water

valved all were constructed with lead components. In Noah’s days, it was a

common practice in municipals water distribution system and many of them

are still in operation today.

Mercury is an other heavy metal associated with environmental pollution and

non infectious illness. Waste water mercury compounds discharged in

streams, rivers, lakes and ocean can be ingested by people who eat

contaminated fish. Research led to the discovery that certain microorganisms

can cause the metallic mercury to combine with other substances in the

water, forming harmful mercury compounds such as methyl-mercury.

Microscopic organisms plankton ingested this substance, little fish ate the


plankton, bigger fish ate the smaller fish and finally people ate contaminated

fish and were ill by toxic methyl-mercury. Mercury and Lead are not the only

harmful chemical substances that become environmental pollutants when

poorly managed or controlled. Pesticide kepone. PCB, poly-chlorinated bi-

phenyl, this oily substance widely used in electrical transformers, coolants,

paints and many other products, persists in the environment because it is non

biodegradable and have accumulated in the bottom deposits of rivers and

lakes and many species are contaminated with it. Environmental pollution

with harmful chemicals are part of our daily problems and are now referred

to as hazardous waste disposal.

Coliforms Bacteria

Total coliforms tests are used for potable water supplies. Fecal coliforms, E

Coli, are also found in untreated water, waste water, bathing water and

swimming water. The presence of coliforms in a distribution system can

result from inadequately treated source water, with allows total coliforms to

pass through the treatment system into the distribution system

What is E Coli,

Escherichia coli, is a bacterium commonly found in the gut of warm blooded

organisms. Several types of E. Coli exist as part of the normal flora of the

human gut. Most strains pose no harm to human health, except for the


stereotype 0151:H7, which can cause food poisoning in human. A healthy

adult will usually make full recovery from E. coli 0157:H7 infection within 5 to

7 days . However, young children, elderly and patients with weakened

immune systems can develop potentially fatal HUS ( demolytic uremic

syndrome), a type of kidney failure. Person infected with E. coli 0157:H7 will

experience symptoms within three to four days after being exposed to the

bacteria and in some cases the may appear within a day or a week later.

! Abdominal pain first symptom is severe abdominal cramping that

comes suddenly

! Diarrhea- a few hours after sudden abdominal pain the patient has

wetter diarrhea. A day later there may be bright red bloody stools,

caused by sores in the intestines.

! Nausea

! Vomiting- some patients will not vomit

! Fever, not that many people infected may not have fever

! Fatigue- diarrhea causes loss of fluids and electrolytes ( dehydration)

making patient fell sick and tired


Many infected people have no noticeable symptoms. However, they are

capable of spreading the infection to others.

The 0157:H7 E.Coli, produces a potent toxin, the Shiga toxin, that is harmful

for the lining of the small intestine and human can become infected by

! Ingesting contaminated water, swimming pools, some lakes and

private wells and even tap water

! Ingesting contaminated food: ground beef, unpasteurized milk, fresh

vegetables, even infected people who work in restaurant and no not

wash their hands properly after going to the toilet, hotel phone and TV

remote control, door handles and groceries shopping cart handles can

spread the infection to customers and other members staff.

! Physical contact with infected person

! Contacts with animals it may not only occur in farm but in zoos or

country fairs.

! High fiber diets, researcher from the Uniformed Services University of

the Health Sciences reported in the Proceedings of the National

Academy of Sciences (PNAS) ( May 2013 issue) that people on high


fiber diets have higher risk of harboring E. coli bacteria and suffering

the consequences of 0157:H7 infection and severe disease. The

authors reported that ” dietary choice affects Shiga toxin-producing

Escherichia coli .

Prevention to E. coli Cook meal well especially ground meat

1. Drink pasteurized milk, apple juice or cider

2. Wash vegetables thoroughly especially leafy green ones might not

protect you completely but it will help.

3. Wash cutlery and crockery, knives, forks, plates and serving dishes,

with warm soapy water.

4. Store food separately, use separate cutting board and do not store raw

ground beef right next to other foods.

5. Wash hands thoroughly with warm water and soap after going to the

toilet, before preparing foods, after preparing foods and after touching

animals. Wash your hands regularly in hot water and detergent.

6. Thoroughly rinse with hot tap water, followed by distilled water rinse


to make sure that all detergent is removed

7. Steaming glass and autoclavable plastic containers at 121*C for 15

minutes. Glass sample containers may be sterilized by hot air at

170*C for one hour.

