THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, GENDER, COPING STRATEGIES, AND WELL-BEING IN THE MANAGEMENT OF STRESS
IN CLOSE INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS AND THE WORKPLACE
by
Limor Zomer, M.A., M.Ed.
A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Graduate Department of Adult Education and Counselling Psychology Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
University of Toronto
© Copyright by Limor Zomer (2012)
ii
The Relationships Among Emotional Intelligence, Gender, Coping Strategies, and Well-Being in
the Management of Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships and the Workplace
Doctor of Philosophy (2012)
Limor Zomer
Department of Adult Education and Counselling Psychology
University of Toronto
Abstract
People with high levels of emotional intelligence (EI) seem to possess emotional skills that allow them to
cope effectively with the challenges they face and promote well-being. Considering the role of EI in
coping research may yield significant benefits for individuals because EI has consistently been linked
with positive outcome measures, including life and work satisfaction, interpersonal functioning, healthy
relationships, job performance, psychological well-being, physical health, and psychophysiological
measures of adaptive coping (Martins, Ramalho, & Morin, 2010). Although the theoretical significance of
EI to coping has been recognized (e.g., Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Snyder, 1999), relatively few studies
explore the relationships among these constructs. The current research explores and compares how
emotional intelligence (EI) facilitates adaptive coping across both interpersonal and occupational contexts
– two central areas of our lives. It provides evidence in support of an extended adaptational model
contextualizing EI within the transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
In general, results from an online survey (N = 300) showed that most participants (approximately
66%) did not cope adaptively with stress. Results are consistent with a model which suggests that EI and
the coping strategies people use when dealing with interpersonal and occupational stressors have
significant effects on psychological well-being. The findings linked EI with adaptive coping behaviour,
exposing both similarities and differences in the types of coping strategies people implement across
interpersonal and occupational contexts, as well as their relationships to well-being. In addition, the
iii
results demonstrated that certain coping strategies (i.e., social support, venting/self-blame, and
alcohol/drug use) partially mediated the relationship between emotion skills and well-being in these two
contexts. Finally, gender differences in both EI and coping strategies emerged, with the differences being
mostly attributed to the socialization of gender role (i.e., the degree of agentic and communal traits) rather
than sex (i.e., being male or female). Moderation models suggested that gender did not interact with EI to
influence coping strategy choice (i.e., social support, venting/self-blame, alcohol/drug use) or well-being.
These results are discussed in terms of their implications for the therapeutic context, organizational
policy, theoretical considerations, as well as future research directions.
iv
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to thank my mom, Ilana, who as a single parent, opened up so
many possibilities for me and my sister; I want to acknowledge how important a person you have been in
my life. Thank you for your encouragement and support throughout the years, and for inspiring my
interest in the topic of emotional intelligence by sharing your own interest in the topic many, many
years ago! A special thank you goes to my sister, Arielle, as well, for being someone with whom
to share life’s experiences and for showing me the beautiful resilience of a close interpersonal
relationship. I would also like to thank my close friends who have been there for me along the way to
encourage me, keep me in the social loop, and help me bring this project to completion; special thanks to
my girls, Gaby and Julia. A special thank you also goes to Kevin for all your support and technical help.
Thank you to Linda, as well, for your guidance along this journey. I would also like to recognize my
colleagues and supervisors at the school board where I currently work for their support; special thanks to
Dr. Giuliana Malvestuto-Filice and Dr. Schrine Persad.
I am extremely grateful for the continuous support of my research supervisor, Dr. Jeanne Watson,
throughout the years. I feel so lucky to have had the opportunity to work under your supervision. Thank
you for helping me in developing my ideas and research, encouraging persistence, as well as bringing it
all to such a positive feeling of closure. Thank you to my committee members, Dr. Margaret Schneider
and Dr. Corey Mackenzie, for your helpful feedback, advice, and suggestions. Dr. Mackenzie, thank you
for going above and beyond by agreeing to continue in the role of committee member even after your
move, and for your continuous support over the years. I would also like to express my appreciation to my
external examiner, Dr. Michael Leiter; thank you for your valuable comments, keen interest, and approval
of my research. In addition, I would like to thank Dr. Olesya Falenchuk and Heather Krause for their help
with statistical consulting. Thank you also to the members of Dr. Watson’s research group for your
valuable comments and support throughout the years; special thanks to Touraj and Evelyn for your
contributions. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Brian Little, whose influence as a mentor may be
seen in my research; I will always cherish the lessons learned in your seminars and classes, and the
inspiration you have been to my academic/professional life.
Finally, thank you to all the participants who completed this study for sharing your personal
experiences in close relationships and the workplace, from which we may all benefit.
v
Contents
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………….……….....ii
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................................... iv
Contents ........................................................................................................................................................v
List of Tables.................................................................................................................................................x
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... xiii
List of Appendices .................................................................................................................................... xiv
Chapter One: Introduction and Literature Review ........................................................................................1
Emotional Intelligence ........................................................................................................4
Trait EI versus ability EI.. ......................................................................................6
The validity of trait EI.. ........................................................................................ 10
Theoretical Overview of the Applicability of Emotional Intelligence to Stress and
Coping ............................................................................................................................... 14
Stress and Coping .............................................................................................................. 16
Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping: The Place for Emotional Intelligence ......... 18
Coping: Classification of coping strategies and contextual considerations. ........ 22
Research on emotional intelligence and coping behaviour .................................. 25
Why examine EI and stress in close interpersonal relationships? ........................ 30
Research on EI and coping with stress in close interpersonal relationships. ....... 32
Why examine EI and occupational stress? ........................................................... 35
Research on emotional intelligence and occupational stress.. ............................. 40
Gender Differences ........................................................................................................... 43
Gender differences and coping behaviour. ........................................................... 45
Gender differences in emotional intelligence.. .................................................... 46
Evidence supporting the investigation of sex role differences in emotional
intelligence.. ......................................................................................................... 47
vi
Gender differences in emotional intelligence and coping with stress in close
interpersonal relationships. .................................................................................. 50
Gender differences in emotional intelligence and coping with occupational
stress ..................................................................................................................... 51
Summary of Literature Review ......................................................................................... 53
Purpose of the Present Investigation ................................................................................. 59
Research Questions and Hypotheses ................................................................................. 60
Chapter Two: Method ................................................................................................................................. 64
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 64
Measures ........................................................................................................................... 65
Background information/demographics. .............................................................. 65
Trait meta-mood scale (TMMS short form; Salovey et al., 1995) ....................... 65
Brief COPE (Carver, 1997) .................................................................................. 65
Emotional approach coping (EAC) scales (Stanton et al., 2000). ........................ 66
Biological gender. ................................................................................................ 66
Personal attributes questionnaire (short form; Spence, Helmreich & Stapp,
1973; Spence & Helmreich, 1978). ...................................................................... 66
Depression anxiety stress scales (DASS-21, short form; Lovibond &
Lovibond, 1995). .................................................................................................. 67
Satisfaction with life scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985). .................................... 67
Positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, and Tellegen,
1988). ................................................................................................................... 67
Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 68
Chapter Three: Results ................................................................................................................................ 70
Preliminary Analysis ......................................................................................................... 70
Data screening: statistical assumptions. ............................................................................ 74
Data Reduction ............................................................................................................................... 78
vii
Coping strategies factors for stress in close interpersonal relationships and the
workplace. ......................................................................................................................... 78
Close interpersonal relationship coping strategies factors. ............................................... 79
Coping strategies factors for workplace stress. ................................................................. 82
Gender ............................................................................................................................... 85
Subjective well-being composite ...................................................................................... 86
Diagnostics/Missing Values ........................................................................................................... 87
The imputation model.. ..................................................................................................... 91
Statistical Analyses ........................................................................................................................ 93
Hypothesis one: EI will be related to distinct coping strategies for stress in close
interpersonal relationships and the workplace. ................................................................. 93
Hypothesis two: Differences will emerge in coping behaviours across contexts
as well as their relationships to EI and well-being. ........................................................... 97
Examining differences in coping strategies used across interpersonal
and occupational stressors .................................................................................... 97
The relationships between coping strategies and well-being ............................... 99
Investigating coping types across close interpersonal relationship and
occupational contexts ......................................................................................... 102
EI and close interpersonal relationship coping style groups .............................. 103
EI and workplace coping style groups ............................................................... 105
Coping style groups and subjective well-being across contexts ........................ 106
Summary of Hypothesis Two Results ............................................................................. 109
Hypothesis three: Coping behaviour is expected to mediate the relationship between EI
and well-being for both stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace. .. 110
Multiple mediation analysis.. ............................................................................. 110
Investigating coping style group as a potential mediator. .................................. 116
viii
Hypothesis Four: Gender will be differentially related to EI and the coping strategies
used in each context. Gender will moderate the relationship between EI and SWB and
between EI and coping strategies. ................................................................................... 117
Initial analysis: Assessing potential confounding of sex and gender and
relationships to well-being. ................................................................................ 117
Gender differences and emotional intelligence.. ................................................ 117
Gender differences and coping strategies .......................................................... 119
Gender and coping style groups.. ....................................................................... 122
Moderation analysis. .......................................................................................... 128
Summary of Hypothesis Four Results ............................................................................. 133
Chapter Four: Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 135
Hypothesis One: EI will be related to distinct coping strategies for interpersonal and
occupational stress .......................................................................................................... 135
Hypothesis Two: Differences will emerge in coping behaviours across contexts as
well as their relationships to EI and well-being .............................................................. 141
Hypothesis Three: Coping behaviour will mediate the relationship between EI and
well-being for both interpersonal and occupational stress .............................................. 144
Investigating coping style group as a potential mediator. .................................. 149
Hypothesis Four: Gender will be differentially related to EI and the coping strategies
used in each context. Gender will moderate the relationship between EI and SWB
and between EI and coping strategies. ............................................................................ 149
Investigating gender differences and coping style groups ................................. 153
Overview of Research Contributions .............................................................................. 155
Therapeutic Implications ................................................................................................. 157
Organizational Implications ............................................................................................ 161
Theoretical Considerations and Future Directions .......................................................... 162
Limitations ...................................................................................................................... 164
ix
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 167
Footnotes...……………………………...…………………………………………………………………….169
References………………………………...…………………………………………………………………..177
x
List of Tables
Table 1 Examples of Coping Strategy Classifications and Descriptions (Carver, 1997) ........................ 23
Table 2 Common Categories of Work Stress and Examples (see Cartwright & Cooper, 1996; Rosch,
1984; Zeidner, 2005) .................................................................................................................. 37
Table 3 Summary of Variable Relationships .......................................................................................... 56
Table 4 Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships Examples Provided By Participants ...................... 71
Table 5 Occupational Stressor Examples Provided By Participants....................................................... 72
Table 6 Descriptive Statistics for Emotional Intelligence and Gender Variables ................................... 75
Table 7 Descriptive Statistics for Relationship Coping Strategies ......................................................... 75
Table 8 Descriptive Statistics for Work Coping Strategies .................................................................... 76
Table 9 Descriptive Statistics for Well-Being Scales ............................................................................. 77
Table 10 Principal Components Analysis with Varimax Rotation of Coping Strategies in
Relationships .............................................................................................................................. 80
Table 11 Total Variance Explained and Cronbach’s Alpha for the Relationship Coping Factors ........... 81
Table 12 Principal Components Analysis with Varimax Rotation of Coping Strategies at Work ........... 83
Table 13 Total Variance Explained and Cronbach’s Alpha for the Work Coping Factors....................... 84
Table 14 Principal Components Analysis with Varimax Rotation of Gender .......................................... 86
Table 15 Intercorrelations Using Pearson’s Product Moment Coefficients for Scales Comprising Well-
Being .......................................................................................................................................... 87
Table 16 Subjective Well-Being Component ........................................................................................... 87
Table 17 Percentage of Missing Data ....................................................................................................... 88
Table 18 Pooled Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between Trait Emotional Intelligence, EI
Subscales, Coping Strategies Within the Context of Stress in Close Interpersonal
Relationships, and Well-Being ................................................................................................... 94
Table 19 Pooled Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between EI, EI Subscales, and Coping
Strategies Within the Context of Work Stress ............................................................................ 95
xi
Table 20 A Comparison of Overall Emotional Intelligence and EI Subscales with Coping Strategies
Used Across Relationship and Work Contexts for the Overall Sample ..................................... 97
Table 21 Pooled Comparisons of Coping Strategies Used Across Relationship and Work Contexts ...... 98
Table 22 Pooled Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between Subjective Well-Being and Coping
Strategies Within the Context of Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships for the Overall
Sample ...................................................................................................................................... 100
Table 23 Pooled Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between Subjective Well-Being and Coping
Strategies Within the Context of Work Stress for the Overall Sample .................................... 100
Table 24 A Comparison of Well-Being and Coping Strategies Used Across Relationship and Work
Contexts for the Overall Sample .............................................................................................. 101
Table 25 Relationship Coping Clusters .................................................................................................. 102
Table 26 Work Coping Clusters ............................................................................................................. 103
Table 27 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Emotional
Intelligence for Relationship Coping Clusters ......................................................................... 104
Table 28 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Emotional
Intelligence for Work Coping Clusters .................................................................................... 106
Table 29 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Well-Being for
Relationship Coping Clusters ................................................................................................... 107
Table 30 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Well-Being for
Work Coping Clusters .............................................................................................................. 108
Table 31 Assessing Multicollinearity for Mediation Models ................................................................. 111
Table 32 Mediation of the Effect of Emotional Intelligence on Subjective Well-Being Through Proposed
Coping Strategies for Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationship ............................................ 113
Table 33 Pooled Results of the Mediated Hierarchical Regression for Stress in Close Interpersonal
Relationships ............................................................................................................................ 114
Table 34 Mediation of the Effect of Emotional Intelligence on Subjective Well-Being Through Proposed
Coping Strategies for Occupational Stress (n = 237) ............................................................... 115
xii
Table 35 Results of the Pooled Mediated Hierarchical Regression for Occupational Stress .................. 116
Table 36 Pooled Descriptives for Coping Clusters with Emotional Intelligence as Covariant in Well-
Being ........................................................................................................................................ 117
Table 37 Pooled Male and Female Comparisons Across Emotional Intelligence, Attention, Clarity, and
Repair ....................................................................................................................................... 118
Table 38 Pooled Pearson’s Product Moment Correlations for EI and EI Subscales With Agency and
Communion .............................................................................................................................. 118
Table 39 Pooled t-tests for Sex Differences in Coping Strategies Used With Stress in Close
Interpersonal Relationships ...................................................................................................... 120
Table 40 Pooled t-tests for Sex Differences in Coping Strategies Used With Work Stress ................... 121
Table 41 Pooled Comparisons of the Relationships Between Agency and Communion With Coping
Strategies Across Interpersonal and Occupational Contexts Using Pearson Product Moment
Coefficients .............................................................................................................................. 122
Table 42 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Agency for
Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships ............................................................................. 123
Table 43 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Communion for
Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships ............................................................................ 124
Table 44 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Agency for
Occupational Stress .................................................................................................................. 126
Table 45 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Communion for
Occupational Stress .................................................................................................................. 127
Table 46 Pooled Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Coping Strategies and Well-Being from
EI By Sex Interactions.............................................................................................................. 129
Table 47 Pooled Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Coping Strategies and Well-Being from
EI By Agency Interactions ....................................................................................................... 130
Table 48 Pooled Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Coping Strategies and Well-Being from
EI By Communion Interactions ................................................................................................ 132
xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1 EI Ability Model. .........................................................................................................................8
Figure 2 Transactional Model of Stress and Coping ................................................................................ 19
Figure 3 Adaptational Model Contextualizing Emotional Intelligence within the Coping Process. ....... 60
Figure 4 Example of Multiple Mediation Model Depicting Coping Strategies as Potential Mediators
Between EI and Well-Being. ..................................................................................................... 62
Figure 5 Overall Summary of Missing Values. ........................................................................................ 88
Figure 6 Mean Comparisons of Coping Strategies Used Across Interpersonal and Work Contexts ....... 99
Figure 7 Boxplots Comparing Emotional Intelligence Means Across Coping Clusters for Stress in
Close Interpersonal Relationships. .......................................................................................... 105
Figure 8 Boxplots Comparing Emotional Intelligence Means Across Coping Clusters for Workplace Stress. ...................................................................................................................................... 106
Figure 9 Boxplots for Close Interpersonal Relationships Coping Clusters and Subjective
Well-Being. ............................................................................................................................. 107
Figure 10 Boxplots for Work Coping Clusters and Subjective Well-Being. ........................................... 109
Figure 11 Mean Differences in Agency Across Coping Style Groups for Stress in Close Interpersonal
Relationships……………………………………………..…………………….………………...123
Figure 12 Mean Differences in Communion Across Coping Style Groups for Stress in Close
Interpersonal Relationships. .................................................................................................... 125
Figure 13 Mean Differences in Agency Across Coping Style Groups for Occupational Stress .............. 126
Figure 14 Mean Differences in Communion Across Coping Style Groups for Occupational Stress. ..... 127
xiv
List of Appendices
Appendix A: Consents and Recruitment ………………………………………………………………..204
Recruitment and Consents………………….………………………...…………….……..…….205
University of Toronto Recruitment Email……………………………………………………....206
Facebook Recruitment Email……………………………………………………………….......207
Information and Consent………………………………………………………………………..208
Examples of Motivational Phrases and Final Page………………………………………...…...209
Appendix B: Multiple Mediation…………………………………………………...……….…….....….210
Table B-1: Mediation on Relationship Data Across Five Imputations (m = 6 to 10)………......211
Table B-2: Mediation on Occupational Data Across Five Imputations (m = 6 to 10)………….219
Appendix C: Copyright Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………...228
1
Chapter One: Introduction and Literature Review
Janice, a 48-year-old mother of two teenage children, is happily married and excelling in her
marketing business. She has a loving and supportive family and a network of friends whom she can count
on; others are able to count on her as well. Her colleagues describe her as friendly, energetic, and caring.
