The Radiance of A Thousand Suns: The Radiance of A Thousand Suns: The Myths of IndiaThe Myths of India

► India lay in the fact that it was largely set India lay in the fact that it was largely set apart by its physical boundaries – the apart by its physical boundaries – the Arabian Sea and a large desert, the Thar, to Arabian Sea and a large desert, the Thar, to the west; the Bay of Bengal to the east; and the west; the Bay of Bengal to the east; and to the north, the towering, snowcapped to the north, the towering, snowcapped Himalayas that separated India from China.Himalayas that separated India from China.

►Yet remote, obscure India beckoned to the Yet remote, obscure India beckoned to the West for centuries. First for its silks and West for centuries. First for its silks and spices. Then, later, for its approach to spices. Then, later, for its approach to contemplating the “Big Questions” – contemplating the “Big Questions” – eternity, good, evil, and the meaning of life. eternity, good, evil, and the meaning of life. With a cosmic view completely at odds with With a cosmic view completely at odds with traditional Western thought, India has long traditional Western thought, India has long been interested in the transcendent and been interested in the transcendent and the immortal, the idea that creation and the immortal, the idea that creation and destruction are an endless cycle, that the destruction are an endless cycle, that the soul is an essence searching for perfection soul is an essence searching for perfection through reincarnation.through reincarnation.

How do we know what the How do we know what the ancient Indians believed?ancient Indians believed?

► When the Aryans arrived in the Indus Valley When the Aryans arrived in the Indus Valley sometime between 1700 and 1500 BCE, they sometime between 1700 and 1500 BCE, they brought along Sanskrit, the oldest known written brought along Sanskrit, the oldest known written language of India. Although Sanskrit died out as a language of India. Although Sanskrit died out as a “living language” by about 100 BCE, it was used – “living language” by about 100 BCE, it was used – like the Latin of medieval Europe – as the “learned like the Latin of medieval Europe – as the “learned language” of poetry, science, philosophy, and language” of poetry, science, philosophy, and religion.religion.

► Forming the core of Hinduism’s beliefs and Forming the core of Hinduism’s beliefs and practices, the collections of Sanskrit hymns, poetry, practices, the collections of Sanskrit hymns, poetry, philosophical dialogues, and legends all exist in an philosophical dialogues, and legends all exist in an imposing set of texts that include, most imposing set of texts that include, most significantly, the Vedas and Upanishads, the epic significantly, the Vedas and Upanishads, the epic poems poems RamayanaRamayana and the and the MahabharataMahabharata – which – which contains an important section called the Bhagavad-contains an important section called the Bhagavad-Gita – and the Puranas.Gita – and the Puranas.

►The oldest sacred Sanskrit writings, the The oldest sacred Sanskrit writings, the Vedas were thought to be composed Vedas were thought to be composed beginning about 1400 BCE over a period beginning about 1400 BCE over a period of nearly 1,100 years, an era in India’s of nearly 1,100 years, an era in India’s history called the “Vedic period.” The history called the “Vedic period.” The Vedas are considered to be older than the Vedas are considered to be older than the sacred writings of any other major sacred writings of any other major existing religion, including the Hebrew existing religion, including the Hebrew Old Testament. Only the ancient Old Testament. Only the ancient Egyptians pyramid texts are older. Like Egyptians pyramid texts are older. Like many mythic and religious documents, many mythic and religious documents, the Vedas probably first existed in oral the Vedas probably first existed in oral form for centuries, and may go back as form for centuries, and may go back as far as 4000 BCE.far as 4000 BCE.

► There are four Vedas, beginning with the oldest There are four Vedas, beginning with the oldest and most famous, the Rig-Veda. (The later Vedas and most famous, the Rig-Veda. (The later Vedas include Sama-veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-include Sama-veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda.) Veda.)

► The Vedas have been studied not only for their The Vedas have been studied not only for their religious significance, but for their connection to religious significance, but for their connection to the early history of the Indo-European languages, the early history of the Indo-European languages, including the Greek, Latin, Germanic, and Slavic including the Greek, Latin, Germanic, and Slavic language families, which as derived from archaic language families, which as derived from archaic Sanskrit. Sanskrit.