8. Store sterile containers tightly capped in clean environment until

needed.

Sampling should be properly carried out to insure the seasonal variances and

that results are representatives of the sample source.

Sufficient volume of sample should be collected for analysis. This usually

means at least 100 ml of sample. World Health Organization guidelines

prescribe 200 ml per sample while Standard Methods for Examination of

Water and Wastewater guidelines prescribe 100 ml per sample.

Samples should arrive at testing facility within 24 hours after collection. In

warm climates, the samples must be packed in a freezing mixture to maintain

the sample temperature between 4 and 10 /C. Coolers with ice freeze pack

are usually sufficient.

Collect 100 ml of samples and do not fill completely. Maintain at least 2.5 cm


for mixing samples prior to analysis.

Collect representatives samples by allowing water to run from faucet, hydrant

or pump at a moderate rate without splashing, for two to three minutes before

sampling. Reduce the rate of flow before sampling.

Dechlorinating agent should be used with potable water samples.

Dechlorinating agent will not interfere with unchlorinated samples so, for

simplicity, plastic bags or bottles, containing dechlorinating agent may be

used for all samples. Sodium thiosulfate is generally used to destroy chlorine

residual.

On site testing

A certain number of parameters as the pH, the conductivity, the dissolved

oxygen, the temperature and the turbidity need to be tested on site . In-situ,

means directly into the aquatic. The on site testing for those parameters

needs to be taken each time possible and directly into the body of water if

possible if not a sample will be taken to take those reading with specific

reading instruments and probes

pH reading

pH are taken with a pH meter and it is the level of acidity or alcalinity of the


solution. The neutral solution have pH of 7 while the acid solution will have

a pH lower then 7 and alcaline solution a pH of 7-14 .

There are many types of ph portable pH meters on the market today. There

is anologic pH testers who can be difficult to read from boats with trouble

waters and numeric that are more likely to be used.

Each time pH testing are to be planned. Careful calibration verification is a

must . It is also important to document the calibration and any adjustments

needed every time the unit is used. Those re-calibration also needs to be

done on site with known tampon solutions. The calibration

Conductivity

The term conductivity is a term witch refers to the ability of a material to carry

an electric current. Liquids witch carries an electric current generally referred

to as electrolytic conductors. The conductivity of a solution will change with

the change of temperature. So conductivity measuring is conducted with a

temperature reference. The calibration of the meter is also done prior the

sampling and on-site.


Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved Oxygen testing is also done In-situ. The portable DO (Dissolved

Oxygen) meter consist of a handheld unit, LCD display, keypad with tactile

and audible feedback, an electrode with an electrode holder.

The electrode holder is designed with a chamber at the bottom to hold a

cotton bal which has been saturated with water or dissolved water

Sampling Surface water

Today not many freshwater are left today that are fit to be called fresh. All

evidence indicates that life originated in water. And it is established fact that

all life must have water to survive. Water is ma’s most important asset. It

affects his cultural and his social life, his industry, his agriculture, his leisure

and his war. The difference between water and most other liquids is probably

basic to our existence. Most other liquids are heaviest (densest) at their

freezing points, and sink as the freeze. Water, how ever, is densest a few

degrees above its freezing point (about 4°C). This dense water sinks and the

lighter frozen water (ice) floats. Aquatic life can thus continue under the ice.

The ice also insulates the water below it, preventing from freezing. Lakes,

ponds, streams and rivers are unlike any other. Not only are the physical and

chemical factors different, but so are the particular plant and animal

communities. Each is a separate ecosystem with its own peculiarities.


The test for dissolved oxygen(D.O.) Is probably the most important test to

determining water quality. The carbon dioxide content of water is important

from and economic viewpoint, since this gas contributes to several forms of

corrosion. Biologically, a concentration of carbon dioxide greater then 25

ppm can be lethal to aquatic animals. Further, a high carbon dioxide

concentration is usually a accompanied by a low D.O. The pH, the alkalinity,

the total hardness (T.H.), total suspended solids(T.S.S.) Total dissolved

solids (T.D.S.), turbidity, the conductivity the transparency, the color, the

temperature, velocity of flow and the volume of flow all must be tested on site.

The transparency of water indicates the amount of suspended matter in water

and can be obtained with a Secchi Disc. Figure 1.4

Figure 1.4: A Secchi disc.