Not too long ago, Janice received the tragic news that her father passed away suddenly as a result of a
heart attack. Janice had a close, loving relationship with her father. Losing him caused her much pain.
Janice took some time off work to reflect and heal. Together with the support of her family and friends,
she has been able to cope effectively with the loss of her father and has found comfort in the meaning of
his life. She has gradually returned to her regular routines at work and at home, and Janice is now calmed
by the cherished memory of her father.
Darren is a 62-year-old man who has been struggling with depression at different points
throughout his life. He has been taking antidepressants, but has not found medication helpful. Darren is
often worried, has high levels of anxiety and finds he has little desire to do anything. He feels he has
nothing to look forward to other than meeting the milestone of turning 65. In general, Darren is highly
self-critical, self-conscious and extremely fearful of being judged by others. In his personal relationships,
Darren feels his depression stands in the way and that people do not want to be around him because he
can bring them down; he says the last friend he had, terminated their friendship recently as she thought
his depression was something she could “catch.” Darren had two failed marriages earlier in his life.
About seven years ago, he left his job after working 25 years because he was no longer able to cope with
the stressful demands of his work. Currently, Darren is unable to work due to his depression and anxiety.
His only “lifeline” now is the community centre where he volunteers once a week. However, he is often
anxious that he will “screw up,” so he does not speak to others much while he is there.
Both scenarios above illustrate the link between coping with stress and well-being. On the one
hand, Janice, who is a high-functioning woman, is able to apply her personal resources and characteristics
in gaining the support she needs from her environment to cope effectively with the daily stressors of a
1
2
demanding career, parenthood, and a stressful life event. On the other hand, Darren has had continuous
difficulty in coping with everyday stressors throughout his life which has interfered with his personal
relationships, work-life, and daily functioning. We all know people like Janice, who are skilled in
managing multiple stressors. We also know some individuals who have difficulty managing stress, like
Darren, whose stressors take a tremendous toll on various facets of life, including their relationships,
work, and physical as well as psychological health.
While relationships and work life provide avenues that can foster self-esteem, self-efficacy,
success, and life satisfaction for most people, they could also be major sources of personal distress and
unhappiness. Indeed, there has been increasing attention to the nature and implications of stress on our
lives, with major newspaper headlines raising our awareness on these issues and citing, for example,
research revealing: “On-job stress increases heart risk: Spouse, co-workers can ease danger”; “Deadly
stress; It’s not that there’s more stress in our lives, but we’re not coping well. It’s making us sick”; “Men
flee, women call their friends when under stress”; “Working women over 40 more likely to report high
stress”; “Stress and depression in the employed population: Stress common among workers … Stress
related to depression”; “Health costs linked to overwork, stress: Canadians struggling to cope”; and,
“Marital angst can be harder on heart than a marathon.”
The present investigation, exploratory in nature, contributes to a literature examining the
distinguishing features of individuals who are able to cope well with stress and those who experience
difficulty in managing life’s daily challenges. If we are able to determine differences among individuals
in the ways they cope, then this information could be applied through psychoeducational programs (e.g.,
stress management), psychological assessment, therapeutic practice, and self-help guides to promote
well-being. While some differences in the relationships between coping and personality traits (e.g.,
hardiness, optimism, neuroticism, extraversion, etc.) have been investigated (see Snyder, 1999; Zeidner &
Endler, 1996), the current study focuses on individual differences in emotional processes because
emotions are understood as central to the process of coping and adaptation (Folkman & Lazarus, 1988).
One approach to the study of emotions that has become quite prominent involves a cognitive
orientation based on the principle that emotion and cognition work jointly in people’s appraisals of events
3
as promoting or hindering their well-being. Contrary to the rationalist tradition which devalues the
“passions,” the current approach recognizes that one’s ability to use information provided by emotions
can be adaptive and increase well-being (see Darwin, 1873; Davidson et al., 2000; Frijda, 1994;
Goleman, 1995; Lazarus, 1993; Martin, Berry, Dobranski and Horne, 1996; Pennebaker, 1995, 1997;
Taylor, Parker & Bagby, 1999). Emotions can strive to warn individuals, protect them from danger, and
help guide people towards achieving their tasks and goals (Folkman & Lazarus, 1988; Kennedy-Moore &
Watson, 1999; Lazarus, 1984; Slaski & Cartwright, 2003). In examining how individuals use their
abilities to apply the information conveyed by emotions adaptively, differences have emerged in the level
of skill with which individuals can identify their feelings and the feelings of others, regulate these
feelings, and use the information provided by their feelings to motivate adaptive behaviour. These
emotional skills are conceptualized as comprising the construct of emotional intelligence (EI) (Mayer,
Caruso & Salovey, 2000).
Individuals possessing high levels of EI appear to have emotional skills which allow them to cope
effectively with the challenges they face and promote well-being. Considering the role of EI in coping
research may yield significant benefits for individuals because EI has consistently been linked with
positive outcome measures, such as life and work satisfaction, interpersonal functioning, healthy
relationships, job performance, psychological well-being, physical health, and psychophysiological
measures of adaptive coping (i.e., cortisol levels, blood pressure) (e.g., Ciarrochi, Forgas, & Mayer, 2001;
Martins, Ramalho, & Morin, 2010; Salovey et al., 1999; Salovey et al., 2002; Wong & Law, 2002;
Zomer, 2001). Although the theoretical significance of EI to coping and adaptation has been recognized
(e.g., Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Snyder, 1999), relatively few studies investigate the relationships among
these constructs. The primary objective of the current research is to explore how emotional intelligence
(EI) facilitates adaptive coping across both interpersonal and occupational contexts – two central areas of
our lives. It attempts to provide evidence in support of an extended adaptational model contextualizing EI
within the coping process.
A review of the current literature on EI, coping, and well-being will make it apparent that while
the role of EI in adaptation appears promising, there are some research gaps which need to be addressed.
4
The current investigation will present an adapted theoretical model and address some of the research gaps
by exploring: (1) EI and the coping strategies people use in responding to two particular types of stressors
(i.e., stress in close interpersonal relationships and work stress); (2) subjective well-being relative to
coping response; (3) a comparison of EI and coping strategies across the contexts of relationships and
work life; and, (4) the role of gender (in terms of biological and sociological differences) in the
relationship between EI and coping with stress across contexts.
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence (EI) is a recent concept in psychology, the term having been cited in few
sources in the academic literature from the mid-1960s, and emerging as a construct in psychology only as
early as 1990 (see Mayer & Cobb, 2000; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). At the root of this late development is
what has traditionally been considered unreasonable: the integration of the emotional and intellectual
worlds. The struggle between passion and reason is exemplified in the rationalist arguments of Stoicism,
and philosophers including Descartes and Kant who considered the intellect as the true essence of the
being, while the adversarial views of the Romantic Movement, and the philosophies of Rousseau, Hume,
and William James indicated the emotional system to be of greater value (see Ben-Ze’ev, 2000; Solomon,
1976). Interestingly, in an early integrative approach articulated in The Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle's
challenge was to manage our emotional life with intelligence, to use our passions with reason – this, he
considered a virtue. While Aristotle taught that the essential nature of humans is reason, he recognized
that the passions have their place in the human organism. Aristotle, for example, believed that anger, by
emboldening men, actually helped nations to win wars (see Russo, 2000).
While the term “emotional intelligence” was not coined until 1990 in psychology, I was able to
trace what seems to have been its development back to O. Hobart Mowrer, in 1960, who maintained,
“The emotions are of quite extraordinary importance in the total economy of living organisms and do not
deserve being put into opposition with ‘intelligence.’ The emotions are, it seems, themselves a high order
of intelligence” (p. 308). Similarly, Robert C. Solomon, in 1976, wrote, “…emotions are rational ….
They are, as I have been arguing, judgments, and they are intentional and intelligent” (p. 239). Solomon’s
objective was to eliminate unnecessary conflicts between reason and passions, and instead, to encourage
5
appreciation of the passions without requiring the rejection of “reason” (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004;
Salovey, Mayer & Caruso, 2002).
It appears Payne (1986) first formally introduced and defined the concept of EI in an unpublished
doctoral dissertation in philosophy entitled, A Study of Emotion: Developing Emotional Intelligence; Self-
Integration; Relating to Fear, Pain and Desire. According to Payne, EI involved relating effectively to
fear, pain, and desire, and he maintained that individuals could learn the necessary skills through
educational programming in schools. Payne believed that mass emotional suppression throughout history
has stifled our emotional growth, and he viewed many of the problems of modern society as being caused
by emotional ignorance, culminating in wars, depression, illness, addiction, religious conflict, and
violence (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004; Salovey, Mayer & Caruso, 2002).
In the field of psychology, the construct of emotional intelligence (EI) was first formally defined
by Salovey and Mayer (1990) as a set of skills relating to “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’
feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking
and actions (p. 189).” They justified the label of “emotional intelligence” on the grounds that it demands
processing of specific emotional information from within the organism, and because some level of
competence at these skills is required for adequate social functioning. They originally outlined three
mental processes involving emotional information: (1) the appraisal and expression of emotions in self
and other; (2) the regulation of emotions in self and other; and (3) the use of emotions adaptively to
achieve one’s goals.
Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) definition of EI is, in part, derived from Gardner’s earlier concept of
personal intelligence. In Gardner's (1983) theory of multiple intelligences, he proposed that the
awareness of one’s own and others’ emotional states are interconnected components of what he termed,
the “personal intelligences.” This definition is comprised of two subtypes – intrapersonal intelligence (the
ability to access one’s own feelings) and interpersonal intelligence (the ability to read the moods,
intentions, and desires of others). Gardner (1983) claimed that these abilities are biologically based
information-processing capacities that all individuals have to some extent. These two subtypes of
6
personal intelligence are embedded in the construct of EI, which requires emotional knowledge on both
the intrapersonal and interpersonal levels.
Indeed, Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2004) affirm that EI is part of a class of intelligences
comprising the social, practical, and personal intelligences. They have referred to these types of multiple
intelligences as “hot intelligences” (Mayer & Mitchell, 1998; Mayer & Salovey, 1993) to signify that
these intelligences function on hot cognitions, or cognitions concerned with issues of personal and
emotional relevance to the person (see Abelson, 1963; Zajonc, 1980). Among these intelligences, EI has
arguably been most controversial, largely attributable to Goleman’s (1995) popularization of the concept.
Media reports have spread the news on the potential value of EI for ameliorating one’s professional and
personal life. The attraction of the public to this concept is partially due to the nature of EI and the
proposal that emotional skills can be learned. The education of EI is now a part of the curricula of many
school boards and adopted by a number of organizations, particularly in the Unites States (Goleman,
1995; O’Connor & Little, 2003). The tenet that all individuals are capable of learning emotional skills has
increased the construct’s popularity, and challenges theories such as that set out in the Bell Curve
(Herrnstein and Murray, 1994). That the construct itself is controversial is no surprise as it is in a sense
revolutionary; some criticisms will be addressed in the sections that follow.
Trait EI versus ability EI. One of the criticisms made about the EI construct is that it is nothing
more than a combination of personality traits (e.g., the Big Five – neuroticism, extraversion, openness to
experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness) (Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998). In addressing this
criticism and others surrounding the theoretical components of EI, a distinction between trait EI and
ability EI has been made in recent years (Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 2000; Petrides & Furnham, 2000a,
2003).
Trait EI models encompass a range of emotion-related, self-perception, and dispositional
variables. They are considered to be the most stable indicators of EI. Goleman’s trait model (1995)
conceptualizes EI in terms of self-awareness, self-regulation, self-motivation, empathy, and handling
relationships. Bar-On’s (1997) model examines other postulated dimensions of EI, including
interpersonal and intrapersonal skills, adaptability, stress management, and general mood. These trait EI
7
models are “mixed” as they assess not only emotional skill, but overlap with clearly distinct constructs in
psychology, uniting them under an overarching “EI” construct. Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2004) claim,
“These conceptualizations and associated measures often have little or nothing specifically to do with
emotion or intelligence and, consequently, fail to map onto the term emotional intelligence (p. 197).”
These mixed conceptualizations of EI and their related measures have led to such formidable popular
claims by some that EI is essential for success and provides the platform for competencies valuable to
most jobs (e.g., Goleman, 1995).
In comparison with these mixed models, other models of trait EI are theoretically based on ability
EI models which are designed to assess specific emotional information-processing skills or abilities, such
as emotional perception and regulation (e.g., see Schutte et al., 1998). Ability EI models represent EI as a
cognitive ability. According to Mayer and colleagues’ (2000) ability definition, emotional intelligence is
the capacity to process emotional information accurately and efficiently. They argue for a four-branch
model of emotional capacities which are hierarchically arranged from lower, more molecular skills to
higher, more molar skills: (1) emotional perception; (2) integration of emotion in thought; (3)
understanding emotion; and (4) managing emotion (see Figure 1). In each of these branches, skills range
from those more basic to the more complex depending on the stage of development.
The first branch, which encompasses the most basic level skills, is the perception of emotions.
Emotion perception involves the ability to recognize emotion in body language and facial expressions. It
involves the ability to perceive emotions verbally and nonverbally through facial expression, voice
intonation and postural expression.
The second branch of the EI model is emotional integration and facilitation of thought. This
branch involves the ability to use emotional information in guiding cognitive activities, for example, by
using emotions to direct attention, reason, plan, and problem-solve.
The third branch is the ability to understand emotions which involves the capacity to reason about
emotions and where they stem from. It includes the capacity to understand how emotions evolve. For
instance, some people realize that fear often turns into relief, sadness segregates us from others, and anger
arises from perceived injustice. Branch three also involves a developmental aspect as it corresponds to
8
language development and propositional thought. Thus, an adolescent would be able to label and
discriminate feelings better than a 5-year-old, and a 30-year-old would perform even better.
The fourth ability and highest level of emotional skills requires the regulation and management of
emotions in both self and others. This ability would include knowing how to relax after feeling angry or
being able to alleviate the anxiety of another person (Mayer et al., 2000; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Mayer,
Salovey & Caruso, 2004).
Figure 1. EI Ability Model. Note. A four-branch model of the skills involved in EI adapted from "EI Meets Traditional Standards for an Intelligence" by J. D. Mayer, D. R. Caruso, & P. Salovey (2000). Intelligence, 27, 267-298. ISSN: 0160-2896. Reprinted with permission (see Appendix C).
The ways in which the construct of emotional intelligence is assessed is what essentially
distinguishes trait EI from ability EI (Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 2000; Petrides & Furnham, 2000a,
2003). While self-report measures, such as the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS; Salovey, Mayer,
Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995), can be used to assess trait EI, ability EI is assessed using maximum
performance measures, such as the Mayer and Salovey and Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test
(MSCEIT; Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 1999). In one of the tasks on the MSCEIT, for example,
participants are asked questions such as the following:
Contempt most closely combines which two emotions?