► The word “Veda” means “knowledge,” and sacred The word “Veda” means “knowledge,” and sacred knowledge in particular. Roughly equivalent to the knowledge in particular. Roughly equivalent to the Hebrew Psalms of the Old Testament, the Vedas Hebrew Psalms of the Old Testament, the Vedas are poetic collections that provided the songbook are poetic collections that provided the songbook for the holy rites of the early Vedic religion. The for the holy rites of the early Vedic religion. The Rig-Veda contains more than one thousand hymns, Rig-Veda contains more than one thousand hymns, totaling more than ten thousand verses – an totaling more than ten thousand verses – an enormous number, compared to the 150 biblical enormous number, compared to the 150 biblical Psalms.Psalms.

►Upanishads are deeply philosophical Upanishads are deeply philosophical works, one hundred and eight of which works, one hundred and eight of which have been preserved; they appeared have been preserved; they appeared between 800 and 600 BCE and formed a between 800 and 600 BCE and formed a basic part of Hinduism as it evolved.basic part of Hinduism as it evolved.

►Expressing the idea that knowledge Expressing the idea that knowledge brings spiritual uplift, the Upanishads also brings spiritual uplift, the Upanishads also introduced the notion that one lifetime is introduced the notion that one lifetime is not enough to gather all the necessary not enough to gather all the necessary knowledge. By accumulating knowledge knowledge. By accumulating knowledge over many rebirths, one can finally be over many rebirths, one can finally be rejoined with Brahman and achieve rejoined with Brahman and achieve mokshamoksha, the ultimate “release” or , the ultimate “release” or “salvation” that is the true goal of all “salvation” that is the true goal of all human beings.human beings.

►Another key source of India’s myths is the Another key source of India’s myths is the MahabharataMahabharata, one of the longest literary , one of the longest literary works in history, more than seven times works in history, more than seven times the combined length of the the combined length of the IliadIliad and the and the OdysseyOdyssey..

►The second of India’s two epic poems in The second of India’s two epic poems in the the RamayanaRamayana, which supposedly , which supposedly describes events that took place 870,000 describes events that took place 870,000 years ago. years ago.

►Lastly, there is a large collection of Lastly, there is a large collection of Sanskrit texts called Puranas, which were Sanskrit texts called Puranas, which were compiled between the early centuries of compiled between the early centuries of the Common Era and as recently as the the Common Era and as recently as the sixteenth century.sixteenth century.

What role did myth play in What role did myth play in ancient India?ancient India?

►There is no equivalent word for “myth” There is no equivalent word for “myth” in India’s numerous languages. in India’s numerous languages.

►That does not mean that there That does not mean that there were/are no myths. It simply means were/are no myths. It simply means that, to them, the myths were truths.that, to them, the myths were truths.

►With the introduction of the Upanishads With the introduction of the Upanishads between 800 and 500 BCE, a striking shift between 800 and 500 BCE, a striking shift in India’s mythic mind-set took place. The in India’s mythic mind-set took place. The emphasis was no longer on the simple, emphasis was no longer on the simple, ancient belief in sacrificing to individual ancient belief in sacrificing to individual gods who could provide protection, send a gods who could provide protection, send a good husband, or bring rain to make the good husband, or bring rain to make the plaints grow. The emergence of the plaints grow. The emergence of the Upanishads ushered in a new era of far Upanishads ushered in a new era of far more abstract belief, in which the many more abstract belief, in which the many gods of ancient times were reduced to the gods of ancient times were reduced to the single concept called Brahman, and the single concept called Brahman, and the emphasis was placed on escaping an emphasis was placed on escaping an endless cycle of death, rebirth, and endless cycle of death, rebirth, and reincarnation in order for the human soul to reincarnation in order for the human soul to link with Brahman, the Absolute Godhead.link with Brahman, the Absolute Godhead.

