The Productivity and Public Health Considerations of the Urban Women's Daytime Subsistence Fishery...

8/7/2019 The Productivity and Public Health Considerations of the Urban Women's Daytime Subsistence Fishery Off Suva Pe

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The Productivity and Public HealthConsiderations of the Urban Women's DaytimeSubsistence Fishery Off Suva Peninsula, Fiji

N. J. Quinn and M. Tina DavisDepartment of Biology

The University of the South PacificSuva, Fiji

ABSTRACTInterviews of artisanal women fishers, working during daylight hours,around the apex of the Suva Peninsula, Viti Levu, Fiji were conducted fromlate April to July 1996 and repeated in December of 1996. The sand flatsof this region support a subsistence fishery that is an important source offresh marine food for many low income families around metropolitan Suva.Recreational fishing and invertebrate collecting is common. The fisherwomen interviewed considered the diversity of the edible assemblagearound the Suva Peninsula to be greater than that of other nearby flats.Kaikoso (Anadara antiquata) and Kuku (Modiolus agripetus) were thedominant and subdominant shellfish catch. Kabatia (Lethrinus harak) wasthe most common fin fish caught by hand line followed by Matu (Getesoyenana), Qitawa (Therapon jarbua), Ose (Mulloidichthys samoensis), andless frequently Saqa (Caranx sp.) and Saku (Agrioposphyraena barraada).Nuqa (Siganus vermiculafzs) was the most common caught using hand netor by hand alone. The mean CPUE in April was 0.6 kg hr -t for fishers and1.1 kg hr -t for gleaners. The July and December surveys focused on inver-tebrate gleaning and estimated a consistent CPUE of 1.1 kg hr't forl.antiquata and 0.4 kg hrt ard 0.5 kg hr-t respectively for ivt. agripetus. InJuly, these two species represented '78%io of the 5421 invertebrateindividuals collected while in December, their tally came to 86% of the5,238 individuals collected. Survey results suggest that at least 70 differentwomen per week employ this resource providing seafood for an estimated300 to 500 people. The number of people supported by this small stretch ofS. Pac. J. Nat. Sci., 1997, L5,63 - 92 63


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coastal area is comparable to the populatioru on many small island villagecommunities. Shell deformities, consistent with butlytin contamin:ltiorLwere recently noted in 66Vo of a sample of A. antiquata collected from oneof the Laucala Bay study sites. The authors express concern that TBT pol-lution may now be directly affecting this fishery. Research in this area isongoing.INTRODUCTIONSuva Peninsula lies on the southern tip of the Fijian island of Viti Levu.The peniruula covers 15 km2 and includes the capital of Fiji, Suva (Fig. l).The city was founded more than 110 years ago and has grown to the pre-sent metropolitan population of more than 160,000 people (Naidu andMorrisoq 1994) with an estimated arurual grorvth rate of 3.4% (Naidu efal.,l99l). Suva is a multi-racial, multi-cultural city populated mainly byFijians and Indo-Fijians, with some Chinese, other Pacific Islanders, and afew Europeans.The protected shores around the Suva Peninsula consists of soft, silty tofine sand flats stabilized by the sea grasses Syringodium isoetifolium[(Ascherson) Dandy, 19391, Halodule uninen,is [(Forskil) Ascherson,18821, and H. nrinor [(Z6llinger) den Hartog, 1957], (Penn, 1981, Mortoq1990; Penn and Ryland, 1995). Suva Ha,rbour has semi-diunr.rl tides with arange of 0.9 m at neap tides and 1.3 nt at spring tides. Typically the flats areexposed during daylight for tluee to five hous. The nungrove communitiesthat once lined muclt of the shore have been reduced (Naidu et al., l99I). Achannel separates the sard flat from an intertidal coral reef community andthe open sea. A boat is required to transverse the clurmel, and consequentlygleaners use the reef less frequertly. However, the reef flat does sustain animportant sea urchin (Tripneustes gratilla, Liruraeus, 1758) (Gounder,1995) nd sea cucurnber fishery. The rvidth of the sand flat ranges from100 to 350 rn for a distance of approxirnatcly -1.-5 knt frorn Suva Cityaround the tip of the peniusula to Laucala Bay. The coastal biota of theSuva Peninsula intertidal area is knorvn to be nch and diverse (Mortorq1990, Zann.1994).