1. Anger and fear
Emotional Intelligence
Reflectively Regulating Emotions
Understanding Emotions
Assimilating Emotion in Thought
Perceiving Emotions
9
2. Fear and surprise
3. Disgust and anger
4. Surprise and disgust (see Mayer and Cobb, 2000, p. 173)
While much criticism has been directed at mixed trait EI models, as highlighted above, ability EI
models have in no respect been free of criticism. Petrides and Furnham (2003) have argued that some
domains of the construct, for example its intrapersonal component, are difficult to operationalize and
assess in terms of maximal performance measures which require objective scoring. The reason for this is
because the information needed to endorse a response, such as “I am aware of my emotions as I
experience them,” as correct or incorrect is only available to the person providing the answer. Certainly, it
has been recognized that people’s perceptions of themselves may not be accurate. Nevertheless, self-
perceptions do not need to be accurate in order to influence behaviour or well-being (Petrides &
Furnham, 2003; Taylor & Brown, 1998). Additionally, the “right” answer to the task demands of
maximum performance measures may be difficult to ascertain, although efforts have been made to
determine the correct answer though consensus or expert scoring (see Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004).
Ability EI measures have also been questionable in terms of their ecological validity in the sense
that participants are asked to provide their emotional reactions to hypothetical as opposed to real-life
events. Whether the measures are applicable to their experiences in their everyday lives is uncertain.
Zomer (2001) maintains that,
Although this format [i.e., maximal performance] may be appealing in a sense because it parallels some of the existing measures of general intelligence (“g”) (Petrides & Furnham, 2000b), it seems to lack personal relevance and ecological validity which is particularly important when looking at emotions and how individuals are able to manage them within themselves, as well as use this information in their relationships with others in their immediate contexts (p. 18).
While individuals may have the knowledge required to solve questions based on hypothetical scenarios,
the real test of EI is whether they are able to apply the knowledge in their daily lives. In reverting to the
original definition of EI, it stated that one of its components is that individuals should be able to use
emotional information “to guide [their] thinking and actions” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p. 189). In
addressing the limited ecological validity of maximal performance EI measures, Zomer (2001) introduced
a contextually more sensitive self-report measure designed to assess EI by adapting Personal Projects
10
Analysis (PPA) to access the ways people apply emotional information in what they are doing. This
instrument was theoretically based on Mayer et al.’s (2000) ability EI model. Nevertheless, this
instrument is still susceptible to the criticisms of other self-report EI measures.
Given the limitations of all measures of EI and the lack of an integrated self-report and maximal
performance instrument for assessing EI, which is apparently needed, EI in the present investigation will
be assessed by its trait distinction through a widely used self-report measure (the Trait Meta-Mood Scale)
which has established its theoretical basis in Mayer et al.’s (2000) ability EI model.
The validity of trait EI. Much controversy surrounds the construct of EI, as recognized above.
In general, criticisms have been directed at the construct’s theoretical structure, psychometrics,
questionable claims of its potency, its identification as an ‘intelligence,’ and its overlap with other
personality measures, such as the Big Five (e.g., Brody, 2004; Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998;
Petrides & Furnham, 2003; Roberts, Zeidner & Matthews, 2001). The process of addressing these
criticisms has helped to develop the construct both theoretically and empirically, although it is clear that
further development is needed. The following section provides some validity for the construct of EI, with
the focus being on trait EI.
While trait EI has been questioned as overlapping significantly with personality traits, recent
evidence has provided some support for the validation of trait EI measures as assessing a distinct
construct. One study has examined whether high trait EI participants perform significantly better on a
facial emotion recognition task in comparison with those low in trait EI. Participants were administered
the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i; Bar-On, 1997) and an added ‘emotion mastery’ scale. Then, a
subgroup took part in the emotional expression task which required participants to identify the emotional
expressions of male and female faces presented on a computer screen. Participants were first-year
university students selected based on trait EI cutoffs marking the 85th and 15th percentiles, with ten
participants in each group. Findings showed that global EI scores on the EI measure differentiated the two
groups with regard to response latencies and the number of frames it took the participants to identify each
emotional expression (Petrides & Furnham, 2003).
In a similar investigation, Bates (1999) assessed the speed of emotional information processing
11
using the inspection time (IT) paradigm with the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS). The TMMS is a self-
report measure which assesses people’s appraisal of their emotional skill in three areas: (1) Attention to
emotion, or how much attention individuals give to their feelings; (2) Emotional clarity, or how well
individuals can discriminate among their experiences of feelings; and (3) Mood repair, or how well
people are able to prolong positive mood states or terminate negative ones. Performance on visual IT
tasks has been found to consistently relate to psychometric intelligence (i.e., traditional IQ tests). In an IT
task, a stimulus is presented for a brief interval and then masked. A person's IT is the shortest stimulus
duration for which they can reliably discriminate between two (or more) possible stimuli; higher levels of
intelligence tend to correlate with shorter ITs which, in turn, has been linked to the idea that higher
intelligence is related to faster information processing. Bates (1999) found that scores on the TMMS were
positively related to performance on a facial emotion recognition task.
More recently, Austin (2004) examined trait EI, general ability processing speed, and
performance on two facial expression recognition tasks using the IT paradigm. The study used Schutte et
al.’s (1998) self-report measure which was based on Salovey and Mayer’s definition of ability EI. Results
showed that general processing speed did not fully account for task performance. However, general
emotion-processing ability significantly contributed to performance on these tasks after controlling for
general processing speed. Performance on the emotional IT tasks was significantly related to an EI
subscale assessing “appraisal of emotions”. This research indicates that self-reports of people’s abilities
in perceiving and understanding emotions do relate to performance measures. In other words, these
studies suggest that people are able to reliably self-report on their emotional skills without actually
demonstrating them, much like they can self-report on their personality traits.
There has been much debate about conceptual overlaps of EI with other personality traits, such as
the Big Five. In an experimental investigation to address the issue, Petrides and Furnham (2003) explored
whether people with high trait EI were more sensitive to emotion-laden stimuli than those low in trait EI,
and fully controlled for overlapping variance with the Big Five using the NEO Personality Inventory -
Revised. If individuals with high trait EI are in actuality more sensitive to emotion-laden stimuli, it is
likely they would also be more responsive to mood induction procedures. Participants were 30 first year
12
psychology students. Of the participants, 15 had high trait EI scores and 15 had low trait EI scores based
on a comprehensive self-report measure (Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue; Petrides &
Furnham, 2003). They were asked to complete an inventory of mood states at three times: 1) upon arrival
(baseline); 2) after exposure to a disturbing video clip taken from a World War II documentary showing
conditions in a concentration camp; and, 3) after watching a cheerful clip taken from a TV show of
comical home videos. Participants were called in on two separate occasions over a three week period.
Results showed differential reactivity to the stimuli between the two groups, in addition to significant
differences for each individual group. In general, the low trait EI group was less sensitive to the mood
induction procedures than the high EI group. The high EI group showed statistically significant mood
deterioration or mood improvement on five occasions whereas the low EI group did not show these
effects to be significant or as strong. Specifically, in comparison with the low EI group, the high EI group
showed decreased confusion and vigour after watching the cheerful video, while experiencing increased
vigour, tension, depression, anger, and overall deterioration in mood after watching the disturbing video.
However, the high EI group also reported less mood disturbance at baseline and after watching the
cheerful video in comparison with the low EI group despite their more intense reactions to the disturbing
video. These effects were significant after controlling for the Big Five, providing some construct and
incremental validity for the assessment of trait EI.
Moreover, a recent meta-analysis reported that EI revealed incremental validity over the Big Five
on various performance measures, but that the Big Five did not reveal incremental validity over EI (see
Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004; see also Gohm & Clore, 2002; Zeidner, Roberts & Matthews, 2004). In
Gohm and Clore’s (2002) study examining EI and well-being, they accounted for variance associated
with the Big Five personality traits in reporting their findings. The researchers found that emotional
clarity was positively associated with happiness, life satisfaction, positive affect, and self-esteem. Clarity
was negatively associated with anxiety, negative affect, unhappiness, and repressive defensiveness.
Positive psychological well-being was related to the expression of emotion and to the intense experience
of positive emotions. The intense experience of negative emotions was related to increased anxiety,
negative affect, unhappiness and repressive defensiveness.
13
A number of other studies have found that select trait EI measures and in particular, ability
measures, have high discriminant validity from related personality measures, such as the Big Five (e.g.,
Day & Carroll, 2004; O’Connor & Little, 2003; Saklofske, Austin & Minski, 2003; Zomer, 2001). In
addition, further research controlling for the effects of related personality traits has revealed that EI
predicts a number of important outcome measures, including interpersonal satisfaction, academic success,
physical health, and psychological well-being (e.g., Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Saklofske, Austin & Minski,
2003). Many of these studies have also shown common variance with theoretically related traits, such as
empathy (e.g., Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Saklofske, Austin & Minski, 2003). While these concepts appear
to be similar, when put to scientific scrutiny, the discriminant validity and reliability of EI has been
supported, signifying the distinctiveness of EI and its unique identity (Mayer et al., 2003; Mayer, Caruso
& Salovey, 2000; Parker et al., 2001; Saklofske et al., 2003; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). In a different area
of research, neuropsychological correlates of EI processes have also been found (e.g., Bar-On et al., 2003;
Salovey et al., 2002).
Research conducted by Engelberg and Sjoberg (2005) has examined the belief that performance
measures of EI are more valid than self-report EI measures in terms of respondents’ desires to fake good,
or embellish their actual social-emotional qualities and abilities. They used two groups of participants,
one consisting of 41 participants recruited among students at the Stockholm School of Economics, the
second a group consisting of 191 participants who were applicants to the school. Intellectually these
groups were comparable based on high school grades or a test of intellectual ability similar to the SAT,
and admission to the school is highly competitive and desirable. Instructions to group one (n = 41)
stressed that testing was anonymous, while instructions to group two (n = 191) stressed that they should
give honest answers. Participants completed both the MSCEIT and self-report EI measure developed by
Schutte et al. (1998). To evaluate response bias, they used the scale of social desirability by Crowne and
Marlowe (1960) and the Paulhus scales of impression management and self-deception (Paulhus, 1984,
1991, 1998; Paulhus & Reid, 1991). As expected, there was no indication that the EI performance
measures could be successfully faked. However, with respect to the EI self-report measure, results
suggested that respondents in the high-stakes situation (group two) faked a positive image of themselves
14
because respondents in group one who took the test under conditions of anonymity provided a
significantly less favourable picture of themselves. The researchers also administered other self-report
measures to each group (e.g., TAS, Big 5 Personality), which revealed similar results. Interestingly,
statistically controlling for impression management and faking removed the mean difference in EI
between the two groups. Thus, statistical control was powerful enough to remove the motivational effects
of the high-stakes testing situation. Moreover, it should be noted that faking has been acknowledged as
being prevalent to some extent in self-report measures of personality, yet extensive empirical research
reveals that the validity of these types of personality scales is not compromised by faking (Ones &
Viswesvaran, 1998; Viswesvaran & Ones, 1999).
Altogether, studies such as those described above arguably provide support for the validity of
both trait EI and ability EI constructs, as well as their measures. For the purposes of the present
investigation, the use of a self-report instrument to evaluate EI would appear to be sufficient considering
the efficiency of self-report measures and the condition of anonymity which will be applied. Given the
condition of anonymity, participants would appear to not have much at stake in their responses, which
may reduce the probability of faking.
Theoretical Overview of the Applicability of Emotional Intelligence to Stress and Coping
To date, relatively few empirical studies have been conducted on the impact of EI on coping
(Salovey et al., 1999). One of the reasons for this may have to do with the relatively recent development
of the construct of emotional intelligence. Nonetheless, the utility of EI in accounting for the coping
strategies individuals choose to implement has been theoretically recognized, although research in this
area is sparse. Salovey, Bedell, Detweiler and Mayer (2000) maintain, “A person’s ability to adapt and
cope in life depends on the integrated functioning of emotional and rational capacities (p. 506).” The
researchers state explicitly, “Emotionally intelligent individuals should be able to recognize and pursue
the most effective means of coping” (Salovey et al., 2000, p. 512). Identifying what individuals high in EI
do differently in relation to coping in particular contexts could be beneficial for those who have difficulty
coping. Learning about how to most effectively apply coping strategies relative to a context could help to
increase well-being (see Salovey, Stroud, Woolery and Epel, 2002).
15
The hierarchy of emotional skills outlined by Salovey et al. (2000) may contribute greater
understanding to the coping choices people make. Major deficits in basic perceptual and expressive skills,
emotional knowledge and regulation of emotion are considered to interfere with the development and
application of more complex coping processes. Subsequently, a person who struggles to identify or
express her emotions may also have a hard time with finding social support or venting feelings. In
another example, Salovey et al. (1999) explain that individuals who ruminate exhibit excessive focus on
the perception and appraisal of their mood states; the excessive attention may be motivated partly by
difficulty in making sense of one’s emotional experience and the need for some kind of meaning-making
activity (i.e., poor basic emotional skills). They maintain that while high levels of attention to one’s mood
may actually be counterproductive in coping, a moderate amount of attention may be most adaptive and
advantageous. Thus, emotionally intelligent people should be able to identify when regulating emotion
using distraction is adaptive (e.g., as a way to disengage from a ruminative coping cycle), and when they
need to experience their emotional states so as not to avoid them. Those who are emotionally intelligent
should be able to attain a healthy balance between delightful distractions and being at peace with their
feelings (Barrett & Gross, 2001; Salovey, et al., 2000).
Before exploring existing research on the relationships between EI and coping, it is important to
consider why examining EI with respect to coping is at all important. One of the most important reasons
to consider EI in coping research is because EI has consistently been related to and predictive of positive
outcome measures, such as life satisfaction, work performance, healthy relationships, physical health, and
psychological well-being (e.g., Ciarrochi, Forgas, Mayer, 2001; Salovey et al., 1999; Zomer, 2001).
People high in EI seem to possess skills that allow them to cope effectively with the challenges they face
which in the long-run contribute to such positive outcomes, with reversals among these relationships
suggested for those low in EI. For example, Schutte and Riley (2003) found that low EI is a predictor of
alcohol and drug use (N = 141). Ciarrochi et al. (2002) found that emotion perception, a component of EI,
moderated the relationship between daily hassles and psychological health (e.g., depression,
hopelessness, suicidal ideation). The ability to manage others’ emotions, another EI component,
moderated the relationship between hassles and suicidal ideation in the opposite direction, such that the
16
relationship was stronger for people low in managing emotions than for people high in managing
emotions.
The need for additional work examining how the components of EI are related to coping
behaviour has been recognized (e.g., Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Gohm, 2004; Matthews, Roberts &
Zeidner, 2004; Oatley, 2004; Snyder, 1999). However, the quantity of emerging evidence has yet to catch
up to its theoretical suppositions (BarOn & Parker, 2000; Petrides & Furnham, 2000). To gain further
appreciation of the applicability of EI to the coping process, I will first review some of the literature on
stress and coping research.
Stress and Coping
Although the concept of stress has been around for over 60 years, a consensus on its definition
has yet to be established. The origin of the concept is rooted in a physiological definition of stress
attributable to Canadian researcher, Hans Selye, who made us aware of the role of the mind in the
function of the body. Selye elaborated on his physiological concept of stress by explaining it in terms of a
process, “the general adaptation syndrome.” This syndrome consists of three stages: 1) alarm reaction
(when the body reacts to a stimulus by releasing stress hormones, such as adrenaline or cortisol); 2)
resistance (the body’s adaptation to a continued stressor); and, 3) exhaustion (under prolonged exposure
to a stressor the body's resistance may gradually be reduced, resulting in a lack of energy or reduced
immune function) (Ice & James, 2007; Selye, 1991). According to Selye, then, stress involves not only
the physical responses but also the wear and tear that is produced by these responses in individuals
(Humphrey, 2005).
Selye’s work was in part inspired by Walter Cannon’s early research on the physiological
processes involved in the “fight or flight syndrome.” Cannon also coined the term ‘‘homeostasis’’ to
describe the process of preserving internal stability when confronted by environmental change (Cannon,
1932; Rosche, 1984; Selye, 1991). At the same time Selye and other researchers were focussing on the
physical aspects of stress, others began to focus on the psychosocial aspects of stress and examined
traumatic or major life events. Credit has been attributed to Adolf Meyer and Harold Wolff for the
development of research on stressful life events and illness in the 1930s and 1940s (see Ice & James,
17
2007). Throughout the 1960s, stress research concentrated on life events (still working within the Selyean
model), and the development of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Holmes and Rahe, 1967) became
the foundation for assessing stress.