►Making that cosmic leap involved another notion Making that cosmic leap involved another notion introduced with the Upanishads – that of karma, introduced with the Upanishads – that of karma, the law of cause and effect which dictates that the law of cause and effect which dictates that every action has consequences that influence every action has consequences that influence how the soul will be reborn. Unlike the Egyptian how the soul will be reborn. Unlike the Egyptian or Christian notion, in which proper behavior or Christian notion, in which proper behavior might guarantee a pleasant afterlife, this Indian might guarantee a pleasant afterlife, this Indian concept – simply put – held that living a good life concept – simply put – held that living a good life means the soul will be born into a higher state in means the soul will be born into a higher state in its next incarnation. An evil life did not mean its next incarnation. An evil life did not mean eternal damnation but a rebirth of the soul into a eternal damnation but a rebirth of the soul into a lower state, possibly even as an animal. This lower state, possibly even as an animal. This ongoing cycle of life-death-reincarnation ongoing cycle of life-death-reincarnation continues until a person ultimately achieves continues until a person ultimately achieves spiritual perfection, at which point the soul spiritual perfection, at which point the soul enters a new level of existence called enters a new level of existence called mokshamoksha (“release” or “salvation”), in which it is joined (“release” or “salvation”), in which it is joined with Brahman, the divine godhead.with Brahman, the divine godhead.

►As these more abstract religious concepts As these more abstract religious concepts took hold, the old rituals were not took hold, the old rituals were not abandoned, but made part of a new order abandoned, but made part of a new order that was contained within a concept call that was contained within a concept call dharma – an all-inclusive sense of moral dharma – an all-inclusive sense of moral and spiritual “duty” with implications of and spiritual “duty” with implications of truth and righteousness as well. In truth and righteousness as well. In essence, dharma means the correct way essence, dharma means the correct way of living. Maintaining dharma is believed of living. Maintaining dharma is believed to bring rhythm to the natural world and to bring rhythm to the natural world and order in society. When dharma is not order in society. When dharma is not upheld, the result is uncertainty, natural upheld, the result is uncertainty, natural disaster, and accidents.disaster, and accidents.

►Essential to maintaining dharma was Essential to maintaining dharma was careful adherence to sacred religious careful adherence to sacred religious observances and the social order. Every observances and the social order. Every man was supposed to do his duty as man was supposed to do his duty as defined by his station.defined by his station.

►For women, there was only one dharma: For women, there was only one dharma: Obey the father when unmarried, the Obey the father when unmarried, the husband when married, and the son when husband when married, and the son when widowed.widowed.

► There were four principal castes systems (or social There were four principal castes systems (or social classes), each with its own rules of behavior, classes), each with its own rules of behavior, particularly regarding marriage. Marrying outside of particularly regarding marriage. Marrying outside of one’s caste – like an English aristocrat marrying a one’s caste – like an English aristocrat marrying a “commoner” – just wasn’t done. It was not dharma. “commoner” – just wasn’t done. It was not dharma.

►On top of the caste system were the Brahmins, the On top of the caste system were the Brahmins, the priests and scholars concerned with spiritual priests and scholars concerned with spiritual matters; next came Kshatriyas, the rulers and matters; next came Kshatriyas, the rulers and warriors who administered the society; beneath warriors who administered the society; beneath them were the Vaisyas, the merchants and them were the Vaisyas, the merchants and professionals who managed the society’s economy; professionals who managed the society’s economy; and then the Sudras, the laborers who serviced the and then the Sudras, the laborers who serviced the society.society.

► For centuries, one large group has ranked below For centuries, one large group has ranked below even the lowest, Sudra caste. Known as Dalits even the lowest, Sudra caste. Known as Dalits (“broken” or “ground down”), they were the (“broken” or “ground down”), they were the “untouchables” who performed the most menial “untouchables” who performed the most menial tasks and existed outside the four castes – giving tasks and existed outside the four castes – giving us the English word “outcast.” us the English word “outcast.”

The River GangesThe River Ganges

► The Ganges, revered as the physical manifestation of The Ganges, revered as the physical manifestation of the goddess Ganga and had been associated with the goddess Ganga and had been associated with purification since ancient times. Bathing in the waters purification since ancient times. Bathing in the waters of the Ganges is still a lifelong ambition for Hindu of the Ganges is still a lifelong ambition for Hindu worshippers and, each year, thousands visit such holy worshippers and, each year, thousands visit such holy cities as Varanasi and Allahabad in pilgrimages to do cities as Varanasi and Allahabad in pilgrimages to do just that. Temples line the banks of the Ganges and just that. Temples line the banks of the Ganges and ghats (stairways) lead down to the river, where the ghats (stairways) lead down to the river, where the pilgrims come to bathe and carry home some of its pilgrims come to bathe and carry home some of its water. While some come only to cleanse and purify water. While some come only to cleanse and purify themselves, the sick and crippled come – just as themselves, the sick and crippled come – just as thousands of Christian pilgrims flock to such thousands of Christian pilgrims flock to such “miraculous” sites as Lourdes – hoping that the touch “miraculous” sites as Lourdes – hoping that the touch of the water will cure their ailments. Others come to of the water will cure their ailments. Others come to die in the river, because the Hindus believe that those die in the river, because the Hindus believe that those who die in the Ganges will have their sins removed.who die in the Ganges will have their sins removed.