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Figure 1: Map of Suva Peniruula and surrounding locations.

o)(,t

?5(r- \ r"'LVmiDtv '-aISuva Harbour i=l^/N r'--'.!et '1 fr)L& tu \ Laucala Baykm

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Marine resources used by urban populations in the South Pacific areinfrequently studied. A rntable exception was the recent study of the Kai(Batissa violacea, Lamarch 1806) fishery (Naqasim4 1996). A householdsurvey of the fishing patterns of a squatter settlement on Laucala Bay nearSuva Point did not include a quantitative survey of the fishery fliraa-Passfield, 1995). Turara (1995) suggested that a lack of analytical gerder-specific information has worked to inhibit development opportunities ofwomen in the fisheries sector.This study provides quantitative information on a women's fishery neces-sary for the improvement of the management of coastal fisheries. Wespecifically sought to:- determine the intensity of daytime usage of the sand flats,- identi$ species commonly caught- quanti! catch rates,- establish resource usage patterns,- observe and record any possible indications of pollutioq- record biological and folk knowledge,- note conservation practices.MATERIALS AND METHODSThe daytime artisanal fishers of the intertidal areas around the SuvaPenirsula were interyiewed on three separate occasiorn. For tlrc first set ofinterviews people fishing betrveen Leveti Creek and Corpus ChristiTeachers Training College (CCT[C) were interviewed on l8 days at vary-ing times of the day and plnses of the tide from 29 April to 7 June 1996(referred to as May sampling). A total of 39 intenyiews were conductedeither along the coastal road or on the intertidal flat. The July survey wasconducted between 12 - l8 July inclusive, and represented the cool season.A total of 63 surveys were completed from 86 collectors interviewed.Finally, frorn 9 - 16 December 1996, 5l interviervs were completed, thissurvey represented the hot, wet seasorl We refer to all activities as fishingwhether the women were collecting invertebrates or fishing for fin fishDuring the sunreys the numbers of fisher women and their activities wererecorded. People were interviewed regarding their primary purpose forfishing, period of fishing, frequenry of fishing efforts, family size, living66


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locatioq fishing methods, method of preparing the catch for consumptiorqand biological knowledge of the catch. During the May interviews the catchweight was visually estimated to the nearest 500 g. Larger animals werecounted. Samples of species were takeq weighed and identified. Althoughfew of the women had watches, we felt that they could easily judge howlong they had been fishing within the three broad categories presented. Thecategories represented less than a tidal phase, a low tidal period, and a fullday. For the CPUE calculations two, four and six hours were used respec-tively. The gleatest error would occur in the calculation of fisher womenwho had been out for only one hour, but their duration of fishing wouldhave been considered as two hours. This error is considered relatively rare.The second and third surveys applied more field assistants, used teamswhich iniluded female Fijian speakers, and precisely determined thefishing duration. The area frorn the Universiy of the South Pacific MarineStudies jetty, around the apex of the Suva Peninsula, up to the SuvaBowling Club, was divided into four study sub-areas (Fig. 1); Study Site I= 0.371 kmz, II = 0.228 kmz, III : 0.718 kmz, IV = 0.204 kmz. These siteswere delineated by convenient geographical features and not designed tohave similar area. These surveys focused on the productivity of only inver-tebrate gleaning. The teams worked for a duration of four hours encom-passing low tide. The July and December surveys ran for 7 consecutivedays, with "Day l" of each survey having a late morning low tide. Boththe July and December tealls experienced fine weather during tl.re entiresurvey.Fishen were interviewed when seen to fint enter a-n assigned area. Eachteam timed and observed each fisher in their area and after determining thatthe fisher had worked for one hour the catch was counted, identified, andmeasured. A field measuriug grid was used to categorise shellfish into oneof eight "field size" ranges. Each grid corsisted of eight ovals of specificlengths; size I : 2.5 crn. in length and so ory in 0.5 cm increments, up tosize 8 = 6.0 cm. The rare individual shellfish too large to fit tluough a sizeeight oval rvas classified as a size 9. Weighing each individual item andmeasuring using callipers while in the field rvas considered too timecorsuming. Not all interviews itritiated were contpleted, i.e. conducting afield "count and measure" ofcatchSize ranges and field couuts per species were converted to mean weightusing a laboratory determined conversion factor. A random sample ofAnadara antiquata (Limaeus, 1758) (n:130) rvas clealed and weighed in

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the lab and a mean total body weight per field size calculated. The catch perunit of effort in kg (CPUE) was determined using this total body weight.