It was not until the late 1960s that a cognitive perspective of stress emerged, as Lazarus and other
researchers came to recognize individual differences in responses to stressful life events. Lazarus and his
colleagues developed a transactional theory of stress emphasizing appraisal and coping as key
components to the stress process, and suggested that researchers shift focus from major life events to
daily hassles (Lazarus, 1984, 1999; Monat & Lazarus, 1991; Ice & James, 2007). Although there is no
universal definition for “stress,” a highly accepted definition proposed by Monat and Lazarus (1991)
examines stress as “any event in which environmental demands, internal demands, or both tax or exceed
the adaptive resources of an individual, social system, or tissue system” (p.3). Common to the stress
process are the following components: 1) the input or stimuli; 2) physiological and psychological
processing systems; and, 3) the output or stress response. Monat and Lazarus (1991) identified three types
of stress: physiological stress, psychological stress (with cognitive factors leading to the evaluation of
threat, e.g., Lazarus, 1966), and social stress (with the disruption of a social unit or system, e.g., Smelser,
1963). Humphrey (2005) clarifies stress as a state which is distinct from any object or agent producing
this state; stress-producing objects or agents are referred to as stressors.
While there is no consensus on a proper definition of stress, there is agreement that stress is a
natural and expected part of life which requires individuals to cope or adapt. If coping is ineffective, the
effects of stress may be detrimental for physical and psychological health and functioning in all areas of
life. If coping is effective, stress is likely to remain under control and the challenge may lead to a sense of
gratification and increased self-efficacy. By effectively coping with stress, we can achieve more than we
may have thought we could accomplish. Effective coping may also lead to a positive reorganization of
our lives resulting in increased productivity and life satisfaction (Lazarus, 2006). The fundamental
objective in stress research is to discern the relationships between stress and health, or stress and
adaptation.
18
Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping: The Place for Emotional Intelligence
By far, the transactional theory of stress (Lazarus, 1966) has received the greatest acceptance in
psychology and has been prominent in the field for the past four decades. Integral to the transactional
theory of stress is the conceptualization of coping as a process in which evaluative cognitive transactions
occur between the individual and the environment within a specific context in response to stressful
demands (see Lazarus, 1966, 1984). While extreme environmental conditions would lead to stress for
anyone, there are variations in human responses to these stressors which differentially affect adaptation.
These responses represent coping, which Lazarus (1984) defines as “constantly changing cognitive,
behavioural [and emotional] efforts to manage particular external and/or internal demands that are
appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person (p. 141).” Coping is a process characterized
by the attempts to manage the shifting demands of the person-environment relationship and the emotions
they generate through continuous appraisals and reappraisals of these relationships (Lazarus, 1984;
Seraganian, 1993). Stress is the result of a judgment (or appraisal) that a disruption has occurred in the
person-environment relationship. The individual perceives challenge/threat/harm, judges that his or her
resources may not be sufficient to manage the disruption, and considers the outcome relevant to his or her
well-being (Roskies, 1991; Slaski & Cartwright, 2003; see Figure 2).
Investigations into the transactional theory of stress and coping have examined individual
differences in understanding why certain individuals cope better than others when confronted with similar
situations, or why they may perceive and respond differently to similar situations. Many studies have
looked at personality and demographic factors (i.e., coping resources) which act to moderate the
relationship between stress and its impact on various outcome measures (Slaski & Cartwright, 2003; see
Figure 2). Some of the dispositional variables which have been examined include positive and negative
affectivity (Parkes, 1990), Type A behaviour (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974), Locus of Control (Spector
& O’Connell, 1994), and hardiness (Kobasa, 1979).
19
Figure 2. Transactional Model of Stress and Coping.
Seraganian, P. (Ed.). (1993), Exercise Psychology: The Influence of Physical Exercises on Psychological Processes. (p. 342). New York: John Wiley and Sons. Reprinted with permission (see Appendix C).
Assuming a constructivist approach, Lazarus (1984) maintains that the transactional theory of
stress depicts people as meaning-building creatures who constantly evaluate everything that happens and
who use emotional cues (which often occur early on in a stress encounter) in the process of appraisal.
There are two types of cognitive appraisals: primary and secondary. In primary appraisal, individuals
question what they have at stake in a particular threatening situation. The answer to the question
influences the quality and intensity of their emotion. In secondary appraisal, individuals question what
they can do in response to the perceived threat, that is, their options for coping. The answer to this
question contributes to the types of coping strategies they will implement to manage the demands of the
situation. According to Lazarus, appraisals of person-environment transactions are influenced by pre-
existing person attributes, such as locus of control, pattern of motivation (e.g., values, commitments,
Stressors Internal or
external demands
Appraisals
Coping Responses Emotion- or problem-
focused coping
Coping Resources Person attributes Stable environment
attributes
Short-term Outcomes Relaxation Mood
Long-term Outcomes Physical health Mental health Life
Satisfaction
Mediators Moderators
(Primary) (Secondary)
20
goals), beliefs about oneself and the world, recognition of personal resources for coping (e.g., financial),
social and problem-solving skills, health, and energy. Likewise, appraisal processes are affected by
environmental variables such as the nature of the danger, its imminence, ambiguity and duration, and the
availability and quality of social support.
Lazarus (1999) conceptualizes stress, emotion, and coping as forming one unit, with emotion as
the superordinate concept because it takes into account both coping and stress. In Lazarus’ (1991)
perspective on stress and coping, emotion is defined as, “a complex organized system consisting of
thoughts, beliefs, motives, meanings, subjective bodily experiences, and physiological states, all of which
arise from our struggles to survive and flourish by understanding the world in which we live” (p. 100).
Lazarus (1999) has identified 15 emotions (anger, envy, jealousy, anxiety, fright, guilt, shame, relief,
hope, sadness, happiness, pride, love, gratitude, and compassion) and explains that every emotion
communicates something distinct about how individuals have appraised what is happening in an
adaptational transaction and how they are coping with what is happening. The emotion of anger, for
instance, may involve an appraisal of a harmful or threatening situation, while happiness may involve an
appraisal that a person-environment condition is advantageous. Cognitive appraisals are integral to the
emotion state1,2,3.
Emotion is viewed as having the ability of both enabling and hindering coping. For example,
emotion may redirect attention from one task to another which is more pressing, thereby having a
motivational role. Emotion may also interrupt with coping, as in the case where anxiety-related thoughts
interfere with functioning because they are counterproductive to performance. In the latter case, emotion
has a cognitive role. Lazarus’ perspective draws from evolutionary theory in the sense that it depicts
emotions as having evolved for the purposes of coping and adapting to the threats and possibilities
presented by the ancestral environment; that is, for the purpose of playing a role in survival (Damasio,
2004; Manstead, Frijda & Fischer, 2004). For instance, if individuals are confronted with situations for
which they lack the support it could result in fear which, in turn, may result in withdrawal from the
threatening situation and pursuing a potentially more fruitful option instead.
21
While emotions alert individuals to situational demands that need their attention, the ways in
which people appraise situations and interpret their initial emotional reactions to them can strongly
influence the coping process and how people will continue to react emotionally. When individuals
appraise information as being significant for their well-being, that information becomes “hot
information,” loaded with emotion and meaning. Lazarus (1984) states, “It is not only possible, but in the
context of most stressful events highly probable, that emotion and information (and therefore cognition)
are conjoined for large portions of the evaluative appraisal process” (p. 277). He maintains that it is a
mistake to claim that cognition precedes emotion or that feelings precede cognition. Rather, Lazarus
(1984) sees the causality as bidirectional: emotion and cognition are intertwined rather than separate
entities.
There has been a fair bit of controversy around whether affect or cognition is primary in emotion.
Clearly, affect precedes purposeful, conscious thought. However, whether affect precedes preconscious
thought is less clear. Emotion theorists generally view that prior to the elicitation of most, if not all affect,
at least some minimal cognitive processing, involving very basic sensory information processing, is
required (Davidson and Ekman, 1994). Whether cognitive appraisals precede affect is more debatable.
Appraisals can be conscious or preconscious. As indicated above, Lazarus, a traditional cognitive theorist,
views appraisals as a prerequisite to the elicitation of emotions. Kennedy-Moore and Watson (1999)
maintain that in terms of their contribution to well-being, understanding how affect and cognition interact
is far more important than resolving which component is primary.
The levels of skills that individuals have in integrating their emotional and rational functioning
can be ascertained through the measurement of EI. Thus, the construct’s applicability to the coping
process is readily discernable. Given the important role of emotion and cognition in influencing how
individuals appraise and respond to stressors, the construct of EI has gained some attention as a critical
personality variable influencing the coping process (e.g., Slaski & Cartwright, 2003). Matthews and
Zeidner (2000) have described a model for the place of EI within the transactional model of stress and
coping. They consider EI as an attribute of the person which might predict adaptive outcomes. Matthews
and Zeidner (2000) depict EI as consisting of a set of competencies or skills for managing affectively
22
loaded information. They assume EI is represented in long-term memory, although they maintain that
people may strengthen their skills through learning experiences. When presented with demanding
encounters, individuals’ EI skills influence their choices of coping strategies to deal with the situations
they face. The coping process functions jointly with self-referent cognitions of the personal significance
of stress-related events. The end result of coping is a change in adaptive outcome which may influence
goal attainment, subjective well-being, learning, and health problems.
Coping: Classification of coping strategies and contextual considerations. Research reveals
that the coping strategies individuals use influence outcomes related to health, work, marital, financial,
occupational, and parental role stressors (Felton et al., 1980; Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; Goldberger &
Breznitz, 1993; Pearlin & Schooler, 1978; Zeidner & Endler, 1996). The effectiveness of these strategies
appears, in part, to depend on which strategies people choose when confronted by different stressful
situations. Two predominant approaches have been used to classify coping strategies: problem-focused
and emotion-focused. Problem-focused coping includes all strategies aimed at altering the objective
situation by changing either how the individual interacts with the environment or changing the
environment itself. For example, active coping is a strategy where individuals are taking active steps to
remove, circumvent or ameliorate the stressor and its effects. Restraint coping, also a problem-focused
strategy, involves waiting for an appropriate opportunity to act. Emotion-focused coping consists of
strategies focused on managing the emotional effects of stress, such as seeking social support for
emotional reasons, focusing on and venting emotions, and reinterpreting stressful situations in positive
ways (Bishop, 1994; Zeidner & Endler, 1996).
Coping strategies can be further categorized into avoidant and approach (or active) coping.
Avoidant coping involves either behavioural or psychological responses aimed at directing attention away
from the stressor or one’s reaction to it (e.g., withdrawal, alcohol use). Approach coping strategies are
behavioural or psychological responses which lead to changing the nature of the stressor itself or how one
thinks about it (Bishop, 1994; Zeidner & Endler, 1996). Generally, approach coping is thought to be more
effective than avoidant coping strategies which appear to be risk factors for adverse responses to stressful
life events. Although avoidant strategies may be helpful for dealing with the initial shock of a situation in
23
the short term, other strategies would likely be more beneficial for the long-term resolution of distress in
response to a significant stressor (Holahan & Moos, 1987). Broad distinctions like problem-focused and
emotion-focused, or avoidant and approach coping have only limited utility in helping us understand
coping effectiveness. Identifying the ways individuals implement specific coping strategies within these
classifications is ultimately of greater benefit in understanding how individuals cope with stress.
Table 1 classifies and describes some of the common coping strategies which people use.
Table 1 Examples of Coping Strategy Classifications and Descriptions (Carver, 1997) Coping Strategy Description
Self-distraction Taking one’s mind off things
Active coping Concentrating efforts on doing something
Denial Refusal to believe the reality of the situation
Substance use Including prescriptive medications for mood disorders
Use of emotional support Getting comfort and understanding from someone
Use of instrumental support Getting advice from others
Behavioral disengagement Giving up
Planning Coming up with a strategy
Venting Expressing negative feelings
Positive reframing Looking for the positive in the situation
Humour Making fun of the situation
Acceptance Accepting the reality and learning to live with the situation
Religion Finding comfort in prayers, meditation
Self-blame Criticizing and blaming oneself for the situation
Vitaliano et al. (1995) provided evidence that similar stressful problem categories had similar
coping profiles, whereas individuals in different problem categories generally had different profiles. For
24
instance, psychiatric patients made more use of avoidance and less use of social supports than individuals
in other stressor categories (e.g., physical health problems, stress in close interpersonal relationships,
work stressors). Samples with physical health problems were among the most frequent users of social
supports. Individuals with a family problem were among the most frequent users of problem-focused
coping and the least frequent users of self-blame. Groups dealing with work stress were the most frequent
users of self-blame.
Generally, the characteristics of the stressful situation are, in part, considered to dictate the
effectiveness of coping strategies across different contexts. More recent research (Endler et al., 2000) has
highlighted the importance of matching coping facets to situational demands and contexts. For example,
the literature suggests that in controllable situations, problem-focused coping is more effective whereas in
situations which afford little control, emotion-focused coping may be most adaptive since the ineffective
use of active coping strategies could increase frustration and distress (Zeidner, 2005; Zeidner &
Saklofske, 1996). Certain emotion-focused coping strategies (e.g., mindfulness meditation, expressive
writing) have been found particularly helpful for dealing with some health-related problems, such as
cancer and chronic conditions (Bishop, 1994; Giese-Davis et al., 2002; Goldberger & Breznitz, 1993;
Matthews & Zeidner, 2000; Snyder, 1999). Other studies have shown emotion-focused approaches (e.g.,
expressive writing) to be ineffective, for example, for caregivers of older adults (Mackenzie, Wiprzycka,
Hasher, & Goldstein, 2007), with a more recent study demonstrating that it is the content of the written
expression (i.e., using optimistic, future-focused language) which makes it effective for chronically-
stressed caregivers (Mackenzie, Wiprzycka, Hasher, & Goldstein, 2008).
Given these examples, the effectiveness of using either emotion- or problem-focused coping
strategies is not so clear. Folkman and Lazarus (1988) assert,
It is important to recognize that the quality of problem-focused coping, and hence its impact on the emotional response, also depends in part on the successful regulation of negative emotions, in effect, on emotion-focused coping. Too much emotional intensity could interfere with the cognitive functioning that is necessary for effective problem-focused coping (p. 314). Thus, EI would appear to have an important role in moderating the effectiveness of the coping
strategies people use. Research examining EI and coping behaviour will be reviewed in the next section.
25
Research on emotional intelligence and coping behaviour
Studies investigating the relationship between EI and coping have commonly used the Trait
Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS; Salovey et al., 1995), which measures some of the emotional skills
comprising EI including: (1) attention to emotion; (2) emotional clarity; and (3) mood repair. One of the
reasons this measure has been commonly used is because many of our coping strategies entail the
emotion-regulation aspect of EI, which is arguably considered to be measured well by such self-report
instruments (Salovey et al., 2002). Using the TMMS, Gohm and Clore (2002) examined whether EI is
related to dispositional coping to address the question of whether trusting the wisdom of one’s emotions
helps one cope with general life stress. Dispositional coping consists of the coping styles people typically
use in dealing with general life stress. The researchers administered questionnaires to two samples of
university students (N = 116 and N = 141) to cross-validate their results. Their findings showed that EI
was differentially related to coping styles even after overlapping variance related to the Big Five
personality traits was accounted for. The researchers found that, indeed, trusting in one’s own
understanding of and ability to deal with one’s emotions and valuing emotional experience were related
to adaptive coping styles. In particular, emotional clarity was related to the increased use of positive
reinterpretation and growth, active coping, and planning strategies, while both emotional clarity and
expression were significantly related to a reduction of behavioural withdrawal. Emotional attention,
intensity, and expression were all related to an increase in focusing on emotions, seeking social support,
and venting. Although those high in EI tended to focus on and vent their emotions, which is normally
associated with maladaptive coping, this did not result in their withdrawal from the stressful situations
behaviourally or mentally (Schutte and Malouff, 1999).