► Another later symbol of the order permeating Another later symbol of the order permeating Indian society was the construction of Hindu Indian society was the construction of Hindu temples.temples.

► Constructed to venerate a particular deity, these Constructed to venerate a particular deity, these temples, now located across India, housed the temples, now located across India, housed the god, whose devotees came to the temple for a god, whose devotees came to the temple for a glimpse of the divine in order to absorb the god’s glimpse of the divine in order to absorb the god’s power and carry that power with them in their power and carry that power with them in their daily lives. When they came to the temple, daily lives. When they came to the temple, worshippers expressed adoration, made offerings, worshippers expressed adoration, made offerings, and sought blessings. Often adorned with erotic and sought blessings. Often adorned with erotic sculptures celebrating the Hindu pantheon, these sculptures celebrating the Hindu pantheon, these temples represented another step in India’s temples represented another step in India’s evolving society. Not satisfied with approaching evolving society. Not satisfied with approaching the divine through trees, animals, rivers, and the divine through trees, animals, rivers, and natural rock formations, the kings sponsored the natural rock formations, the kings sponsored the making of idols of Gods and Goddesses in metal making of idols of Gods and Goddesses in metal and stone that were enshrined in temples. and stone that were enshrined in temples.

►Between 800 and 1300, vast temple Between 800 and 1300, vast temple complexes came into being. They were complexes came into being. They were controlled and managed by brahmins, controlled and managed by brahmins, who once again came to dominate who once again came to dominate society… Caste hierarchy manifested in society… Caste hierarchy manifested in the temple tradition too, with caste based the temple tradition too, with caste based on occupation determining whether one on occupation determining whether one was allowed to enter the temple or not. was allowed to enter the temple or not. With rituals came the idea of pollution. With rituals came the idea of pollution. Those at the bottom of the caste Those at the bottom of the caste hierarchy – sweepers, cobblers, and other hierarchy – sweepers, cobblers, and other menial laborers – were the most polluted. menial laborers – were the most polluted.

If it’s all an endless cycle of If it’s all an endless cycle of birth and destruction, where birth and destruction, where

does the Hindu Creation begin?does the Hindu Creation begin?►Maybe the “One” knows. Maybe the Maybe the “One” knows. Maybe the

“One” doesn’t know. “One” doesn’t know. ►There are many to choose from.There are many to choose from.

1.1.► A supreme goddess lays three eggs in a lotus, A supreme goddess lays three eggs in a lotus,

and from the emerge three worlds and three and from the emerge three worlds and three gods – Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. When the gods – Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. When the first two of these gods refuse to make love to first two of these gods refuse to make love to their “mother,” she reduces them to ashes with their “mother,” she reduces them to ashes with her scorching gaze. But Shiva agrees to do the her scorching gaze. But Shiva agrees to do the deed in exchange for the goddess’ fiery third deed in exchange for the goddess’ fiery third eye. Once he has received it, Shiva shows no eye. Once he has received it, Shiva shows no mercy – he uses the third eye to incinerate his mercy – he uses the third eye to incinerate his mother and revive his two sibling gods. Deciding mother and revive his two sibling gods. Deciding to populate the world, the godly trio realizes to populate the world, the godly trio realizes that they need wives. So, they divide the that they need wives. So, they divide the remains of the cremated goddess into three ahs remains of the cremated goddess into three ahs heaps and, using the power of the third eye, heaps and, using the power of the third eye, create three goddesses. Together, these three create three goddesses. Together, these three gods and three goddesses populate the cosmos. gods and three goddesses populate the cosmos.

2.2.►A golden egg floats in the primordial A golden egg floats in the primordial

waters. The golden egg is broken in half waters. The golden egg is broken in half by the god Brahma in his role as the by the god Brahma in his role as the creator. The two halves of the egg shell creator. The two halves of the egg shell then form heaven and earth. The then form heaven and earth. The mountains, clouds, and mists originate mountains, clouds, and mists originate from the egg’s membranes, the rivers from the egg’s membranes, the rivers from its veins, and the ocean from the from its veins, and the ocean from the egg’s fluid.egg’s fluid.