RESULTSDemographic details and utilisationThe May survey totalled 39 interviews conducted of 30 different women.Not all women answered all questions. Although men have been seen onthe flat, none were present during the interview period. At night, primarilymen and young boys used pressure lamps and torches to illuminate theirfishing activities. This use of the intertidal flat was not included in thisstudy. During weekdays men fish around Suva Peninsula primarily fromboats. On weekends some men were seen out on the sand flats. Owing tothe dfficulty of surveying people in boats, they have been excluded fromtlis sunrey.Fijian women and their children were the primary fishers. These womencommonly went out around low tide in groups of two to five, rarely alone,to fish and./or gather invertebrates and/or algae. Pre-teenage daughters andyoung children commonly accompanied their mothers.Fishers were from over l9 communities around Suva and fished primarilyfor food for their extended farnily. Some came from as far away asDelairnvesi about 3.5 km away. A frequent comrnent was that tlre varietyof edible species at Suva Peninsula rvas uot found elsewhere nearty.Most of the women (55%) interviewed in the May survey had families ofsix or more people and could not afford to buy seafood at the market. Thecatch (fin fish and inverlebrates) was usually (67%o of the tirne) consumedby the family and was often shared with friends or neighbours. The Julysurvey revealed that over 760/o of respondents had families of five orgreater, the mean fzunily size iu December was. six. From this informationthe mean extended firmily size of Suva Penirxula artisanal fishers wasjudged to be approxirnately six people zutd considered a comervative esti-mate of the uumber of people fed frorn each catch.The women reported that the seafood was commonly cooked in coconutmilk (/o/o). A few species such as Kaikoso (A. antiquata), and Dairo

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(Holothuria fuscopundata, Iaeger, 1833) were consumed raw after beingmarinated with citrus juice and chillies. Cassava or Taro (Dalo) accom-panied the meals. Naqasima (1996), found E colj levels inA. antiquatafrom Laucala Bay to be in excess of intematiorurl safefy standards for fecalcoliforms in edible shellfish, (Naidu et al., L99L). Where the accepted safelimits is considered 2.3 MPN g' fresh weight Naqasima (1996) recorded l0MPN g-t fresh weight (samples collecred 1986 - 1988). In September 1996,Laucala Bay samples of A. antiquata and Modiolus agripetus, (Lamarck,l80l) were collected from study site II (Fig. l) and assayed forfecalcoliforms (@ 44.5oC) at the U.S.P. - Institute of Applied Science. Tlte A.antiquata assay found an acceptable fecal colifonn level of 2 MPN g-t butthe M. agripetus exceeded by ten times the safe limit of E. coli or 23 MPNg-t. Fortunately, none of the women interviewed during this survey report-ed any illness associated with the shellfish they collected.Although most of the fisher wolnen were there to collect food, everyoneinterviewed said that they enjoyed fishing. During the school holidays afew teachers came to do some recreational fishing. On Saturdays and publicholidays most of the people were out for recreatiorurl fishing. Sunday wasa day of rest and it rvas rare for women to go fishing.Most of the access to the marine resource was at low tide by foot.Occasionally women hired a rvooden boat from one of trvo Indo-Fijian fam-ilies at a rate of $6 day-t (July 1996) to paddle out into the clrarurel. Boatswere slured by two to four people. When high tides occurred in the rniddleof the day in tlrc weekend, people contmorily fished fronr tlrc sea rvall.Only 13% of the rvomen from the May survey repofted that they sold atleast part of their catch. The overwhelming primary coucem of collectorsduring the July and December surveys was sustenance and not commercialactivities. Kabatia (Lethrinus harok, Bleeker, 1876), Kaikoso (A.antiquata), and Mudra (Stichopus variegatus, Semper, 1868) horvever arecommonly observed for sale at the rnarket. Groups of five or six Kabatia(L. harak) (25 - 30 crn total length) sell for $F2. A fwo kilogram bag ofKaikoso (A. antiquata) shellfish sells for $F2.-50. lt4udra (5. variegatus) areparticularly sought by Chinese and sold for $F0.-50 to $2 each (October1996), dependiug upou size and quality.