While the study by Gohm and Clore (2002) is an important foundation to research on EI and
coping, it is limited in its investigation of which types of coping approaches are, in actuality, adaptive for
individuals. Matthews and Zeidner (2000) speak to this point, “It is often difficult to distinguish adaptive
and maladaptive coping, in that what constitutes adaptiveness is highly dependent on the criterion
adopted and the situation of interest” (p. 482). That is, the study did not relate well-being measures to the
26
coping strategies in order to give an indication of the adaptiveness of the coping strategies which
participants endorsed. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) claim,
In order to determine the effectiveness of coping and defence processes, one must be open-minded to the possibility that both can work well or badly in particular persons, contexts, or occasions.... This means that no one strategy is considered inherently better than any other. The goodness… of a strategy is determined only by its effects in a given encounter and its effects in the long term (pp. 133-134). A second limitation of the study is found in its evaluation of coping as a style (i.e., by asking
people how they generally cope with stress), referred to as dispositional coping (Carver & Scheier, 1994).
Intrinsic to the study of dispositional coping is a lack of contextual referents. This limitation has its roots
in the long-standing debate on the contribution of traits versus situations in the prediction of behaviour.
Taking on a situationist perspective in his book, Personality and Assessment (1968), Walter Mischel
argued that cross-situational consistency in behaviour is rare and thus traits do not account for much
variance in behaviour. Lazarus and Folkman (1991) explain that the unidimensional quality of most trait
measures and trait conceptualizations of coping fails to sufficiently reflect the complexity of coping
processes in real-life situations and their multidimensional quality. Rather than looking at coping as a
universal way of managing all stressors, Lazarus and Folkman (1991) view coping as being context-
bound, or a response to manage a particular stressor. For example, Josh may deal with a work conflict
regarding division of responsibility through problem-solving, but when faced with a similar household
conflict regarding division of responsibility, he may react with anger and denial (Roskies, 1991).
According to the transactional model of stress, it is imperative that coping be evaluated within the
context of the stressful situation since coping comprises a process which unfolds in reaction to situational
demands (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Moskowitz (2001) points out, “it is more informative to ask what
someone did to cope with a particular stressful event than it is to ask what he/she did to cope in general
because both the responses used and the effectiveness of those responses depend on characteristics of the
situation (p. 312; see also Krahe, 1992).” Whereas the trait approach to coping implicitly asks people to
summarize or aggregate their coping behaviours across situations, other research on coping asks people to
recall a specific stressful situation and how they dealt with it in terms of specific actions, and cognitive
and emotional processes (Schwartz et al., 1999).
27
Indeed, research has shown that the coping strategies people use and their effectiveness differ
depending on the context (Carver et al., 1989; Zeidner & Endler, 1996). Carver et al. (1989) examined the
relationship between the dispositional version of the COPE and a situational version of the questionnaire.
Instead of assessing a generalized response to stress, the situational version of the questionnaire asked
how individuals coped with a particular recent real-life stressor (Carver et al., 1989). Both questionnaires
were administered to 128 students. Findings revealed only low to moderate correlations between the two
versions. Nevertheless, Lazarus and Folkman (1991) recognize that there are stabilities in coping and that
individuals may have preferred ways of coping with the same or similar sources of stress. Indeed,
research has shown evidence for consistencies in coping with similar stressors and inconsistencies in
coping with different categories of stressors (see Frydenberg & Lewis, 1994; Kobasa, 1979).
In a study examining EI and coping with laboratory stressors (i.e., as a context), Salovey et al.
(1995) applied the TMMS to examine the relationship between EI and the regulation of ruminative
thoughts that followed a distressing stimulus. In their study, 78 student volunteers were presented a film
clip on drinking and driving which contained graphic footage of serious automobile accidents, incidents
in the emergency room, and victims’ descriptions of their traumas. The participants were asked to
complete a battery of self-report measures, and participants’ moods were assessed at three intervals:
initial mood before viewing the film (Time 1), decline in mood directly following the video (Time 2), and
mood recovery (Time 3). The researchers found that after accounting for effects of depression,
neuroticism and socio-emotional adjustment, the clarity scale on the TMMS best predicted the recovery
of a positive mood following the stressful event induced in the laboratory. Moreover, those who scored
highest on emotional clarity showed a significant reduction in ruminative thoughts over time in
comparison with those lower in clarity. It appears that clarity in discriminating feelings is significant in
mood repair after a stressful event. The researchers suggest that the lack of an effect for the attention
scale is attributable to the methodology of their study. Individuals were asked explicitly to attend to their
thoughts, and perhaps implicitly to attend to their moods. As a result, individual differences in attending
to emotions may not have emerged. Finally, repair was related to the intensity of negative feelings at
28
Time 2. Those who indicated they were good at repairing negative moods indicated less negative affect
immediately after viewing the film.
In another study examining perceived stress in response to laboratory stressors, significant
relationships were found with EI (using the TMMS), coping strategies, and psychophysiological
measures of adaptive coping (Salovey et al., 2002). First, significant positive relationships were revealed
between EI and psychological and interpersonal functioning. Second, the level of skill at mood repair was
related with active coping, lower levels of rumination, and perceptions of repeated laboratory stressors as
less threatening. Clarity was associated with increases in negative mood, but also with lower cortisol
release during repeated stress. Cortisol is a hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex under conditions of
stress that in the short term, increases arousal and defends against the body’s own stress reaction.
However, chronic over-exposure to cortisol can damage many regulatory systems. Third, the researchers
found that attention was related to lowered cortisol and blood pressure responses to acute laboratory
stress. Findings suggest that individuals who clearly perceive their emotions and feel they can repair
negative mood states can also turn their attentional resources toward coping, thereby minimizing the
impact of the stress. In contrast, those low in attention, clarity, and repair may become involved in
extended rumination in order to understand how they feel. In the absence of successful attempts to attend
to, clarify, and repair mood, rumination may lead to prolonged physiological arousal and negative health
outcomes. Salovey et al. (2002) conclude that these findings indicate that psychophysiological responses
to stressful events may be one possible mechanism underlying the relationship between emotional
functioning and health. It is important to point out that while the Salovey et al. (2002) study was context-
specific, the context was contrived. While this study provides interesting insight into the relationship
between the mind and body and provides initial evidence for psychophysiological connections to EI, it
remains unclear whether the participants would have actually been able to apply their emotional
capacities to their real-life experiences.
Although such laboratory studies provide contextual referents and hint at important links between
EI and coping responses, they tend to be limited in their ecological validity and assessment of the
diversity of coping strategies. Laboratory stressors do not carry the same meaning, complexity, or
29
severity as do real-life stressors. Participants are aware that laboratory stressors are finite in nature and
have control over exposure to the stressors which may influence the results (see Lazarus & Folkman,
1984). Moreover, existing studies have also primarily used university students as a sample, limiting the
generalizability of the results.
In addressing these limitations, the current research will examine coping within two major areas
of people’s lives: (1) stress in close interpersonal relationships (i.e., conflict), and (2) occupational stress.
The units of measurement for specific contexts will be elicited by each participant in the study, thereby
making the contexts personally salient or meaningful (Little, 2001). One reason for focusing on stress in
close interpersonal relationships in particular is because EI is derived, in part, from Gardner’s (1983)
earlier concept of the personal intelligences which comprises intrapersonal intelligence (the ability to
access one’s own feelings), as well as interpersonal intelligence (the ability to read the moods, intentions,
and desires of others) (see Goleman, 1995). Thus, the significance of EI to amending interpersonal
conflict would seem intuitive. One of the reasons for investigating occupational stress is to evaluate the
credibility of some formidable and unsubstantiated claims in popular books, such as Goleman’s, that
emotional intelligence is essential for professional success, as well as examine mechanisms for why
emotionally intelligent individuals may make highly effective leaders and workers.
Overall, the research reviewed clearly highlights the relevance of EI to the coping process. EI
may work through a multitude of variables to result in favourable outcomes, such as coping resources
(e.g., social network), the ability to avoid or circumvent stressful events, flexibility in using coping
strategies, using effective coping strategies, constructive appraisals (i.e., identifying and correcting
maladaptive perceptions and appraisals), social skills, and emotional regulation. Nonetheless, research
testing the strength of these relationships is scarce and more research is needed to specify the nature of
the relationships. The proposed investigation will attempt to more clearly establish the links between EI
and the coping process by: (1) Assessing well-being in relation to coping; (2) Investigating stress
responses across two different contexts (i.e., interpersonal and occupational); (3) Investigating how
individuals cope with stress in personally salient contexts; and, (4) Using a community sample to increase
the generalizability of the findings.
30
Why examine EI and stress in close interpersonal relationships?
“Each person must find a way to relieve his pent-up energy without creating conflicts with his fellow men. Such an approach not only ensures peace of mind but also earns the goodwill, respect, and even love of our neighbors, the highest degree of security and the most noble status symbol to which the human being can aspire.” – Hans Selye, 1991, p. 34
Relationships have been shown as key ingredients in stress management, general health, and
psychological well-being (Myers & Diener, 1995; Ryff & Singer, 2000). Ryff and Singer (2000) argue
that “interpersonal flourishing is a core feature of quality living across cultures and across time (p. 30).”
Snyder (2001) asserts, “The building and managing of interpersonal relationships is crucial for coping
with a variety of life stressors (p. 295).” While social networks can provide us with coping through social
support which has positive outcomes, social networks can also have negative impacts on individuals.
Research suggests, for instance, that when network members are disrespectful or disapproving, betray
confidences, or fail to meet help expectations it is related to increased distress (Belle, 1982; Fiore,
Becker, & Coppel, 1983; Wahler, 1980). Lack of social support, connectedness to others, and isolation
have long been recognized as predictors of morbidity and mortality (Durkheim, 1951). Relationship
dissolution has been linked with symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (see Chung et al., 2003).
The value of social relationships to people’s lives has been supported consistently throughout the
literature in this area. Being a part of a social network is a significant determinant of longevity and
psychophysiological correlates of social support have been found (House, Landis & Umberson, 1988;
Rowe & Kahn, 1997). In a review of 81 studies, findings showed that social support was reliably
associated with positive effects in cardiovascular, immune, and endocrine systems (Uchino et al., 1996).
Seeman and colleagues (1994) examined differences in health outcomes between the use of social-
emotional support (which serves emotional needs) and social-instrumental support (which serves direct
assistance needs, such as seeking advice, doing chores, and giving money). They found that these two
types of support resources differentially predicted physical performance and neuroendocrine function.
While social-emotional support showed beneficial effects on health, instrumental support had few
significant neuroendocrine relations and was associated with reduced physical performance (Seeman,
Berkman, Blazer & Rowe, 1994). Rowe and Kahn (1997) maintain that the effectiveness of the type of
31
social support depends on the requirements of the person and the situation. For instance, research has
shown that instrumental support can be more beneficial than socio-emotional support in prompting older
people who had cancer-related symptoms to seek medical attention (Antonucci, Kahn & Akiyama, 1989).
Because relationships hold such significance to a person’s life, it is important to investigate how people
cope with stress in close interpersonal relationships in order to maintain or restore their well-being.
Coping strategies have been found to differentially relate to the effectiveness of dealing with
stress in close interpersonal relationships (Coyne, Thompson & Palmer, 2002; Quayhagen & Quayhagen,
1982). For example, in one study examining how mid-life adults cope with interpersonal conflict, it was
found that those who felt a greater impact of the stress were more likely to use problem-solving and help-
seeking strategies than those who were less affected by it. Those who expressed more negative emotion
(venting) and used self-actualization coping strategies perceived less of an impact (Quayhagen &
Quayhagen, 1982). These findings appear to contradict other studies showing problem-solving strategies
to be linked with adaptive coping and venting to be linked with maladaptive coping in different contexts
(e.g., Goldberger & Breznitz, 1993; Zeidner & Endler, 1996). Thus, looking at stress in close
interpersonal relationships in particular may help in differentiating the adaptiveness of the coping
strategies people use relative to other contexts.
Furthermore, examining individual differences in emotional skills may help to differentiate
among the coping strategies in terms of their adaptiveness in dealing with stress in close interpersonal
relationships. When we communicate our feelings to others, for example, by yelling, crying, or looking at
them admiringly, we also communicate how we would like others to respond. Thus, our emotional
behaviours can help in building a support network; they can also push others away (Kennedy-Moore &
Watson, 1999). It is expected that people who are emotionally skilled, or high in EI, would know how to
best communicate their emotions when coping with conflict in relationships. For instance, Salovey et al.
(1999) claim that emotionally intelligent individuals should be able to seek out their family (if not too
toxic) and maintain friendships (if not too toxic) as a means of coping rather than avoid them because
they understand how important emotional sharing and support is in the coping process. Whether the
hypothesis is accurate and applies to coping with stress in close interpersonal relationships has yet to be
32
determined. Still, research has found significant relationships between emotional skills and social
relationships, supporting the further investigation of these variables.
Research on EI and coping with stress in close interpersonal relationships. Accumulating
research suggests important links between emotional skills and the management of stress in relationships.
In one study, the emotional clarity subscale of the TMMS was positively related with both the likelihood
and the ease of forgiving a spouse’s transgression and overall relationship happiness (Planalp & Fitness,
1999). In research using the MSCEIT with a university student sample, the managing emotions facet of
EI was found to relate to perceived positive relationships with others, perceived parental support, and
fewer reports of negative interactions. The results were validated by observer ratings through the reports
of two friends of each of the participants in the studies. Findings remained statistically significant after
controlling for the Big Five personality traits (Lopes, Brackett, Nezlek, Schutz, Sellin, and Salovey, 2004;
Lopes, Salovey and Straus, 2003).
In another study, insecurely attached participants were less able to differentiate between shame
and guilt than securely attached participants suggesting weaker emotional skills. Insecurely attached
participants also had more difficulty resolving conflict (Lopez et al., 1997). This finding led the
researchers to believe that insecurely attached partners might have more difficulty than securely attached
partners to attribute causation and blame for relationship conflicts in appropriate ways. According to
research on relational transgressions, guilt plays an important role in the “forgiveness script”: typically,
P’s offence elicits O’s anger, which elicits P’s guilt and remorse, which elicits O’s forgiveness. If
individuals have difficulty distinguishing between shame and guilt, then they would be considered as less
skilled in emotional clarity and understanding – a component of EI. Thus, conflict resolution and
relationship repair would be harder to achieve and may result in prolonged negative feelings (Lopez et al.,
1997; Planalp & Fitness, 1999).
Engelberg and Sjoberg (2005) provide support for the view that the emotional competencies
comprising EI present advantages for social adaptation. They conceptualize EI as a social-adaptive
ability, explaining that its social skills component consists of the capacity to interpret emotional
expressions and use emotional knowledge that allows individuals to smoothly merge into different social
33
contexts. Interpersonal skills also consist of the ability to grasp the meaning of social cues in others’
behaviour and to regulate one’s own emotional behaviour, thereby entering into a bi-directional exchange
of emotion information. Based on a study of 191 business school applicants using the MSCEIT and a
measure of mood perception (the ability to evaluate others’ moods), the researchers found that sensitivity
to others’ moods is related to EI.
Relevant to research on EI and coping with stress in close interpersonal relationships is research
on a construct related to EI, alexythymia. Alexithymia is a cognitive-affective style marked by difficulty
in identifying and differentiating between feelings, problems in communicating feelings, and concrete,
externally-oriented thinking which lacks in imagination (Taylor, Ryan & Bagby, 1985). The limited
ability that alexithymics have for processing emotion causes them difficulty in understanding the
emotions of others, for example, through facial expression. Emotional deficits make communication a
struggle for people with alexithymia. Alexithymia, a construct which is strongly inversely correlated with
EI, has expectedly been linked with poor interpersonal functioning (see Kennedy-Moore & Watson,
1999; Parker et al., 2001).
The research findings above provide some support for positive social adaptation among those
who are skilled at understanding and managing their emotions. When people are less skilled in emotional
processing, they may not be able to express themselves effectively which may result in less successful
interpersonal relationships. The process of expressing emotion is explained in a model by Kennedy-
Moore and Watson (1999). The model proposes that emotional behaviour (expression or nonexpression)
occurs as a culmination of various emotional information processing steps. When and how people express
emotion depends on their preconscious perceptions of the stimuli (step one), awareness (step two),
interpretation (step three) and evaluation of their experiences and the context (steps four and five). These
emotional information processing skills correspond to the EI skills presented in the ability EI model.
