The Reformation

Chapter 11

Society and Religion

Social and political conflictThe Reformation first broke out in the Free Imperial cities in Germany and Switzerland.

Guilds were often on the forefront of Reformation.

Popular Religious Movements and Criticism of the Church

Reformation could not have happened without the earlier challenges to the Church’s authority

Avignon papacy

The Great Schism

The Conciliar Period

The Renaissance papacy

Lay criticism of the church was growingMany sought a more egalitarian church

The Modern Devotion

Also known as The Brothers of the Common Life, they fostered lay religious life without surrendering the world

Clerics and laity shared a common life stressing individual piety and practical religion

They have been seen as the source of humanist, Protestant and Catholic reform movements.

Lay control over religious life

The benefice system, the sale of religious office to the highest bidder, was collapsing.

Communities were loudly protesting financial and spiritual abuses, such as the sale of indulgences.

City governments were endowing preacherships.

Magistrates were restricting the growth of ecclesiastical properties and clerical privileges.

Martin Luther & the German Reformation

Late Medieval German lacked the political unity to enforce large scale religious reforms.

By 1517 discontent with the church was ripe enough for Martin Luther’s critiques to take hold.

1507, Luther was ordained

1510, On his visit to Rome, he found the German complaints about the Church to be accurate

1512, He earned his doctorate in Theology at the Augustinian Monastery in Wittenberg

Justification by faith

Luther was plagued by his sense of a disconnect between the his own sinfulness and the perfect righteousness God required for salvation

He concluded that God does not demand charitable acts and religious ceremonies, but just faith in Jesus Christ as perfect righteousness. Good works were expected, but did not earn one salvation.

IndulgencesThough a priest could absolve a penitent of guilt, he still had an eternal penalty to pay. Absolution could turn that into a temporal punishment. The remission of that temporal penalty was an indulgence.Starting in 1343 the church started selling “letters of indulgence.”By Luther’s time, they were often sold for small cash payments.

Luther’s protest in his ninety-five theses (October 31, 1517) was against the impression that indulgences remitted sin, which made it seem as if salvation could be bought and sold.

Charles VThe Ninety-five theses were embraced by Nuremberg humanists, which made Luther a central figure in an already organized national German cultural movement.

He was called before the general of his order to answer for his criticismsAs sanctions were being prepared against him, Emperor Maximillian I died (1519), which turned attention away from Luther.

Charles I of Spain succeeded his Grandfather and became Emperor Charles V

Luther’s Excommunication and the Diet of Worms

June 27, 1519, Luther debated John Eck in Leipzig.Questioned the infallibility of the pope and the inerrancy of church councils.Appealed to the authority of scripture alone.These views were published in 1520.

Luther was excommunicated on June 15, 1520The Diet of Worms

Presided over by Charles VLuther presented his views and was placed under the Imperial ban as well.

Luther was forced into hiding, protected by the Elector Frederick

Imperial Distractions: War with France and the Turks

Invasion of the TurksCharles V needed loyal German troops

• Sought friendly relations with German princes

Hapsburg (Spanish) and Valois (French) Wars between 1521 and 1559Four wars over disputed territories within Italy and along their borders

German Diet of Speyer 1526Each German territory free to enforce the Edict of Worms against Luther

• Gave the princes territorial sovereignty

• Also gave the Reformation time to put down roots in Germany and Switzerland

• Precedent for later law giving princely control over religion (Peace of Augsburg)

How the Reformation Spread

Passed from the free hands of theologians and pamphleteers to the magistrates and princes

Mandated new religious reforms

Transformed ideas into law

Politicization of religious reformPolitical and economic opportunities arise from demise of Catholic Church

1530s formed a powerful defensive alliance, the Schmaldkaldic League to do war with Catholic Emperor

The Peasant’s Revolt

Internal division

German peasantry believed Luther to be an allyOpposed secular and ecclesiastical leaders

Sought “Christian” political and economic rights

Lutherans were not social revolutionariesPeasant revolt against landlords 1524-1525

• Luther condemned them as “un-Christian” and urged princes to crush the revolt

• Freedom lay in inner spiritual release nor revolutionary politics

Other Reformations

Zwingli, Calvin, and Protestant England

Zwingli and ZurichSwitzerland

13 city-states; called cantonsSome broke with Catholic Church, some remained Catholic

ZwingliAt twenty two became an ordained Priest1517: called for religion based exclusively on the Bible1518: attacked abuses: sale of indulgences1519: Appointed “People’s Priest”1520: Preach only what can be proven by scripture

Zwingli and Zurich

1523: Zurich Council officially adopted Zwingli’s reforms; first Protestant state outside of Germany

Removed all religious images, relics, and ornaments from the churches of the city

• Even organs were banished

Catholics denied some civic rightsLocal functions of Catholic church are stopped

Zwingli’s TheologySingle theme to his work

More strict and radical• If the old or New Testament did not say something explicitly and

literally, then no Christian should believe or practice it

Causes two important shifts in Western religious experience

The Bible becomes similar to lawStandardized text

• If it is written in the Bible, it should be done exactly as written

Zwingli and LutherAt first a strong supporterLuther not willing to give up ceremonies or practice literal reading of the scripturesNature of the Eucharist

Luther: Bread and wine spiritually transformed to the body and blood of Christ Zwingli: Eucharist only symbolized the body and blood of Christ

• Argument over the nature of Christ

Zwingli and Luther

Threatened political alliancesZwingli and Luther would have to agree about the nature of Christ in order for Protestants in Switzerland and Germany to be safe

Met in Marburg, October 1529• Discussions ended in failure

• Unification of various Protestant movements became impossible

CalvinCreated a dominant patternOriginally a lawyer

Northern humanism• Church reform focus

GenevaPrimarily French speakers1533: Reformers enter the city1535: Became an official Protestant state

• Invited Calvin to build reformed church

Most important workOrganization of church governance based on Bible principles

CalvinStrict moral code imposed on citizens

Literal reading of scriptures• People of Geneva rebelled and exiled him and his followers in

1538

“The Institutes of the Christian Church”1540: Invited back to Geneva

Incorporated church into city government

CalvinStrict moral code imposed on citizens

Literal reading of scriptures• People of Geneva rebelled and exiled him and his followers in 1538

“The Institutes of the Christian Church”1540: Invited back to Geneva

Incorporated church into city government

Became safe haven for protestants from all over Europe

Calvin’s ThoughtLiteral reading of scripture

Same as Zwingli• Beyond Zwingli: Church, political, and social organization should also adhere

to literal interpretation

Division of Church organizationPastorsTeachersEldersDeacons

PredestinationSalvation pre-decided by God

• “elected” for slavation• “Doctrine of the elect” or the “Doctrine of Living Saints”

Voluntary associations