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al

Duration of fishing effortFor most women the fishing usually only occurs for a few hours per dayand perhaps only a couple of days per week between other activities andresponsibilities. The duration of each actual fishing trip ranged from one toeight hours. Preparation time and travel time were not considered.During the May survey the mean number of people observed fishing (finfishing as well as invertebrate collecting) in non rainy weather, fromMonday to Saturday, was 15.8 people. A maximum of 24 people wereobserved at any one time; approximately 47o/o of the fisher women stayedout for tluee to five hours *hile another 35olo remained fishing for five toseven hours. As expected, in rainy weather fewer people were out (mean2.5 people). It is estimated that in non-rainy conditions, and inclusive ofthose fishers likely to be fishing at all times, a mean of 20 people use themarine resources around Suva Perfnsula daily. The frequency that womenfished ranged from once a month to four days a week. About 53% of thewomen fished at least oue or two days a week (Table l).The time that fin fishing and collecting cornmences is dependent upon tidesand weather. However, even if the tides and weather are perfect early in themoming no women are seen out before 8:30 am on weekdays. Generallymore rvomen were out in the afternoon than in the moming, with a slightdecrease around lunch time. Preferred times for fin fishing and gleaningdiffered. Gleaning could be done only while the sand flats were exposed,four to five hours around lorv tide. Fin fishing occurs any time except dur-ing trvo to tfuee hours arouud the high tide when it was too deep to wade inthe water. Since the boat hire location was at the mouth of a creek, peoplehiring boats went out independent oftidal conditions.EquipmentThe equipment used rvas simple and inexpensive. Monofilament lines andhooks of various sizes were used for fin fishing. The line was woundaround a small jar or bot0e. A sma-ll bag or bucket for carrying bait and aknife and a larger one for the catch and personal belongings were carried.For gleaning only a knife and plastic bags were used. Occasionally a smallhand net was used to catch fish or slrirnps for bait. Animals used as baitincluded earthwomrs, shrinrp, slnall fish Imackerel from the market orearlier catclt of Matu (G. oyenana), or Qitawa (7. jarbua), bivalve shells[especially Ka i ko so (A. an t i q u a t a) ], opisthobranclu, or polychaetes.

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tr'ishing techniquesThe best fishing sites were on the edge of the channel. To get there thewomen waded out into waist deep water. The hook was baited and the linecast to drift in the current. Eight species were caught (Table 2). The catchwas placed in a bag and cleaned on shore. On an incoming tide small fishsuch as Nuqa (5. vermiculatus), and Ose (Mulloidichthys samoensis) werecaught with a hand net by sitting in the water and holding the net into thecurrent at a steep angle. When fish were observed in the net it was lifted outof the water and its contents emptied into a bag.The most efficient method to collect the intertidal invertebrates was towade through the sand with bare feet and feel for the catch. To avoid cuts,many wore shoes and used their hands or a knife to search the sand.Fourteen species of shellfish were commonly caught this way (Table 3).The catch was then dug out by hand and carried in plastic bags. Driftingalgae fLumicevata (Hypnea nidifica, J. Agardh, 1847)1, sea hares lVeata(Dolabella auricularia) (Lightfoot, 1786)1, certain sea cucumbers fMudra(5. variegatus) andDairo (H. fuscopunctata)|, and crabs [Qari (Thalamitary. or Scylla spp.)l were picked up by hand.Catch speciesKabatia (L. harak) was tlre most conunon fish caught by hand line followedby Matu (Gerres oyenana, Forskil, 1775), Qitawa (Therapon jarbuaForskil, 1775), (Giinther, 1874)1, and less frequenrly Saqa (Caranx sp.) andSaku lAgrioposphl,raena barracada (Walbaun, 17921. Nuqa (5. vermicula-firs) was the most corlmon using a hand net or by hand followed by Ose(M. samoensis). Kabatia (L. harak) caught ranged from 13 - 30 cm in totallength Matu (G. oyenana) and Qitawa (7. jarbua) were srnaller while Saqa(Caranx sp.) was between 20 - 25 cm and Saku Q4. barracuda) between 25- 40 cm. Smaller individuals were most common. According to the women,larger individuals were caught in February and March. Nuqa (5. vermicula-lus), and Ose (M. samoensis) ranged in size from 9 - l5 cnr, and I I - 14 cnUrespectively.Of the six species of bivalve shells collected, the most common wereKaikoso (A. antiquata) and Kuku (M. agripetus) and represented over 95oZof the catch from the May survey, 78Yo of the July survey, and 86olo inDecember. Kaikoso (A. antiquata) and Veata (D. auricularia) were thepreferred species of many women. Of the 2057 individuals of l. antiquata

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{ Table 1: Frequerrcy of fishing / collecting.NMay data includes fin fishing and invertebrate collecting.July and December data includes only invertebrate collecting.

Frequency offishing activity NumberoffishersMavo/oM"y Number offishersJulv

%July Number offishersDecembero/oDecember Totalnumber Total%

l-2 davs month't 6 33 29 51 l5 29 50 42l -2 davs week -l 8 44 l9 33 l8 35 45 403-4 days week -t 4 22 9 16 4 8 t7 l5

(n = respondents to this question; May n = 57; December n = 37),

Table 2: Fijian, English and Latin names of finfish and fishing technique.Fiji name English name Latin name Fishing methodKabatia Empcror Lethrinus harak(Bleeker,1876) hook & lineMatu Silver-biddy Gerres oyenana (ForskAl, 1775) hook & lineQilava Crescentperch Theraponjarbua(Forskdl, 1775) hook & lineSaqa Trevally Caranx sp. hooK dg ltneSalcu Barracuda Agrioposphyraena barracuda