According to the expression model, people who are unaware that they are distressed (e.g. by not
perceiving their increased heart rate) would be unable to express their distress. Those unable to label and
interpret their affective responses would have difficulty expressing why they react strongly to particular
stimuli. People who are unable to determine whether their responses are valid and acceptable might
34
hesitate in expressing their emotions. Those unable to evaluate whether the social context is one in which
it is appropriate to express may also doubt in whether or not to express their feelings. When people are
less skilled in emotional processing, emotional leakage may occur. When emotional leakage occurs,
people may simply burst out with an extreme emotional expression without having fully processed their
experiences. This type of expression may have detrimental consequences in personal and work
relationships which people often later regret (Goleman, 1995; Kennedy-Moore & Watson, 1999). A
person with low EI would more frequently display emotional leakage and “emotional hijacking” than
someone high in EI (see Goleman, 1995).
While the literature described in this section has established some connections between EI and
social adaptation, it is limited in explaining how individuals who are emotionally skilled cope when faced
with stress in close interpersonal relationships, thereby presenting a gap in research. The present
investigation builds upon my graduate-level pilot research project which was designed to examine this
gap by exploring EI and the coping strategies university students (N = 40) used to deal with stress in close
interpersonal relationships. Findings indicated that emotional skills were differentially related to coping
behaviours when dealing with conflict. The ability to regulate one’s mood (repair) was positively related
to the use of positive reframing, while it was negatively related to the use of self-distraction, denial, and
venting. No significant relationships emerged between attention to emotions and any of the coping
strategies used. Emotional clarity was negatively related to self-distraction and denial. The repair and
clarity subscales were also positively related to social and home life satisfaction, respectively, with both
subscales being related to satisfaction with coping with stress in close interpersonal relationships. Gender
differences (discussed below) emerged and appeared to be more related to culturally prescribed roles than
biological sex. Having established these significant relationships with a small sample provided support
for a larger-scale investigation (Zomer, 2003).
Findings from another study examining EI and coping with conflict in relationships (Fitness &
Curtis, 2005; N = 170) revealed that functional coping and EI were positively related. Specifically, task-
oriented coping was positively correlated with mood repair, emotion-oriented coping was negatively
related to clarity and repair, and avoidance-oriented coping was negatively related with clarity.
35
Destructive responses to conflict were negatively associated with clarity and repair, while constructive
responses were not related to any of the emotional intelligence subscales (Fitness & Curtis, 2005). Gender
differences emerged here as well, with functional responses to recalled interpersonal conflict being more
strongly associated with being female than male. Since gender role differences (i.e., masculinity and
femininity) were not investigated, they may have confounded the differences in coping responses found
between men and women. These two studies warrant further investigation, as they suggest important
relationships between EI, gender, and how individuals cope with stress in close interpersonal
relationships in adaptive ways. The proposed research will attempt to replicate the findings using a
broader, larger sample. Moreover, it will extend the investigation of context to the occupational
environment and more closely examine the influence of gender in terms of male-female differences as
well as gender role.
Why examine EI and occupational stress? Given popular claims made (e.g., Goleman) about
the benefits of EI in terms of occupational and social success, as well as research findings linking EI to
psychological and physical health, it would seem beneficial to understand how emotionally intelligent
individuals cope uniquely when faced with stressors in both their social and occupational lives. In terms
of the transactional model of stress, Beehr and Newman (1978) defined “job stress” as a condition
wherein job-related factors (e.g., job demands, role expectations, organizational characteristics and
conditions) interact with workers’ personal resources (e.g., personality traits and behavioural
characteristics, demographics) to change (positively or negatively) their psychological or physical
condition (i.e., their health). This process requires them to diverge from their normal functioning.
Adaptive responses to job stress include responses intended to eliminate, mitigate, or ameliorate the job-
related factors, and/or to alter the workers’ reactions to the stressful job situation. An underlying
assumption of Beehr and Newman’s definition is that job stress necessitates that there be considerable
incentives and losses for meeting versus not meeting organizational demands. Common stress factors on
the job include: High demands, low control at work, little input in decisions, lack of job security, little
recognition, lack of training or poor job skills, mismatch with the culture of the organization, lack of
communication with senior management or within the workplace (CBC News, October 17, 2006). Some
36
of the major categories of work stress are presented in Table 2, based on Zeidner’s (2005) adapted
taxonomy which was originally outlined by Cartwright and Cooper (1996), with additional examples
from Rosch (1984).
The effects of job stress (and poor social resources, as discussed in the previous sections) have
been investigated and appear severe for many individuals. Statistics Canada (2006) examined the
relationship between stress and depression among working adults ages 18 to 75 using data from the 2002
Canadian Community Health Survey and the 2002/2003 National Population Health Survey. High stress
on and off the job was related to depression and men’s mental health was reportedly more susceptible to
stress arising from the workplace. Differences in levels of stress and depression were found between
industries. For instance, job stress among male workers in processing, manufacturing and utilities was 30
per cent in comparison with only 13 percent for management workers. For women, low supervisor
support was related to depression, while low support from co-workers was related to depression for both
sexes (CBC News, October 17, 2006).
Statistics Canada (2006) revealed that approximately one in 12 working Canadians, the
equivalent of more than one million people, reported that they were unhappy on the job, with depression
being a major occupational health issue. In 2000, the World Health Organization ranked depression as the
leading cause of disability worldwide (CBC News, October 17, 2006). Disability represents anywhere
from 4 to 12 percent of payroll costs in Canada. Mental health claims, particularly depression, have
overtaken cardiovascular disease as the fastest growing category of disability costs in Canada (Wilson,
Joffe, & Wilkerson, 2002).
Research linking stress in the workplace and close interpersonal relationships to physical health
has shown that cardiac patients with poor economic and social resources are at least three times more
likely to suffer another heart attack and die within five years than those married and financially secure.
Specifically, patients who made less than $10,000 US per year were ten times more likely to die within
five years than those with higher incomes, while those without a live-in partner were three times more
likely to die within five years than those with a live-in partner. Those who had both risk factors were
37
Table 2 Common Categories of Work Stress and Examples (see Cartwright & Cooper, 1996; Rosch, 1984; Zeidner, 2005) Types of Work Stress Examples
1. Factors intrinsic to the job, task or workplace
Poor physical conditions: Noise, inadequate lighting, crowded space, lack of privacy, pathogenic agents, physical danger. Task-related stressors: work overload or
underload, long hours, shift work, extensive travel, high risk, difficulty, pace, lack of autonomy, changes in work patterns
2. Role in the organization Key dimensions of role-related stress: Ambiguity (having inadequate information
about the work role or work objectives); Role Conflict (having conflicting job
demands, conflicting expectations from others, doing things that are not really what one wants to do);
Powerlessness (the perception that a worker is unable to control outcomes or make decisions)
A school administrator may perceive incompatible work demands from parents, teaching staff, students, and the board of education; a supervisor who has many job responsibilities but limited authority in decision-making; incompatibility between organizational goals and personal values.
3. Problematic relationships with others at work – data suggest this area is one of the most frequently reported areas of work stress
Examples: Unsatisfactory relationships with superiors and co-workers, customers and clients, including poor trust, lack of support, poor communication, lack of interest in addressing individual complaints This type of stressor is associated with an
individual’s needs for acceptance and interpersonal recognition.
4. Career development
Career transitions, job loss, early retirement, demotion, underpromotion, reaching a career ceiling, lack of opportunity to advance, lack of opportunity to apply personal talents or abilities to full potential
5. Organizational structure, climate and culture – stressors related to the particular organizational milieu and culture
Lack of person-role fit, insufficient training and skills, lack of feedback on performance, lack of effective consultation, poor communication, ugly office politics, inappropriate management style, prejudice, harassment, inability or lack of opportunity to voice complaints, possibility of organizational takeover or merger resulting in job insecurity.
6. Home/work interface Stress related to managing the interface between work and home may be especially challenging for couples where both have careers or families in financial crises.
38
considered to be at higher risk because the two factors were unrelated, and the results were irrespective of
the level of heart disease. Moreover, the quality of marriages did not seem to provide increased health
benefits, perhaps because simply having someone to talk to, complain to, or nag to may prove beneficial
in terms of coping. Also, having someone present may itself produce a calming effect for patients who
often fear having another heart attack (Rincover, 1995).
Interestingly, other gender and age effects have been documented with respect to work stress.
According to a report by WarrenShepell, a large Employee Assistance Provider (EAP), working women
over 40 are more likely than younger women and working men of any age to report higher levels of
stress. The EAP data included almost 230, 000 employees at 2500 companies across Canada during 2002-
2004. When examining women of all age groups, it was found that women in general are four percent
more likely than men of all age groups to report high stress. However, women under 40 reported
depression slightly more often than older women and men. While prevalence rates in the general
population consistently show a significantly higher depression rate among women, the data found that
men reported depression slightly more often than women over 40. The EAP report proposed some ways
to address high stress among working women, including training employees to use positive coping
strategies (e.g., proactive coping – setting long-term goals and planning to deal with daily stressors as
they surface) (Mental Health Works News, 2005). However, it is possible that emotional skills may limit
the implementation of the coping strategies deemed to be positive in nature.
Another Canadian report revealed that men in high-strain jobs were 2.5 times more likely to have
experienced depression than men in low-strain jobs, whereas women were 1.6 times more likely. Job
stress and job satisfaction were clearly related. One in four workers who found most days extremely
stressful were dissatisfied with their jobs, while only one in 15 workers who did not find their jobs
stressful were dissatisfied. People who were unhappy at work took more disability days, averaging almost
three times that of workers who were very satisfied with their jobs (CBC News, October 17, 2006). The
cost of work time lost to stress in Canada is approximately $12 billion. From 1992 to 1998, the proportion
of Canadian women who felt “severe stress” rose 23%, while for men it claimed 25%. Stress as a reason
for absence has increased over 316 percent since 1995 (Statistics Canada) (Bay, 2003).
39
The American Institute of Stress (2007) estimates that job stress costs the American Industry
$300 billion a year as a result of absenteeism, accidents, employee turnover, diminished productivity,
direct medical, legal, and insurance costs, and workers' compensation awards. This amount is more than
the net profits of all the Fortune 500 companies combined and ten times the costs for all strikes. Other
statistics indicate that 40% of job turnover is due to job stress, 60% to 80% of on-the-job accidents are
stress-related, and health care expenditures are nearly 50 percent greater for workers who reported high
levels of stress (Bay, 2003).
The problem is not limited only to Canada and the United States. A 1992 United Nations Report
labelled job stress "The 20th Century Disease", and a few years later the World Health Organization
reported that it had become a "World Wide Epidemic." A 1998 study reported that rapid changes in the
workforce had resulted in a staggering unemployment rate of 10% in the European Union and higher
rates of job stress complaints. Japan had a similar problem as a result of a major and prolonged recession.
A European Commission survey found that: (1) more than half of the 147 million workers in the
European Union complained of having to work at a very high speed and under tight deadlines; and (2)
approximately half reported having monotonous or short, repetitive tasks and no opportunity to rotate
tasks. While Beehr and Newman (1978) indicated that the impact of occupational stress on employees has
been relatively neglected by psychologists, the research highlighted above reveals significant negative
effects of occupational stress on both employees and organizations. Although psychologists have directed
more attention to this area in recent years, today we see that the effects of work stress on employee health
is still inadequately investigated with relation to both EI and coping behaviour.
Nonetheless, several studies have found links between EI and job performance, suggesting that it
may play a key role in coping with stress in the workplace. Anger-Elfenbein and Ambady (2002) found
that the ability to recognize nonverbal expression of emotions (i.e., emotion perception) is associated with
job performance in 69 employees of a non-profit public service organization. Wong and Law’s (2002)
research using 149 supervisor-subordinate dyads showed that a 16-item self-report measure of EI
correlated with supervisor ratings of government workers’ performance (r = .21), and job satisfaction (r =
.40), but not with organizational commitment. Interestingly, Abraham (2000) found that EI contributed to
40
organizational commitment but not job satisfaction in customer service representatives. The apparently
contradictory results with respect to EI and organizational commitment may be due to the different
aspects of EI assessed and measures used.
Dulewicz and Higgs (2002) reported that a personality-based measure of EI was related to
managerial advancement. Carmeli and Josman (2006) provided empirical evidence showing positive
relationships between EI and two aspects of employee work outcomes – task performance and two forms
of organizational citizenship behaviours, altruism and compliance. Emotional intelligence was assessed
by Schutte et al.'s (1998) self-report measure of EI, whereas work outcomes were assessed by the
employees' supervisors. Day and Carroll (2004) found that students who were better able to perceive
emotions in others when working in teams (using the MSCEIT) performed better on a management
decision-making task. However, there were no significant relationships between task performance and the
other three areas of EI (emotional facilitation, understanding, and management).
In a study that controlled for personality traits, Fox et al. (2003) found that EI contributed
uniquely to predicting job performance beyond personality (using seven measures), as well as math and
verbal ability. The components in Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) EI model revealed the strongest relations.
Their study consisted of 116 employees from a publishing company and a manufacturing company, and
used the Workplace Survey of Emotional Intelligence, a self-report measure. Their results suggest that EI
represents a unique set of characteristics which can help us understand and predict behaviour at work. In
a similar study controlling for personality variables (i.e., the Big Five) with food service employees’ (N =
187), Sy et al. (2006) found thatEI was positively related with job satisfaction and performance.
Moreover, managers’ EI revealed a stronger positive correlation with job satisfaction for low EI than high
EI employees. Thus, studies investigating both trait and ability EI suggest advantageous effects of EI on
various aspects of work performance and satisfaction. The following section reviews research linking EI
to coping with occupational stress.
Research on emotional intelligence and occupational stress. Proponents of EI claim it has
significant implications for adaptive outcomes and success in a variety of areas, including interpersonal
relationships, clinical intervention (see Matthews et al., 2002), education (see Zeidner et al., 2002), and
41
the workplace (see Zeidner et al., 2005). The multitude of claims that have been made about EI, including
the emotionally intelligent person’s ability for workplace success, have heightened organizations’
awareness and interest in EI. Unfortunately, a number of these claims have been misrepresented,
unsubstantiated, implausible, or based on misinterpreted data (see Cooper, 1997; Day & Kelloway, 2004;
Mayer et al., 2000). Therefore, we need to be cautious of citing unpublished data or unfounded claims
since practitioners can incorporate these “findings” into organizational decisions, such as the selection of
employees based on EI (particularly in the United States), and the implementation of psycho-educational
programs that aim to foster EI (Day & Kelloway, 2004). In actuality, research exploring the relationships
between EI and coping with occupational stress is lacking.
In one of the few studies in this area, Slaski and Cartwright (2004) investigated the relationships
among EI, subjective stress, quality of management performance, and various well-being outcomes.
Participants were 224 managers who worked at a large retail organization. EI was assessed through the
EQ-i (Bar-On, 1997); subjective stress through a single scale ranging from 1 to 10 asking participants to
rate how stressful they perceived their life to be at present; and, management performance through rating
of the subjects by their immediate line managers based on a 16-point criteria of success factors. Well-
being was evaluated through the General Health Questionnaire, quality of work life, individual morale,
and psychological distress. The researchers found that EI was associated with less stress, better
management performance, and higher subjective well-being. These findings suggest that EI may play a
moderating role in the stress process.
In another study, Nikolaou and Tsaousis (2002) explored the relationship between EI, sources of
occupational stress, and outcomes in a sample of mental health professionals (N = 212). Self-report data
revealed EI to be negatively correlated with work stress in all areas (i.e., work relationships, overload,
control, resources and communication, pay and benefits, job security, physical work conditions, type of
task, amount of job satisfaction), and positively correlated with organizational commitment (considered
to be a consequence of stress). According to their framework, organizational commitment decreased with
stress, suggesting the consideration of EI in employee loyalty to organizations.
42
While the research that exists on EI and coping with occupational stress is limited, it is important
to keep in mind that individuals cope differently in different contexts, and that this, in turn, may affect
their well-being. In considering related research findings, Pearlin and Schooler (1978), and Folkman and
Lazarus (1980) reported differences in the ways individuals cope with work stress as opposed to family
and interpersonal stress. They examined coping effectiveness in four areas: marriage, parenting,
household economics, and work. While coping responses helped to mitigate stress in the first three areas,
they were not particularly effective in the area of work. In addition, in all areas but occupational stress,
the use of more coping responses and having more coping resources available reduced the likelihood of
emotional distress, whereas having limited coping resources increases the risk of emotional distress.