3.3.►The god Vishnu lies resting on a many-The god Vishnu lies resting on a many-

hooded serpent – often a mythic symbol hooded serpent – often a mythic symbol of regeneration, since it shed its skin – of regeneration, since it shed its skin – whose numerous coils symbolize the whose numerous coils symbolize the endless cycles of time. When Vishnu endless cycles of time. When Vishnu assumes the form of an all-consuming fire assumes the form of an all-consuming fire that destroys the universe, rain clouds that destroys the universe, rain clouds appear and extinguish the flames, leaving appear and extinguish the flames, leaving behind a great sea. Lying on the serpent behind a great sea. Lying on the serpent floating in this immense sea, Vishnu falls floating in this immense sea, Vishnu falls into a deep sleep. A lotus sprouts from his into a deep sleep. A lotus sprouts from his navel, and within the lotus is Brahman, navel, and within the lotus is Brahman, the creative force that sets in motion the the creative force that sets in motion the process of regeneration once more. process of regeneration once more.

5.5.►Manu is the first man, son of Brahma and Manu is the first man, son of Brahma and

Sarasvati, and his story has clear parallels Sarasvati, and his story has clear parallels to that of Noah and the other to that of Noah and the other Mesopotamian flood survivors. When the Mesopotamian flood survivors. When the world is threatened by a flood, Brahma world is threatened by a flood, Brahma takes the form of a fish and tells Manu to takes the form of a fish and tells Manu to build a large boat and store on it all the build a large boat and store on it all the seeds of living things on earth. As the seeds of living things on earth. As the floodwaters rise, everything is submerged, floodwaters rise, everything is submerged, but Manu’s boat lands on the highest peak but Manu’s boat lands on the highest peak in the Himalayas. Eventually the in the Himalayas. Eventually the floodwaters recede, and Manu makes an floodwaters recede, and Manu makes an offering to the gods, which produces a offering to the gods, which produces a beautiful woman named Parsu. She and beautiful woman named Parsu. She and Manu become parents of the human race. Manu become parents of the human race.

How do you get ten gods in How do you get ten gods in one?one?

► Simple. Count their “avatars.”Simple. Count their “avatars.”► In the breadth of Indian myth, gods often In the breadth of Indian myth, gods often

appear in many physical forms called avatars. appear in many physical forms called avatars. Based on a Sanskrit word meaning “descent of Based on a Sanskrit word meaning “descent of a deity from heaven,” an avatar isn’t simply a a deity from heaven,” an avatar isn’t simply a disguise that a god slips on and off – like Zeus disguise that a god slips on and off – like Zeus becoming a thunderbolt or a swan and then becoming a thunderbolt or a swan and then turning back into Zeus again. Nor is it a simple turning back into Zeus again. Nor is it a simple manifestation, such as the goddess Ganga manifestation, such as the goddess Ganga appearing as the Ganges River. An avatar is an appearing as the Ganges River. An avatar is an entirely separate entity. In Hindu myth and entirely separate entity. In Hindu myth and theology, an avatar can be human or animal theology, an avatar can be human or animal and have its own name, personality, physical and have its own name, personality, physical characteristics, and purpose in life. characteristics, and purpose in life.

What is Nirvana?What is Nirvana?►Nirvana is the concept of being peaceful Nirvana is the concept of being peaceful

and blessed that describes one’s state of and blessed that describes one’s state of mind in Buddhism.mind in Buddhism.

►Known to millions from those rotund little Known to millions from those rotund little statues that show him sitting with his legs statues that show him sitting with his legs crossed, in the lotus position, his eyelids crossed, in the lotus position, his eyelids serenely closed, the palms of his hands serenely closed, the palms of his hands turned up, Buddha is a universally turned up, Buddha is a universally recognizable character. He was born recognizable character. He was born Siddhartha Gautama around 563 BCE on Siddhartha Gautama around 563 BCE on the Nepal-India border, about 145 miles the Nepal-India border, about 145 miles southwest of Katmandu, according to southwest of Katmandu, according to archaeological excavations completed in archaeological excavations completed in 1995.1995.