(Walbaum,1?92)hook & line

Nuqa Rabbit fish Siganus vermiculatus (Valenciennes, 1835) handnetOse Goatfish lv{ulloidichthyssamoensis(Gtnther,l874) handnet


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Table 3: FijiarL English and Latin names of invertebrates and algal species collected.Classilication Fijian name English name Latin namealgae divisionRHODOPHYTA Lumicevala Maidenhair Hynea nidifica

(J. Agardh, 1847)Lumiwawa Glassweed Grailaria vellucosa

(Hudson) Papenfu ss, 1950Lumilamana Goldenweed Solieria robusla(Greville) Kvlin. 1932

phylum MOLLUSCA-class Gastropoda

- subclassOpisthobranch

- class Bivalvia

Drevula Moon snail Polincies flemingianus(Ricluz. I 844)Lawasa Turban shell Turbo chrystoslomus

(Linnaeus,1758)Gera, Golea Stromb shell Strombus gibberulus

gibbosus(Rdding, 1798)

Sici Trochus Trochus niloticus(Linnaeus,1767)

Tivikea Red-lipped stromb Strombus lunuanas(Linnaeus.1758)

Veata Green sea hare Dolabella auricularia(Lishtfoot.1786)Kaidawa Llard Shell clanr Perigl.y,pla puerpe/0

(Linnaeus, l77l)Kaikoso Arc shell Anadara anliquala

(Linnaeus.1758Kaivadra Liftleneck clam Tapes leterala(Linnaeus.1758)Kuku Mangrove musse I Modiolus aglipetus

(Lamarck, l80l)Qeqe, qaqa,Kaikatadiri

Venus shell Gafrarium lumidum(Rctdine. 1798)

Savulu, kukusau Pinna, sp.

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a

Table 3 continued...

Classilication Fijian name English name Latin namephylum CRUSTACEA

- class Malacostraca Qari Swimmer crab Thalamila spQari Mud crab Scvlla soo.phylum BRACIIIOPODA

- class Inarticulata Ivoce Lamp shell Lingula sp.phylum ECHINODERIT{ATA- Class Holothuroidea Dairo Sea cucumber H o I o Ihu r a fu s c op un c t a ta(Jaecer.1833)

Mudra Sea cucumber Stichopus variegatus(Semoer- 1868)

Vula Brown sandfish Bohadschia mamorata(Jaecer- 1833)

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collected in the July survey 96.Syo ranged 2.5 to 6.0 cm in lengt[ 2.5%were fourd to be in excess of 6 cm (up to 8.3 cm). Rarely were individualsof less than 2.5 cm found. In December, 2160 A. antiquata were collected;98.9% were between2.5 - 6 cm. It is suspected that the larger shells repre-sent the previons year's recruitment. Approximately 99o/o of the 2169 M.agripetus individuals collected during the July survey were 2.5 - 5.0 cmtotal lengtlr" In December, 2356 M. agripetus were collecte d; 95.7%o werefound to measure between 2.5 - 5 cm.The edible body percentage of A. antiquatawas 26.50/o compared with 46%ofor M. agripetus. There was a linear relationship between gross and netweight of A. antiquata and M. agripetus (Figs. 2 and 3), and therefore noratio advantage in collecting only heavier individuals. The amount of edibleflesh increased in direct proportion to toLll weight of shell, although thisrelatiornhip was less defined for M. agripetzs. This was greater than otherMolluscs collected as only rlo/o of Periglypta puerpera (L., r71l) and l9%oof D. auricularia were eaten.Other gastropods collected included the bivalve, Kaiclawa (p. puerpera),and the opisthobranch, veata (D. auricularia). Tltey comrnonly occurredon a big patch of sllt. veata (D. auricularla) rvere usually found in deeperhollows in the sand but came up to graze during low tide. Some womenreported that this happened mainly in the late afternoon around sunset.Veata (D. auricularia) was particularly comrnon and during the Maysurvey it was observed that one weighing approximately 150 g was pickedand cleaned up every 2 - 3 minutes. The foot and some viscera werediscarded. The liver, stomaclq and intestine ? 20 g were separated andsaved for consumption. several womer said that a new individual wouldgrow back from the discarded parts. Although this was considered unlikely,it remairs to be tested. The origin of this folk rvisdom is unknown. It couldbe a modern defensive response to resource use questions from strangers orits origirs may be older. In addition to these species, the wornen said thatthey also cauglrt crabs [Qari (Thalamita sp. and ^S'cyl/a spp.)].Catch Per Unit EffortA random sample of 62 M. agripetus individuars was used to determine therelatiorship of mear weight for each field size: size 6 : 6.6g g, 5 = 5.29 g,4 =4.00 g,3 = 3.51 g,2= t.6l g,l: l.l7 g. No size 9, g, orTwerefoundduring this exercise. The mean weight for eachl. antiquata size class (n:130)was: size 9: 86.84 g,8 :54.63 g7 : 43.14g, 6 : 3t.18 g, 5 :23.95

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-.to) F'igure 2: Net weight of Anadara antiquata as a function of gross weight

Y = 0.289X-1.0689R = 0.7587

o 20 40 60 80 100 120Gross Weight (g)

35

30

25cttEroc',oi ''toz

10

5

0


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4.54

3.5

ED9*,.(= 2.5.9o=2aoz 1.5

1

0.50

Fignre 3: Net rveight of Modiolus agripetus as a function of grossweight.