This is a metal disc, 20 cm in diameter and divided in four quarters, 2 which

are white and 2 black. Several kind of information can be gathered with the

disc: a rough measure of the suspended matter: the depth of the reflected

light penetration: and a rough estimate of the extent of the littoral zone.


To obtain a Secchi disc reading, lower, lower the disc into the water, in the

shade, until it disappears. Take a depth measurement at this point. Then

raise the disc until it reappears. Take another depth measurement. The two

measurement are average. This process is repeated three times and the

overall average is considered to be the proper Secchi disc reading.

By looking through a glass bottomed bucket, much better measurements can

be made since surface distortions are eliminated as shown in figure 1.5

Air sampling

There are two different approaches for sampling and measuring air

pollutants.

1. Sampling and analysis of surrounding “outdoor” or ambient air quality.

2. Sampling and analysis of specific emissions at their point of

generation. Source sampling or emissions analysis.

Ambient Air Quality

Collected from the open atmosphere, after pollutants from various sources


have been dispersed and mixed together under natural meteorological

conditions. It provides air quality data for urban or rural areas and a basis

for developing and updating ambient air quality standards. It also provides

data to determine if established standards are met or exceeded. Ambient air

quality can also be done inside infrastructures to determine indoor air quality

for workers. It is important that the sampling duration and location be

representative of the particular study area and type of pollutant being

examined.

Source Sampling

Sources or emissions sampling are performed right at the point of pollutant

discharged. It is often called Stack sampling at power plants or industrial

facilities where discharge is from a chimney, Purposes of emissions sampling

are to provide data for designing and operating air cleaning equipment and

to measure the working efficiency of that equipment.

For accurate results, stack sampling must be isokinetic; collected by a probe

at the same rate which that gas leaves the stack. The equipment used for the

purpose is called a sampling train, and it includes several interconnected


devices. The basic components are a pitot-tube probe, a vacuum pump to

pull the sample out of the a stack, a flow meter, and a meter to measure the

weight or mass of the specific pollutant in the sample. The temperature of the

gas must also be determined.

Indoor Air Quality

Up until recently, little attention has been given to air pollutants in homes.

Indoor air quality and the nature of residential pollutants differ from those

major concern in the outdoor air or workplace. Since people spend much of

their time at home, indoor air quality can have a significant effect on health.

A factor that makes indoor air pollution a more significant problem now than

it was in the past is the recent trend toward complete insulation of buildings

and homes for energy conservation. Recently, the ventilation of an average

home due to leakage has been reduced from about one air change per hour

to about 0.25 changes per hour. This decrease in ventilation means that

people are being exposed to staler and possibly more polluted air.

Two major ambient pollutants, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide, are

also of concern indoors. The highest levels of these pollutants seem to

accumulate in the kitchens of well-insulated houses, often exceeding the

outdoor concentrations. Two different gaseous substances that particularly

affect indoor air quality are radon and formaldehyde. Radon gas is produced

continuously from radioactive decay of radium, witch is a natural trace


element in most rock and soil. Building materials, including concrete and

brick, as well as the earth foundation itself, are a source of radon gas. Indoor

levels of this gas, a suspected carcinogen, are usually higher than outdoor

levels.

Formaldehyde is found in foam insulation, carpets, drapes, and other

household items. It is also used in plywood and particle-board bonding

agents. In addition to causing nausea, respiratory irritation, and other effects,

it is suspected of causing more serious long-term problems, such as cancer.


Carbon Monoxide

The most dangerous gas most of us will ever face is carbon monoxide (CO).

Not normally occurring in nature, this gas is the result of oxygen-starved

combustion from improperly ventilated fuel-burning motors and appliances.

! Oil and gas furnaces

! Gas water heaters or gas ovens as or kerosene space heaters

Fire places and wood stoves !

Older autos without catalytic converters !

Too much carbon monoxide in an unventilated space is deadly. In fact,

carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal poisoning

worldwide. This is why many new homes are built with CO detectors in

addition to smoke detectors

Figure 1.6: Source of carbon

monoxide in homes


Table 1.0: Percentage of Carbon monoxide and typical symptoms

Percentage of CO in Blood Typical Symptoms

< 10 None

10-20 Slight headache

21-30 Headache, slight increase inrespirations, drowsiness

31-40 Headache, impaired judgment,shortness of breath, increasingdrowsiness, blurring of vision

41-50 Pounding headache, confusion, markedshortness of breath, markeddrowsiness, increasing blurred vision

> 51 Unconsciousness, eventual death ifvictim is not removed from source of CO

Adapted from Gilman AG (2002). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 10th ed., p.