► Beyond those meager details, however, there is little Beyond those meager details, however, there is little concrete information about his life. Buddhist legend concrete information about his life. Buddhist legend suggests that the Buddha’s mother, Maya, dreamed of suggests that the Buddha’s mother, Maya, dreamed of her son coming into her womb in the form of a white her son coming into her womb in the form of a white elephant. According to folklore, earthquakes attended elephant. According to folklore, earthquakes attended the Buddha’s birth. And Buddha himself claimed that he the Buddha’s birth. And Buddha himself claimed that he was an incarnation of the ancient Hindu god Indra.was an incarnation of the ancient Hindu god Indra.

► And then there is the well-known “biography” that And then there is the well-known “biography” that starts with Buddha’s decadent youth in the palace of starts with Buddha’s decadent youth in the palace of his warrior-caste father, King Suddhodhana. When his warrior-caste father, King Suddhodhana. When Suddhodhana receives a prophecy that his son will not Suddhodhana receives a prophecy that his son will not become a great ruler if he sees the pain of the world, become a great ruler if he sees the pain of the world, the father tried to shelter his son, even prohibiting the the father tried to shelter his son, even prohibiting the use of the words “death” and “grief” in Siddhartha’s use of the words “death” and “grief” in Siddhartha’s presence. Each time his son leaves the palace presence. Each time his son leaves the palace Suddhodhana orders the servants to go before him, Suddhodhana orders the servants to go before him, sweeping the streets and decorating them with flowers. sweeping the streets and decorating them with flowers. Another legend says that Siddhartha is given three Another legend says that Siddhartha is given three palaces and between 10,000 and 40,000 dancing girls palaces and between 10,000 and 40,000 dancing girls to keep him occupied. to keep him occupied.

►But reality catches up with Siddhartha. But reality catches up with Siddhartha. After he marries the princess Yasodhara After he marries the princess Yasodhara and has a newborn son, the and has a newborn son, the twentysomethingish Siddhartha has a twentysomethingish Siddhartha has a series of visions – or actual encounters. In series of visions – or actual encounters. In the first vision, he sees an old man. In the the first vision, he sees an old man. In the second, he sees a sick man, and in the second, he sees a sick man, and in the third, a corpse. In the fourth vision, he third, a corpse. In the fourth vision, he meets a wandering holy man. The first meets a wandering holy man. The first three visions convince Siddhartha that life three visions convince Siddhartha that life involves aging, sickness, and death – that involves aging, sickness, and death – that “everything must decay.” The vision of the “everything must decay.” The vision of the holy man convinces him that he should holy man convinces him that he should leave his family and seek spiritual leave his family and seek spiritual enlightenment. enlightenment.

► Following these insights, Siddhartha renounces his family Following these insights, Siddhartha renounces his family and wealth, and becomes a wandering monk practicing and wealth, and becomes a wandering monk practicing extreme forms of self-denial and self-torture for the next extreme forms of self-denial and self-torture for the next six years. Living in filth and eating only a single grain of six years. Living in filth and eating only a single grain of rice some days, he pulls hairs from his beard, one by one, rice some days, he pulls hairs from his beard, one by one, to inflict pain. But Siddhartha eventually realizes that to inflict pain. But Siddhartha eventually realizes that extreme self-denial and self-torture can never lead to extreme self-denial and self-torture can never lead to enlightenment, and abandons the practices.enlightenment, and abandons the practices.

► One day, Siddhartha wanders into a village and sits under One day, Siddhartha wanders into a village and sits under s shady fig tree, known as the bo, or bodhi, tree (“tree of s shady fig tree, known as the bo, or bodhi, tree (“tree of wisdom”), determined to meditate until he gains wisdom”), determined to meditate until he gains enlightenment and completes his quest for the secret of enlightenment and completes his quest for the secret of release from suffering. As he sits in meditation, release from suffering. As he sits in meditation, Siddhartha is tempted by the evil demon Mara, much as Siddhartha is tempted by the evil demon Mara, much as the biblical gospels tell of the temptations of Jesus in the the biblical gospels tell of the temptations of Jesus in the wilderness. First, the demon sends his beautiful wilderness. First, the demon sends his beautiful daughters to seduce Siddhartha. But Siddhartha resists. daughters to seduce Siddhartha. But Siddhartha resists. Then the demon threatens the young man with devils. Then the demon threatens the young man with devils. But Siddhartha stands firm. In a final act, the devil throws But Siddhartha stands firm. In a final act, the devil throws a fiery discus at Siddhartha’s head, but it is transformed a fiery discus at Siddhartha’s head, but it is transformed into a canopy of flowers. into a canopy of flowers.