456Gross Weight (g)!{


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g,4:14.79 g,3=12.09 g,2:7.52 g. Nosizeclass I shellswerefoundduring this exercise. When this exercise was repeated in December forl.antiquata, no size l, 8, or 9 Kaikoso were collected. For calculationsrequiring mean weights for these size ranges the weight for the next size issubstituted. As this involves a very small percentage of the total numberscollected enors introduced because of this are deemed acceptable.The catch per unit effort (CPUE) was based on the total catch in kilogramsper hour of fishing. For women, frn fishing ranged from 0.3 kg hrt to 1.5kg hrt, with a mean of 0.6 kg trpr (C.V. 156%). Several respondentsindicated that they felt that the amount of fish caught iu the areas aroundthe Suva Peninsula had declined over the last tfuee years. They gave noreason for the perceived decline.With a current market value (October 1996) for A. antiquata of F$2.5 kghrt the CPUE of women actively collecting Kaikoso was calculated forJuly as well as December as l.l kg hrr or F$2.68 kg lu-r Only those fish-ers who had gathered more than four individuals of a species were desig-nated to be "actively collecting". Similarly, the CPUE for M. agripetuswas calculated as 0.4 kg lu-t in July and 0.5 kg lrrr in December.DISCUSSIONIt is generally believed that gleaning and in shore hand line fishing aretraditional activities of women in South Pacific societies. Men used big netsor spears and usually fished from boats. However, Tlnnrpson (1940) morethan five decades ago rvrote that the women in the southem Lau islands ofFiji "catch most of the daily supply of fish in nets. Only when fishingbecomes a sport, as in spearing, do men participate." Today men areresponsible for most of the fin fishing in the Lau group (Vuki, pers. comm.)as elsewhere in Fiji (Veitayaki et aI.,1996). Throughout much of Fiji, nowwomen contribute to the village food supply, and eam lnoney, by intertidalcollecting and fishing frorn shore (Chamberlain and Pickering, pers.comm.). These customs and beliefs have been brought to Suva with peoplemigrating to seek employment or to be with farnily.In the drive for economic prosperity, the national govenunerlt has focusedon promoting conunercial activities, such as deep sea fishing, as a means ofbringing in capital for the local economy (Govt. of Fiji, 1993). The belief78


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ivity. South (1993) highlights the importance of the traditional knowledgeof women in the collecting and preparing of edible seaweed. He believesthat the importance of this activity within Fiji's cash economy is under-estimated-and suggests that tlrere should be studies into the sustainability ofthis crop. Similarly, we believe that there should be further workconcerning the sustainability and the effects of pollution on the SuvaPenimula Fijian invertebrate fishery.Studies whose primary focus was subsistence fishing commonly inter-viewed women in their households rather than at the fishing site (Vunisea1995). Beeching (1993), documents temporal and spatial fishing pattemsaround the Suva Peninsula during a two week period in July, but onlyreports on the proportions of male and female fishers. Although theconsequences of such studies may have been to promote the awareness ofthe role of women as fishers, they do little to advance the quantitativeknowledge of either their economic or calorific contributions to thecommunif. The end result is diminished argrunents about the importanceof women's contributions. Without such information a biased view ofwomen's contributions will continue; i.e. women's fishing is primarily ahobby, merely providing variety to a diet that is dortrinated by food caughtby men.Turara (1995) suggests that tlrc paucity ofdetailed analytical gender-specif-ic catch infonnation functions to further inlfbit developrrrent opportunitiesof women within the fisheries sector. By not compiling quantitative gender-specific information about subsistence fisheries econornic plamers missviewing women as stakeholders. This, in addition to cultural factors, func-tions to preclude women from receiving adequate representation andexclude them frorn the development processes.The dominance of women in the Fijian Melanesian culture of near shorefisheries is doubtless linked with their child caring roles ard other domesticresponsibilities. When asked when they started fishing most of the womenstated that they began fishing between the ages of seven and trvelve andlearned the necessary skills from a female of their fanrily, usually ntother or"auntie." Tltis is similar to what Matthews and Oiterong (199-5) reporledfrom the Micronesian culhrre in Palau.Although this snrdy is limited to a small area of the coast around SuvaPeninsula, these surveys suggest that it is among the richest in the area.80