These results suggest that work stress may be less dependent on individuals’ coping abilities and more
susceptible to organizational change. Their research received some support with reports that occupational
problems may not be easily resolved by individual efforts alone, and that individual responses have little
effect on work problems (Menaghan and Merves, 1984; Shinn et al. 1984). Furthermore, Pearlin and
Schooler (1978) found that individuals used more emotion-focused coping versus problem-focused
coping when faced with work stress. In contrast, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) found the reverse pattern
of results, with individuals reporting more problem-focused coping than emotion-focused coping when
managing occupational stress. These seemingly contradictory findings may be due to measurement
issues, differences in the nature of emotion- and problem-focused strategies used, as well as work stress
category.
With regards to work stress, then, there is the question of whether coping actually helps at all
(Dewe, Cox & Ferguson, 1993). In general, the findings on the effectiveness of coping with work
stressors are mixed, with some researchers suggesting that the effects of coping may be neutral. To lower
stress within the work environment, it has been suggested that individuals should simply avoid
maladaptive coping behaviours (Parasuraman and Cleek, 1984). In situations such as job loss or
employment uncertainty, research has shown that while individuals were unwilling to use problem-
focused coping strategies because they might have been considered to add to the stress, problem-focused
coping was associated with lower levels of perceived stress. Higher levels of perceived stress were
43
associated with emotion-focused and avoidant strategies, with research conducted using participants from
the United States and Canada in different studies (Leana & Feldman, 1990; Mantler et al., 2005).
A study (Rivera-Cruz, 2004) examining EI across interpersonal and occupational contexts in a
Puerto Rican population revealed significant differences in the way EI competencies were applied, with
effects being strongly defined by gender. Women showed a higher level of EI competencies at home,
while men demonstrated a higher level of EI competencies at work. Given the benefits of EI documented
above with respect to interpersonal relationships and job performance, it would be helpful to further
examine whether individuals manage stress differently across these contexts and if these differences
contribute to well-being.
Despite the links made between EI and well-being (job satisfaction, performance) within the
work environment, and Employee Assistance Programs, particularly in the United States, offering a
multitude of programs geared to improve EI at work, there is limited research to date on EI and coping
within the workplace. Zeidner (2005) alerts us to the relative lack of research on how emotionally
intelligent individuals cope with work stress, “Although one can hardly imagine a model of occupational
stress that does not include coping responses, this particular facet of the stress process remains the least
developed and least understood” (p. 224-225). The current investigation will be among the first to
examine EI and the coping behaviours individuals use for dealing with occupational stress.
Gender Differences
Gender differences often emerge in research, as highlighted in some of the studies above, and
require more careful consideration. For example, coping behaviours that are effective for women may not
be for men, and their effectiveness may also depend on the context. When investigating gender
differences, researchers commonly make a distinction between biological sex and gender, which may be
defined as “the cultural expectations for femininity and masculinity” (Lips, 1997, p. 4). Haas (1995)
defined gender as a “system of socially constructed boundaries that define what is considered to be
appropriate masculine and feminine behaviours, attitudes, values, personalities, roles and occupations (p.
115).” Bornstein (1994, 1998) expands this rather black-and-white distinction and describes several other
aspects to gender, including: (1) gender assignment; (2) gender role; (3) gender identity; and, (4) gender
44
attribution. Gender assignment answers the question “What do the authorities say I am?” In most cultures
it refers to the biological M or F designation. Gender role or sex role (see Bem, 1974) answers the
question, “What does the culture think I should do with my life to belong or not belong to a specific
gender?” Bornstein (1998) views it as “the sum total of qualities, mannerisms, duties, and cultural
expectations accorded a specific gender” (p. 28). Gender identity answers the question, “Who am I? Am I
a man or a woman or something else entirely?” Gender attribution concerns our perceptions of
individuals as “men” or “women”. In our culture, this depends on biological, physical, behavioural, and
textual cues, as well as power dynamics, sexual orientation, and myths supporting membership in a given
gender (such as, “weaker sex” or “dumb blonde”).
Given the lack of gender measures designed to fully assess the four components of Bornstein’s
gender theory, the current investigation will examine only the first two aspects, (1) gender assignment, or
biological sex; and (2) gender role, or sociological gender. These two aspects have commonly been
investigated in psychology. In examining gender role, Bem (1974) differentiates between “femininity”
and “masculinity”, which are considered to reflect stereotypical, socially desirable male and female
gender-role characteristics. Bem (1974) also explains the undifferentiated gender role, which is low on
both masculine and feminine traits, and further describes the construct of “androgyny”,
Whereas a narrowly masculine self-concept might inhibit behaviors that are stereo- typed as feminine, and a narrowly feminine self-concept might inhibit behaviors that are stereotyped as masculine, a mixed, or androgynous, self-concept might allow an individual to freely engage in both “masculine” and “feminine” behaviors (p. 155).
Such a view of gender defies the traditional notion of the existence of only two genders, and of a
unidimensional gender construct wherein everyone falls along a single continuum. Bem (1974) developed
the Bem Sex Role Inventory, which includes separate scales for all four constructs, and found that men
and women could be high or low in either masculine or feminine traits. Masculinity and femininity have
also been termed agency (and/or instrumentality), and communion (and/or expressiveness), respectively
(e.g., Spence, Helmreich & Stapp, 1973), and will be used interchangeably. These socialized gender traits
underlie many aspects of social behavior, motives, and goals (Ghaed & Gallo, 2006).
Several studies have revealed gender differences in EI and coping behaviour and these gender
differences will be explored in the following sections. An important point which needs to be made here,
45
before reviewing these studies, is in that biological sex (i.e., being male or female) may not be
independent of gender role (masculinity and femininity), and vice versa. However, given mixed claims of
gender differences with respect to EI, coping, and SWB in the literature, it would be interesting to
determine whether these relationships are more strongly explained by biological sex or gender role. In
other words, it may be that males in certain samples are higher in communion (e.g., sociology majors)
than in other samples (e.g., engineering students), and so claims made regarding sex differences without
more fully examining gender role (and vice versa) may have confounded these two distinct variables.
Gender differences and coping behaviour. In the coping literature, gender, both biological and
sociological, has been shown to have significant influence over the use of coping strategies and their
adaptiveness. In a study examining biological sex differences, increased rumination, which has been
identified as maladaptive, was found to be a coping strategy more commonly used by women than men
(Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker & Larson, 1994). This finding was supported and extended in a meta-analysis
examining sex differences among 17 specific coping strategies in 50 studies between 1990 and 2000
which found women to more likely engage in most coping strategies overall (Tamres et al., 2002). The
strongest effects revealed that women have an increased likelihood of using coping techniques that
include verbal expressions to others or the self, ruminating about problems, seeking emotional support,
and using positive self-talk in comparison with men.
The researchers differentiated between two hypotheses in their study: the dispositional hypothesis
and situational hypothesis. The former reflects characteristic differences between the sexes which may be
innate; the latter states that situations determine the use of coping strategies. Specifically, the
dispositional hypothesis would predict that if men and women had to cope with identical stressors, they
would behave in different ways. The situational hypothesis, also referred to as role constraint theory,
maintains that gender differences in coping behaviours are largely a result of the different roles that men
and women assume in society and the different stressors they face as opposed to underlying personality
differences between the sexes. According to role constraint theory, if men and women were to cope with
similar stressors and have similar threat appraisals, they would cope in similar ways.
46
The results of Tamres et al.’s (2002) research supported, in part, both hypotheses as some sex
differences in coping were consistent across studies and other sex differences depended on the nature of
the stressor. For example, one finding showed that men used more withdrawal and avoidant coping
strategies for relationship and others’ health stressors than women. One of the limitations to this study,
however, is that it did not have data on gender role socialization. Therefore, it is conceivable that some
men may have predominantly feminine characteristics and some women may have predominantly
masculine characteristics. If this were the case, it may have confounded the results.
In another study which examined gender roles and coping with work stress (N = 176 adult
undergraduate students), Gianakos (2000) found that androgynous individuals had a significantly higher
likelihood of reporting direct action, help-seeking, and positive-thinking coping techniques than those
with undifferentiated gender roles. Increased use of positive-thinking coping styles were reported by
feminine and masculine individuals in comparison with undifferentiated persons. Individuals higher in
femininity also had a higher probability of using direct action coping than those who were
undifferentiated. Gender-role differences were not revealed among individuals’ reported use of escape-
related coping strategies. Using regression analyses, it was found that masculinity and femininity scores
were significant predictors of control-related coping styles, whereas female biological gender was a
significant predictor of direct action coping (i.e., a type of control-related coping). Gianakos (2000)
suspects that active coping has differential effects for men and women since this coping strategy is
adaptive mostly to those with increased autonomy in their work. As women tend to have careers offering
little autonomy, direct action coping by women may be ineffective and contribute to their perceived lack
of personal power which is most highly associated with female workers’ stress symptoms. One limitation
to Gianakos’ (2000) research is that no well-being measures were used which means that we do not know
if the coping strategies used by men and women have differential effects. The current research will
attempt to address this limitation by implementing some measures of well-being.
Gender differences in emotional intelligence. Research in the area of gender role socialization
and EI appears to be inconsistent. Some research on biological sex differences and EI exists, but the
results of these studies are mixed. Schutte et al. (1998), for example, found a significant sex difference in
47
total measured trait EI with females scoring higher than males on average. In another study, Petrides and
Furnham (2000b) used a self-report measure of trait EI and had participants estimate their scores on EI to
study sex differences. In contrast with Schutte et al. (1998), they found that females had higher scores
only on the “social skills” factor of trait EI. However, when they evaluated self-estimated EI, they found
that males believed they had higher EI than females, suggesting a self-derogatory bias in women and a
self-enhancing bias in men.
Using a different assessment instrument for EI, Mayer et al. (2000) also explored gender
differences. The instrument used in the study evaluated “ability EI” as opposed to “trait EI”, the
distinction being that trait EI measures assess enduring individual differences using self-report
questionnaires whereas ability EI measures EI objectively using maximum performance tests, such as the
Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS; Mayer et al., 2000). According to their findings, women
performed somewhat higher than men on all 12 tasks comprising the MEIS.
Zomer (2001) found mixed results regarding gender differences in EI. While no gender
differences were found with respect to trait EI measures, a gender difference did emerge using a new
measure of EI with women scoring higher than men on such skills as perceiving/expressing emotion and
assimilating emotion in thought. While the findings on sex differences in EI are mixed, they show a trend
of women having somewhat more developed emotional skills than men in some areas. The
inconsistencies may be a result of the different testing instruments used, or they may signify underlying
gender role differences. The present research will build upon a pilot study (Zomer, 2003; reviewed
below), which was among the first to investigate sex role differences in EI and coping with stress in close
interpersonal relationships.
Evidence supporting the investigation of sex role differences in emotional intelligence. Wester
et al. (2002) believe that there are few or no sex-based differences in emotional experience, and that one
reason for the acceptance of large sex-based emotional differences is that factors associated with
biological sex are being mistaken for biological sex. This understanding may seem fitting, as the majority
of counselling psychologists in North America are socialized within a dominant culture that depicts the
sexes as coming from different emotional “planets” (e.g., Gray, 1992; Tannen, 1990). Research in the
48
areas of male gender role suggests that the socialized male role, together with situational factors may
influence how some men express their emotion; it should be highlighted that emotional expression is a
skill comprising EI (Wester et al., 2002).
In support of this view, much research on socialized gender roles and emotion has shown that
with the exception of anger and contempt, boys are discouraged from expressing emotions whereas girls
are encouraged to express emotions with the exception of the same emotions. Moreover, parents in Euro-
American cultures seem to talk about and express more diversity in emotions with their daughters in
comparison with their sons. Therefore, research indicates that boys are socialized to be achievement-
oriented, unemotional, aggressive, and self-reliant, whereas girls are socialized to be obedient, nurturing,
emotional and nonaggressive (Cloninger, 1996; Jordan, 1997). As children mature, peers continue this
process (see Wester et al., 2002). This socialization process may lead women to further develop their
emotional capacities. Nonetheless, one of the negative effects of this socialization process on male gender
roles is difficulty with and fears concerning emotional expression; this has been termed “restrictive
emotionality”. Blazina and Watkins (1996) have found that restrictive emotionality is related to decreased
psychological well-being in men, as well as a lesser probability of men’s willingness to seek
psychological help as a coping strategy.
In addition, interpersonal styles vary between the sexes as a result of societal expectations. In our
society, for example, men are expected to be independent and achievement focused whereas women are
expected to be attachment and relationship focused. Men are encouraged by our society to be rational,
and women are encouraged to be emotional (Gilligan, 1993; Jordan, 1997; Miller, 1976). As we live in a
patriarchal society which has traditionally been governed by reason, the value of emotion is generally not
as appreciated.
Gender roles are also strongly influenced by culture. Euro-American men, for instance,
stereotypically associated with their traditional gender roles of leadership, control, and strength, are
consistently thought to express more anger, contempt and pride than women. In contrast, women who are
stereotypically associated with their traditional gender roles of social bonding and childcare are
consistently thought to express more emotions such as warmth, fear, shame, guilt, and nervousness in
49
comparison with men (Lips, 1997). Thus, it seems that women are encouraged to express emotions that
show their vulnerability and repress those suggesting power, whereas men are encouraged to adopt the
opposite pattern (Jordan, 1997; Rider, 2000).
Despite this view, Twenge (1997) argues that the historical trend is that men and women are
becoming more alike in their degree of masculinity. Women, in fact, are gaining more masculine traits
faster than men are, and so, are becoming increasingly similar to men. Although this shift can be seen as
advantageous in many respects, there may be some disadvantages as well. In one study, for example,
Conway (2000) investigated sex roles and representations of emotional experience using the Bem Sex
Role Inventory (Bem, 1974) and the Level of Emotional Awareness Scale (LEAS; Lane, Quinlan,
Schwartz, Walker, & Zeitlin, 1990). The LEAS is comprised of various scenes requiring the associated
emotional reactions another and oneself may experience in an open-ended format. Participants’ reactions
are scored for degree of complexity. Findings indicated no relation between complexity of emotional
representation and femininity. This appears incongruent with Lane, Sechrest, and Riedel (1998) who
found that women had higher scores on the LEAS than men. However, higher masculinity was associated
with lower complexity in representations of one’s own and others’ emotions. This finding confirms Lane
et al.’s (1998) research indicating that higher masculinity is associated with less emotional awareness. It
is an important finding because emotions often reflect important psychological variables such as values
and goals, and incongruence within is related to decreased well-being (Frijda, 1986; Little, 1983).
Conway maintains, “The ability to represent people’s emotional experience in a more complex manner
seems an asset for effective social interaction, particularly in situations that involve a wide range of
competing needs, desires, and goals” (p. 696). If, indeed, women are increasingly adopting the masculine
gender role, this may have significant implications for their well-being which is largely based on
connection and social interaction (Jordan, 1997; Krahe, 1992).
An interesting study on the influences of sex and gender-role identity on moral cognition
provides more insight into the variables in question. Participants were presented with moral dilemmas and
asked to respond to these. It was found that women and men higher in femininity showed more empathic
concern for others. It should be noted that empathy has been postulated as highly related to EI, suggesting
50
significant relationships between EI and gender role. The results also revealed that androgynous persons
reported more helpful behaviours than did all others (Skoe, Cumberland, Eisenberg, Hansen and Perry,
2002). Therefore, the study suggests that gender role identity may interact with emotional skills.
In further examining research on gender and emotion, again results appear to be mixed. Shields
(1995) concludes that few differences exist in emotional competencies between women and men. She
found that when sex differences occurred in emotional expression they were likely influenced by sex-
based emotional stereotypes and the context of a situation rather than by innate differences in emotional
capacity. Moreover, in examining measures of the private experiencing of emotion, LaFrance and Banaji
(1992) found there were no consistent gender differences. The researchers, however, did recognize
studies that have revealed gender differences in self-report questionnaires, but point out that these were
only under very limited conditions. Such conditions entail the use of direct rather than indirect measures,
the observability of self-reported emotion by others, whether the context is interpersonal or impersonal,
and when global as opposed to discrete emotions are examined.
In Slaski and Cartwright (2002), gender differences were not found in overall EI, but there were
significant differences on some of the subscales. These may be attributed to differences in socialization
experiences between the genders. For instance, on the self-regard subscale, males scored significantly
higher than females. This subscale contains some items relating to physical appearance which may elicit
greater societal pressures and/or expectations for women than men.
Taken together, research suggests that it is important to investigate both biological and
sociological components of gender differences to understand the nature of the differences, and because of
the possibility of confounding.