► After sitting for five weeks and enduring a After sitting for five weeks and enduring a world-shattering storm, Siddhartha finally world-shattering storm, Siddhartha finally achieves enlightenment. The roots of suffering achieves enlightenment. The roots of suffering are desires, he discovers, and one only has to are desires, he discovers, and one only has to reach a sate without desire to overcome reach a sate without desire to overcome suffering. Released from all suffering and from suffering. Released from all suffering and from the cycles of reincarnation, Siddhartha the cycles of reincarnation, Siddhartha becomes Buddha and decides to show other becomes Buddha and decides to show other people the way, preaching a doctrine of people the way, preaching a doctrine of compassion and moderation.compassion and moderation.

► In a religious coming-out ceremony near the In a religious coming-out ceremony near the holy city of Varansi, Buddha preaches his first holy city of Varansi, Buddha preaches his first sermon to five holy men. This sermon, which sermon to five holy men. This sermon, which includes the “saving truth” of Buddha’s includes the “saving truth” of Buddha’s message, is one of the most sacred events in message, is one of the most sacred events in Buddhism.Buddhism.

►As Buddha continues preaching As Buddha continues preaching throughout northern India, he attracts throughout northern India, he attracts disciples and his fame increases. Soon disciples and his fame increases. Soon stories begin to spread among his stories begin to spread among his followers, describing his religious insight followers, describing his religious insight and compassion – along with tales of his and compassion – along with tales of his magical powers. His followers believe that magical powers. His followers believe that Buddha has lived many lives before being Buddha has lived many lives before being born as Siddhartha Gautama, and the born as Siddhartha Gautama, and the stories describing the events of these stories describing the events of these lives, called lives, called jatakasjatakas, become the popular , become the popular means of understanding Buddha’s means of understanding Buddha’s message, which includes the concept of message, which includes the concept of Nirvana. Nirvana.

►According to Buddhist belief, the perfect According to Buddhist belief, the perfect peace and blessedness is a state called peace and blessedness is a state called Nirvana. Attaining Nirvana enables a person Nirvana. Attaining Nirvana enables a person to escape from the continuous cycle of to escape from the continuous cycle of death and rebirth caused by an individual’s death and rebirth caused by an individual’s worldly desires, such as craving for fame, worldly desires, such as craving for fame, immortality, and wealth. In Buddhism, immortality, and wealth. In Buddhism, people attain Nirvana only when such people attain Nirvana only when such desires are completely eliminated. desires are completely eliminated.

►Buddha preached that Nirvana can be Buddha preached that Nirvana can be attained by following a Middle Way between attained by following a Middle Way between the extremes of ascetic self-denial and the extremes of ascetic self-denial and sensuality, yet living in the world with sensuality, yet living in the world with compassion and by practicing the Noble compassion and by practicing the Noble Eight-fold Path, which consists of:Eight-fold Path, which consists of:

1.1. Perfect understanding, or Knowledge of the Perfect understanding, or Knowledge of the truthtruth

2.2. Perfect aspiration, the intention to resist evilPerfect aspiration, the intention to resist evil

3.3. Perfect speech, or saying nothing to hurt Perfect speech, or saying nothing to hurt othersothers

4.4. Perfect conduct through respecting life, Perfect conduct through respecting life, morality, and propertymorality, and property

5.5. Perfect means of livelihood, or holding a job Perfect means of livelihood, or holding a job that does not injure othersthat does not injure others

6.6. Perfect endeavor, striving to free the mind of Perfect endeavor, striving to free the mind of evilevil

7.7. Perfect mindfulness through controlling one’s Perfect mindfulness through controlling one’s feelings and thoughtsfeelings and thoughts

8.8. Perfect contemplation through the practice of Perfect contemplation through the practice of proper forms of concentrationproper forms of concentration

► At about the age of eighty, Buddha became ill At about the age of eighty, Buddha became ill and died. His disciples gave him an elaborate and died. His disciples gave him an elaborate funeral, burned his body, and distributed his funeral, burned his body, and distributed his bones as sacred relics.bones as sacred relics.