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This subsistence fishery is an important resource for a minimum of 70women per week and provides seafood protein for approximately 300 to500 people weekly. The number of people supported by this small stretchof coastal area rnay be comparable to the population of many small islandvillage communities. Beeching (1993), detailed a tally of fishers using thesame area; he concluded shellfish collection (he terms it fossicking) to be a"predominantly weekend pursuit." Our results contradict his statement. Hisconclusions were based on only two weekends of observations. In ourintensive surveys and informal observations taken over several months, wefound that collecting was rarely done on Sundays (0.00P/A, only 13% ofall interviews were on Saturdays, andSTYo on weekdays.This geographical area is a rich productive area and contains other fisheriesthat were not included in this study. For example, people travel from out-side Suva in groups to fish and collect in the LaucalaBay I Suva Peniruulaarea. One group, aniving by river punt, was observed with 17 large,approximately 50 kg, sacks primarily filled with M. agripetus. Althoughthe number of women who fish off Suva Penirsula and the percentage ofthe Suva population it feeds is relatively small, this is not the only popula-tion accessing this resource and does not diminish our responsibility toinsure its continual safe use.Fijiaru commonly share their goods within village communities and thiscustom prevails among many people in Suva. Many women did not corsid-er their fishing activities as a cornmercial activity. It seemed important tohave things to sharc with friends if the catch exceeded their family needs.Seldom was any catch sold on the mad(et. For this reason we corsider theinvertebrate collecting to be a subsistence fishery ard not artisanal.Most of the women had no other means of earning an income for them-selves and needed to use marine resources from Suva Peninsula to providefood for their families. Having sufficient time, the necessary skills andknowledge, and by using just simple, inexpensive equipment, they couldgather fresll "good food" that they could not othenvise afford. There wasalso less risk involved in collecting on the reef than in fishing off shore.One could always find something to eat on the flat, but catching a mealfishing was more uncertain. Collecting was almost twice as productive asfishing. No special skills were needed for gleaning invertebrates as shellserc. are easily found, however, experience and knowledge of the area andthe biology ofeach target species does help to increase catch rates.

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Rather than being a low quality by-product food, such as many cannedmeats commonly eaten by uftan dwellers, such hand collected sea food isalways fresh and known to be low in saturated fat. This is an importantconsideration for a society where insulin dependent diabetes is a majorhealth problem (Foster, 1996). This perception of the healthy aspect ofseafood was commonly mentioned by the women who made such com-ments as tlrey preferred to eat seafood for "it is good food - better for thefamily tlnn meat." This is in spite of the local perception that many peoplein the Pacific commonly look down on local foods (Tuwai, 1996).Shellfish are filter feeders and easily accumulate pollutants from the water.Preliminary work by Naqasima (1996) suggested t:url A. antiquata had thepotential for significant metal accumulatiorU but that further work wasneeded. Pollution studies have been done in Suva Harbour (Dougherty,1988; Naidu et al.,l99l Cripps, 1992; Stewart and de Morq 1992; Naiduand Monison, 1994) and in Laucala Bay (Naidu et al., l99l; Naidu andMorrison, 1994; Naqasima, 1996), but have not specifically examinedcatches from the Swa Peninsula intertidal areas. Naidu et al. (199I) andNaidu and Monison (1994) reported that Suva Harbour heary metal sedi-ment concentrations were among the highest in the world.Stewart and de Mom (1992) have pointed to the local mangrove oyster,Dionivertiri (Crassostrea mordm) as having very high (up to 3180 ng g-r)tri(n-butyl)tin (TBT). They also purchased and assayed samples ofAnadara scapha (cf. antiquata) but considered it to be " . . clearly notsignificant with respect to public health . . ." It is not clear whether Stewartand de Mora (1992) documented the origin of the l. scapha (cf . antiquata)they purchased from the Suva market. Inteniews with market vendors andfishers during this study confirm that the A. scapha (cf. antiquata) sold inSuva martet are rarely collected from the Suva Harbour or Suva Penirsulaintertidal areas. Beeching (1993) also found that ". . . in practice aninsignificant amount of produce taken from Suva lagoon was sold in Suvamarket." Consequently, it is not surprising that Stewart and de Mora(1992) report low butlytin concentrations in their sample of Kaikoso (A.antiquata) tissue. Their shellfish sample was probably gleaned from anarea far fiom the polluted Srwa Harbour.At the time of this writing660/o (n = 4l) of a randomly collected sample ofA. antiquata from Study Site IV - Suva Peninsula, showed shell deformitiescorsistent with established TBT effects on oyster shell (Irstitute of Ocean82