1881. New York: McGraw-Hill.


Particulate air Pollutants

Today we have several methods to measure air particulate. Gravity

technique, filtration technique and inertial technique.

Gravity technique is the simplest method, but can only measure the amount

of settleable particulate, dust and fly ash in the air. A simple device called a

dust-fall bucket has been used for this purpose. The open bucket, containing

water to trap and hold particles, is left exposed in a suitable location, often on

a building rooftop. After a collection period of 30 days, the water is

evaporated and the dust is weighted. The results can be express in grams per

square meter per month or as tons per square mile per month.

Filtration technique is used when particles are too small to settle out of the air

by gravity.

Figure 2.1: A common filtration apparatus

called high volume sampler.

( General Metal Inc. Anderson Samplers Inc.)


Paper tape sampler is another filtration type instrument used to collect and

measure suspended particulate. Sampling durations with this device are

relatively short, typically two hours. A vacuum pump pulls the air stream

through a filter tape, which moves automatically on a reel, at preset intervals.

Trapped particulate form a dark spot on the tape, and the amount of

particulate correlates with the darkness of the spot. The relative darkness of

the spot is measured by an optical device called transmissometer, which

gives a reading in terms of the percentage of light that can pass through the

tape. Final results are then expressed in terms of coefficient of haze (COH).

Figure 2.2: Paper tape sampler.(RAC Division, Anderson Samplers Inc.)


Inertial technique makes uses of an obstacle placed in the path of the air

stream. The air flows around the obstacle, but because of inertia, the

particulate collide with it and become trapped in the device. Figure 2.3.

Such device is also called sticky tape sampler. It can be use to collect Total

Suspended Particles, TSP, pollen grain or bacteria.

Figure 2.3: Sticky tape sampler

Smoke reading is a visual evaluation of smoke plumes that are discharged

from stack or chimney are made with a Ringlemann Chart. Figure 2.4, The

density or darkness of the smoke is compared to the five standard shades of

gray on the chart. Ringlemann smoke

readings range from all white (0) to all

black (5). Even though pollutant

concentrations are not necessarily

correlated exactly with the shade or

darkness of a smoke plume, Ringlemann

readings are a value in monitoring air

pollution, and some air quality regulations

are still based on smoke density.

Figure 2.4: Ringlemann smoke chart. ( Plibrico Company Illinois)


Conclusion

We all can take samples but taking reliable environmental samples is a

difficult process. Specific needs will dictate which special techniques will be

incorporated in the sampling plans. Generally, the objective is to take

representative samples in order to analyze for components that constitute a

very tiny fraction of the samples and once the sample taken, other

interferences can be introduced during transport or preservation.

The following three requirements are acceptable sampling programs.

1. A proper design that takes into account the goals of the study

2. Instructions for sample collection, labeling, preservation, and transport

to the analytical facilities

3. Trained personnel in the sampling techniques and procedures

specified

These three suggestions also need to be written in detailed protocols in a

quality assurance program (QAP).

We also need to add the two aspects of quality assurance of sampling: quality

control and quality assessment. Quality control includes the application of

good laboratory practices, good measurements practices, and standard

operations procedures designed for sampling. The quality assessment

depends largely on monitoring for adherence to the protocols.

Periodic review in any monitoring program is critical in the quality

assessment of the sampling operation and audits are the best means to

accomplish this purpose.



References

1. Handbook for Sampling and sample preservation of water and Waste Water. U.S.

Environmental Protection Angency 1982 EPA -600/4-82-029 Addendum 1983

2. Annual Book of ASTM Standard: American Society for testing

3. Basic Environmental Technolgy . Jerry Nathanson 1986.

4. Guide d’ Echantillonnage pour la qualité de l’eau Environnement Canada Directeur de la

qualité des eaux Ottawa 1983 isbo 0662-92513-0.

5. Manuel de Cour : Technologie de l’environnement CCNB Bathurst. New Brunswick

Michel Blais. 1992

6. HACH Company. Instruction manual HACH company 1985

7. Standard Methods for examination of water and waster water 22 edition American Publicnd

Health Association. Washington DC 20001-3710. 2012


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The Principle of Environmental Sampling Guide Practicum James Landry 2014

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