► In Indian history, Buddhism reached a high In Indian history, Buddhism reached a high mark of sorts when an Indian emperor named mark of sorts when an Indian emperor named Ashoka converted in 262 BCE, renounced Ashoka converted in 262 BCE, renounced violence, and named Buddhism the state violence, and named Buddhism the state religion. In Buddhism tradition, Ashoka had religion. In Buddhism tradition, Ashoka had become horrified at the cost of empire-building become horrified at the cost of empire-building and embraced Buddhism. Today, Buddhism is and embraced Buddhism. Today, Buddhism is one of the major religions of the world and it one of the major religions of the world and it has been a dominant religious and social force has been a dominant religious and social force in most of Asia for more than two thousand in most of Asia for more than two thousand years. There are an estimated 364 million years. There are an estimated 364 million followers today. followers today.

► Emerging in about the same era as Buddhism did, Emerging in about the same era as Buddhism did, the second major offshoot of Hinduism is Jainism. the second major offshoot of Hinduism is Jainism. Like Buddhism, Jainism is traced to a man who is Like Buddhism, Jainism is traced to a man who is believed to be an actual historical individual. believed to be an actual historical individual. Mahavira is said to have been born to aristocratic Mahavira is said to have been born to aristocratic parents in 540 BCE and was a contemporary of parents in 540 BCE and was a contemporary of Buddha, though they may have never met. Buddha, though they may have never met. Nonetheless, as gods were said to have descended Nonetheless, as gods were said to have descended from heaven and showered flowers, nectar, and from heaven and showered flowers, nectar, and fruit on his father’s place. There are many legends fruit on his father’s place. There are many legends about his extraordinary childhood, but as an adult, about his extraordinary childhood, but as an adult, he is said to have lived an ordinary life until his he is said to have lived an ordinary life until his parents died. Then, at the age of thirty-two, he parents died. Then, at the age of thirty-two, he gave away his possessions, left his wife and child, gave away his possessions, left his wife and child, and became a wandering monk. The sky glowed and became a wandering monk. The sky glowed life a lake covered in lotus flowers when this life a lake covered in lotus flowers when this happened.happened.

►Mahavira’s teachings form the basis for Jainism, Mahavira’s teachings form the basis for Jainism, which is centered on the belief that every living which is centered on the belief that every living thing consists of an eternal soul called the thing consists of an eternal soul called the jivajiva and a temporary physical body. Attaining release and a temporary physical body. Attaining release from the world of sorrows can be achieved by from the world of sorrows can be achieved by renouncing sin and violence, engaging instead in renouncing sin and violence, engaging instead in strict penance and extreme, disciplined, strict penance and extreme, disciplined, nonviolent conduct. In Jainsim, sadhus (holy nonviolent conduct. In Jainsim, sadhus (holy men) and sadhvis (holy women) try to separate men) and sadhvis (holy women) try to separate themselves from the everyday world through a themselves from the everyday world through a vow of poverty and may not own any property vow of poverty and may not own any property except a broom, simple robes, bowls for food, except a broom, simple robes, bowls for food, and walking sticks. They may not live in and walking sticks. They may not live in buildings except for brief periods and must beg buildings except for brief periods and must beg for all their food. They are not allowed to kill any for all their food. They are not allowed to kill any living creature, and Jain monks wear a veil or living creature, and Jain monks wear a veil or mask over their mouths, so they don’t mask over their mouths, so they don’t accidentally swallow any insects. accidentally swallow any insects.

►Small in number, with some 4 million Small in number, with some 4 million adherents worldwide, Jainism has been adherents worldwide, Jainism has been influential, nonetheless. Laypeople, or influential, nonetheless. Laypeople, or followers who are not priests or holy men followers who are not priests or holy men and women, observe a less rigorous code and women, observe a less rigorous code of conduct, and support the priesthood. of conduct, and support the priesthood. Many of them are businesspeople who Many of them are businesspeople who have flourished, in no small part, because have flourished, in no small part, because Jainists enjoy a reputation for scrupulous Jainists enjoy a reputation for scrupulous honesty in commercial activity that does honesty in commercial activity that does not directly involve killing any living not directly involve killing any living thing. thing.