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Sciences, 1996). Work is in progress to determine the rclationship betweenthese deformities and butlytin concentrations in sediment andA. antiquatatissue. Kannan et al. (1995) reported that human red blood cells wereextremely sensitive to TBT ard tlnt even low corrcentrations could inducemembrane breakdown. Unfortunately, Short ard Thrower (1986) observedthat cooking methods were ineffective in eliminating butyltins from fish tis-sue. Although the relationship betrveen the presence of butyltins andhuman health is not completely understood, Kannan et al. (1995) considersseafood to be the major source of butyltin exposure in humans.Consequently, an investigation of butyltin contamination of target speciesof the Suva Peninsula fisheries should be swiftly undertaken.The women interviewed mentioned that pollution was visible around theLami Dump in Walu Bay and stated that as the reason that many specieswere no longer occurring there. In January 1997, the mud flat in that areawas suweyed and the intertidal found conspicuously lacking of life; devoidof any shellfish except a sporadic community (13 live individuals in a350m2 area) of Grafarium tumidum (Rtiding, 1798). The algaeEnteromorphaflexuosa [(Wulfen) J. Agardh] offLami Town was shown toaccumulate zinc, copper and lead (Tabudraw, 1995), and the NationalEnvironmental Strategy noted that "the extent of marine pollution is sosevere in the Suva area tlnt the consumption of seafood from certain areasis a human health hazard" (Gort. of Fiji, 1993). While this may be true,ceasing fishing locally is unrealistic for many low income eamers. It is gen-erally acknowledged that the waters and benthic communities beside indus-trial areas and sewage oufalls are likely to be polluted.The intertidal areas of Suva Peninsula are flushed twice daily by diurnaltides and southeast trade winds encoumge water movement in the area.These factors may reduce the levels of polluted water that these areas aresubjected to. kntead of being a"tragedy of the commons" as suggested byChung (1995), the intertidal areas around Suva Peninsula cunently appearsto be a plentifirl source of "healthy" sea food for about as many people as issupported in some rural coastal areas. The similar CPUE in both warm andcool seasors intinates a sustainable fishery of both A. antiquata and M.agripetus. The Suva Penirsula artisanal fishery is a vital contribution to thesubsistence of many people and provides an important income supplementto rnany low income earners. The extent that pollution has infected manytarget species warrants further microbiological and chemical examinationand will be discussed in a subsequent paper.

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t. that there was suffrcient fecundity levels in 1989 tomaintain an Anadara antiquata populationthe infrequenry of collectors suggests thatMuanivatr:/Suva Point area is not considered to be asproductive an area as the other Suva Peninsula sites (I - IV).

Finally, the social value of this resource should not be neglected. Suva isthe largest urtan center in a country that is still closely bound to land andtradition Besides the food it contributes, the Swa Peninsula intertidal flatsprovide an important social activity for these women. Women who haveleft their villages because their spouse sought employment in Suva as wellas those born in Suva both enjoy the opportunity to pursue this open-air tra-ditional activity. Their day of collecting and fishing can provide both achance to spend hours outside with friends while simultaneously providingnutritious food for their family.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe thank J. Krutschirun, L. Biukoto, R. Bower, S. Cokanasiga, V. Kumari,R. Naidu, P. Prasad, A. Salabula S. Seduadua, S. Tagi, M. Uluicicia, J.Underwood, R. Vircago, and I. Vulavou for their assistance with fieldwork. M. Naqasima-Sobey and P. Newell, Departnrcnt of Biology, and A.N'Yeurt, Marine Studies Programme, of The University of the SouthPacific, Suva, are acknowledged for their help with species identification.S. Appan4 E. Andersoq B.L. Kojis, P. Gangaiya, J. Gaw, M. Naqasima-Sobey, P. Newell, and two anonymous reviewers kindly read various draftsof the manuscript and provided constructive comments. We gratefullyacknowledge the financial contribution of University of the South PacificResearch Council (grant #6288-l3ll-70766-15) and the GermanDevelopment Aid program. We wish to extend a "Vinaka vaka lew" to thecooperative and good humoured fishers of Suva Point.

2.

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Figure 4: Length frequenry distribution of Anadara antiquata.oo)

35I ^30U a/,OSp E_zs58utob g2og'Rf; i'uo=t *10

5

2.75 2.25.25 4.75 4.25 3.75 3.25Length (cm) plotted at midpoint of size range


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The Productivity and Public Health Considerations of the Urban Women's Daytime Subsistence Fishery...

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