Gender differences in emotional intelligence and coping with stress in close interpersonal
relationships. Research investigating gender differences in EI and coping with stress in close
interpersonal relationships is limited. One of the two studies in this area which I am aware of is a pilot
study in which university students (N = 40) described a conflict situation and indicated their responses to
it using the Brief COPE (Zomer, 2003). Findings indicated that emotional skills were differentially
related to coping style when dealing with conflict (as discussed above). Gender was assessed in terms of
51
biological sex and sex role (using the Bem Sex Role Inventory). With respect to EI skills, no biological
sex differences were found on the TMMS repair or clarity scales; however, significant differences were
found on the TMMS attention scale, with females having higher scores than men. Correlational analyses
revealed masculinity to be positively related with repair and clarity, but inversely related to attention. No
significant relationships were found along the femininity dimension. Androgyny was negatively
correlated with attention.
In examining gender differences with respect to coping with stress in close interpersonal
relationships, no differences were found along biological sex; however, there were some differences
along the sociological dimension of gender. Masculinity was negatively related to the use of instrumental
support, self-distraction, denial, venting and self-blame; no relations were significant with femininity; and
androgyny was inversely correlated with self-distraction. Masculinity was also most strongly related with
well-being. Limitations to this study included sample size which limited data analysis. However, it
provided preliminary evidence for the effects of gender role on coping with stress in close interpersonal
relationships.
Fitness and Curtis (2005) investigated EI and relationships with empathy, attributional
complexity, self-control, and responses to interpersonal conflict. Data (N = 110 students; N = 60 students’
friends/relatives) revealed gender differences, with females obtaining higher scores than males on task-
oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping, and avoidant coping. Moreover, being female predicted
constructive responses to interpersonal conflict even after accounting for EI. A limitation to this study
was that it did not investigated gender role.
The results of these studies suggest a need to further investigate gender differences, as they may
be an important variable influencing how EI skills affect coping behaviour. In addressing the limitations
of existing research, the current investigation will evaluate both biological and sociological components
of gender and use a sufficient sample size from the general population.
Gender differences in emotional intelligence and coping with occupational stress. Research
investigating gender differences in EI and coping with occupational stress is lacking as well. However,
gender differences in coping with occupational stress have been observed. Gonzales-Morales et al. (2006)
52
explored gender differences in coping with work stress in male-dominated financial companies in Spain
(N = 461). Interactive effects were found, with social support coping being beneficial in terms of reduced
psychological distress and psychosomatic complaints for women but not for men. On the contrary, social
support coping was found to indicate increased psychological distress and psychosomatic complaints in
men. Direct action coping was found to be more beneficial for men than women. However, the role of EI
was not examined in this research and it was a cross-cultural study, limiting its generalizability to North
American society.
Petrides and Furnham (2003) investigated the relationships between trait EI and four job-related
variables (perceived job control, job stress, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment). Gender-
specific data (N = 167) revealed that high trait EI was related to higher levels of perceived control,
satisfaction, and commitment, and lower levels of job stress for men but not women. In a close
examination of the data, it was found that mostly all the facets of trait EI were negatively related to stress
for men. However, the trait EI facets that related to stress for women were specific, and strong for
emotional control. The authors conclude that males and females may be exposed to different types of
stressors at work, and that it would be important to establish if there are differential effects for the types
of job stress. However, effects were not so strong as to lend empirical support to claims that EI is of
crucial importance in the workplace (e.g., Goleman, 1998). Among the results, perceived job control had
a negative effect on stress while it had a positive effect on satisfaction. Stress had a negative effect on
satisfaction, which, in turn, had the strongest positive effect on commitment. A number of gender
differences emerged, revealing that older women reported less control in their jobs and less commitment
to their organizations than younger women; no effects emerged for men. Based on their findings, the
authors concluded that it is unwise to assume that the interrelationships of workplace variables are
gender-invariant. They suggested that future investigation of gender roles may help explain the gender
differences, and may account for incremental variance over and above biological sex in work-related
criteria.
In her doctoral dissertation research, Gardner (2005) found significant differences for males and
females in understanding emotions, role insufficiency and internal job satisfaction in a group of teachers.
53
Women were more able to understand the emotions of others in their work environment and felt more
satisfied with the internal aspects of their job (e.g., level of responsibility and variety) than men. In
comparison with women, men showed significantly higher scores on role insufficiency, one of the facets
of occupational stress which indicated that they felt their training and skills were not always appropriate
for work tasks. They suggest that the higher scores on role insufficiency may be due to the increasing
demand of teachers to assume counsellor-like roles which require the ability to understand the emotions
of their students. The effect of gender role was not considered. Given the sparse research examining the
relationships among these variables, the current study will provide a unique contribution to the field in
terms of understanding the relationships between gender, EI, coping with occupational stress, and well-
being within the general population.
Summary of Literature Review
Research has demonstrated that certain traits that individuals possess (e.g., hardiness, optimism,
EI) enable some people to cope better than others when it comes to everyday challenges and life stressors,
leading to increased health and well-being (e.g., Ciarrochi, Forgas & Mayer, 2001; Salovey et al., 1999,
2002; Wong & Law, 2002; Zomer, 2001). Given the relatively recent development of the construct of EI,
there are many areas which need to be further explored involving this construct’s apparent significance to
coping and well-being. Some of the research which examines EI and coping has linked EI with
dispositional coping, or adaptive coping styles people typically use in dealing with general life stress
(e.g., Schutte & Malouff, 1999). Existing researchers in this area have made assumptions regarding the
inherent adaptiveness or maladaptiveness of certain coping styles and have generally not assessed well-
being in relation to coping, yet some research points to differences in the effectiveness of coping
strategies used depending on the context (e.g., Folkman & Lazarus, 1989; Perlin & Schooler, 1978).
There is an abundance of research showing coping to be context-bound, with coping strategies used being
variable depending on the type of stressors assessed (e.g., Carver et al., 1989; Frydenberg & Lewis, 1994;
Kobasa, 1979). While a few studies have found significant relationships between EI and coping strategies
within specific contexts, these contexts have generally involved laboratory-induced stressors which have
the benefit of reducing “noise” (e.g., Salovey et al., 1995, 2002). However, these contexts have been
54
limited in both scope (e.g., using video clips) and their ecological validity as they are contrived. Further
research investigating the role of EI in this area is needed to establish variability in contextual coping as a
function of emotional skills, so that we may know how to most effectively guide people in coping with
different stressors they may face in their lives.
Two central areas of life which have proven to be vital in their contributions to well-being
include interpersonal relationships (e.g., Belle, 1982; Chung et al., 2003; Durkheim, 1951; Fiore, Becker
& Coppel, 1983; Myers & Diener, 1995; Ryff & Singer, 2000; Uchino et al., 1996; Wahler, 1980) and the
occupational realm (e.g., CBC News, October 17, 2006; Statistics Canada, 2006). Certain coping
strategies have been shown to be related to the effectiveness of dealing with stressors in close
interpersonal relationships (e.g., Goldberger & Breznitz, 1993; Quayhagen & Quayhagen, 1982; Zeidner
& Endler, 1996) and work stressors (e.g., Folkman & Lazarus, 1989; Leana & Feldman, 1990; Mantler et
al., 2005; Parasuraman and Cleek, 1984; Perlin & Schooler, 1978). Relatively little research exists in
terms of emotional competencies and their relationships to coping with interpersonal and occupational
stressors. Although existing research does provide some evidence linking emotional skills to coping
strategies used with stress in close interpersonal relationships and relationship satisfaction (e.g., Fitness &
Curtis, 2005; Zomer, 2003), more support is needed to more firmly establish these relationships as well as
their effects on overall well-being. With respect to occupational stress, EI has been found to relate to job
performance and well-being (e.g., Fox et al., 2003; Salovey and Mayer, 1990), with other studies showing
mixed findings in the relationships between the types of coping strategies used in dealing with work
stress (e.g., Folkman & Lazarus, 1989; Perlin & Schooler, 1978). Therefore, the emotional skills people
possess as well as the types of coping strategies they use within interpersonal and occupational contexts
may present as ways to mitigate the effects of dealing with these types of stressors. I did not find studies
which integrated a simultaneous investigation of the relationships between EI and the coping strategies
used to cope with workplace stress within the general population at the time of the current study, and
given the importance of emotions in guiding (coping) behaviour, doing so would seem to be important in
predicting well-being.
55
Finally, gender differences in EI have been found (e.g., Mayer et al., 2000; Petrides & Furnham,
2000b; Schutte et al., 1998; Skoe et al., 2002), with a study suggesting that gender differences in EI may
exist across interpersonal and occupational contexts (Rivera-Cruz, 2004), and other research revealing
gender differences in EI and coping with stress in close interpersonal relationships (Fitness & Curtis,
2005; Zomer, 2003). Gender differences in coping behaviour at work have also been found (Gianakos,
2000; Tamres et al., 2002). Little, if any, research exists investigating the influence of gender on these
constructs jointly, particularly with respect to occupational stress. Most of the research examining gender
differences have evaluated the construct in terms of sex differences (i.e., being male or female); however,
it may be that research has confounded the biological and sociological aspects of gender since most
studies have not simultaneously assessed sex and gender role (i.e., degree of masculinity and femininity).
For example, claims that women are higher in some aspects of EI may not hold true for women who are
higher in masculinity or men who are higher in femininity. Overall, in terms of research samples, existing
studies have largely been drawn from undergraduate university or specific populations, which may limit
the generalizability of the research findings to the general population. A summary of some of the specific
examples of the variable relationships highlighted in this section and described in the literature review is
presented below in Table 3.
56
Table 3 Summary of Variable Relationships
General findings Examples of Variable Relationships Source EI is related to positive outcome measures.
EI is related to life and work satisfaction, interpersonal functioning, healthy relationships, job performance, psychological well-being, physical health, psychophysiological measures of adaptive coping (cortisol levels, blood pressure).
E.g., Ciarrochi, Forgas & Mayer, 2001; Salovey et al., 1999, 2002; Wong & Law, 2002; Zomer, 2001
EI is related to dispositional coping.
Emotional clarity was related to increased active coping, positive reinterpretation and growth, and planning. Clarity and expression were negatively related to behavioural withdrawal. Attention, intensity, and expression were positively related to focusing on emotions, seeking social support, and venting.
Schutte & Malouff, 1999
Coping differences exist when examined as a trait and contextually.
Coping strategies and their effectiveness differ depending on the context. Only low to moderate correlations between the dispositional and situational versions of the COPE questionnaires were found.
Carver et al., 1989
Consistencies in coping with similar categories of stressors and inconsistencies in coping with different stressors have been found.
Frydenberg & Lewis, 1994; Kobasa, 1979
Coping responses were found to help mitigate stress in three areas (marriage, parenting, household economics), but were not particularly effective in the area of work. In all areas but occupational stress, the use of more coping responses and having more coping resources available reduced the likelihood of emotional distress, whereas having limited coping resources increased the risk of emotional distress. Thus, work stress may be less dependent on individuals’ coping abilities and more susceptible to organizational structure.
Folkman & Lazarus, 1989; Perlin & Schooler, 1978
Relationships between EI and coping have been found with laboratory-induced stressors.
Clarity best predicted the recovery of a positive mood following a laboratory induced stressful event (i.e., video clip) after controlling for the effects of depression, neuroticism, and socio-emotional adjustment. High levels of clarity revealed a reduction in ruminative thoughts. Lack for an effect for the attention scale is perhaps attributable to the study methodology as individuals were asked to attend to their thoughts, and perhaps implicitly to mood. Repair was related to decreased negative affect immediately following laboratory stressor.
Salovey et al., 1995
EI was related to psychological and interpersonal functioning. Clarity was related with increased negative mood but also with lower cortical release during repeated stress. Attention was related to lowered cortisol and blood pressure responses. Repair was positively related with active coping and perceptions of repeated laboratory stressors as less threatening; it was negatively related with rumination.
Salovey et al., 2002
Interpersonal relationships are related with well-being.
Relationships are beneficial for stress management, general health, and psychological well-being. A meta-analysis (81 studies) revealed social support was related with positive effects in cardiovascular, immune, and endocrine systems.
Myers & Diener, 1995; Ryff & Singer, 2000; Uchino et al., 1996
Social networks may increase distress when network members are disrespectful, disapproving, fail to meet help expectations, etc.
Belle, 1982, Fiore et al., 1983, Wahler, 1980.
Lack of social support, connectedness to others, and isolation have long been recognized as predictors of morbidity and mortality.
Durkheim, 1951
Relationship dissolution has been linked with symptoms of PTSD. Chung et al., 2003
57
Coping strategies are related to the perceived impact of interpersonal conflict.
Problem-solving and help-seeking strategies were positively related to a greater perceived impact of interpersonal conflict among mid-life adults. Those who expressed more negative emotion (venting) and used self-actualization coping strategies perceived less of an impact.
Quayhagen & Quayhagen, 1982
Emotional skills are related to coping with stress in close interpersonal relationships and relationship satisfaction.
Emotional clarity was positively related with the ease of forgiving a spouse’s transgressions and overall relationship happiness.
Planalp & Fitness, 1999
Insecurely attached partners had more difficulty resolving conflict. Lopez et al., 1997
Alexithymia has been linked with poor interpersonal functioning. Parker et al., 2001
Mood repair was positively correlated with task-oriented coping when dealing with conflict in relationships (N = 170). Clarity and repair was negatively related with emotion-oriented coping. Clarity was negatively related with avoidance-oriented coping. Functional responses to recalled interpersonal conflict were more strongly associated with being female than male. Gender role differences (e.g., masculinity/femininity) were not examined.
Fitness & Curtis, 2005
A pilot study (N = 40) revealed clarity to be negatively related to self-distraction and denial, repair to be positively related to positive reframing and negatively to self-distraction, denial, and venting, with Clarity also being negatively related to self-distraction and denial. Gender differences emerged and appeared to be linked more so to gender role than biological sex.
Zomer, 2003
Job stress is related to well-being, with differential gender effects.
Workplace stress was positively related to depression. Men’s mental health was more susceptible to workplace stress. For women, low supervisor support was related to depression, while low support from co-workers was related to depression for both sexes. One in 12 working Canadians reported they were unhappy on the job, with depression being a major occupational health issue. Men in high-strain jobs were 2.5 times more likely to have experienced depression than men in low strain jobs; women were 1.6 times more likely.
Statistics Canada (2006); CBC News, October 17, 2006
EI is related to the effects of workplace stress on job performance and well-being.
The ability to recognize nonverbal emotional expression was associated with job performance (N =69).
Anger-Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002
EI was correlated with supervisor ratings of government workers’ performance (N = 149).
Wong & Law, 2002
Trait EI was related to managerial advancement.
Dulewicz & Higgs, 2002
EI made unique contributions to predicting job performance and job satisfaction after controlling for personality variables, as well as math and verbal ability.
Fox et al., 2003; Salovey and Mayer, 1990
EI was associated with lower stress levels, better management performance, and higher subjective well-being.
Slaski & Cartwright, 2004
EI was negatively correlated with work stress in all areas (N = 212) (e.g., work relationships, overload, control, resources and communication, pay and benefits, job security, physical work conditions, type of task, job satisfaction).
Nikolaou & Tsaousis, 2002
Coping strategies may be related with workplace stress.
Mixed findings have been reported, with some research suggesting individuals used more emotion-focused coping versus problem-focused coping when dealing with work stress while other researchers have found the reverse pattern.
Folkman & Lazarus, 1989; Perlin & Schooler, 1978
Other researchers have suggested the effects of coping in the workplace may be neutral.
Parasuraman and Cleek, 1984
58
In situations such as job loss or employment uncertainty, problem-focused coping was related with lower levels of perceived stress. Higher levels of perceived stress were related with emotion-focused and avoidant strategies.
Leana & Feldman, 1990; Mantler et al., 2005
Gender differences in EI may exist across contexts.
Women showed a higher level of EI competencies at home, while men demonstrated a higher level at work in a Puerto Rican population.
Rivera-Cruz, 2004
Gender differences in coping behaviour have been found.
Women have an increased likelihood of using coping techniques that include verbal expression, rumination, seeking emotional support, and using positive self-talk in comparison with men. Men used more withdrawal and avoidant coping strategies for relationship and others’ health stressors than women.
Tamres et al., 2002
Positive-thinking coping styles were positively related with feminine and masculine roles in comparison with undifferentiated roles. Those higher in femininity also used more direct action coping than those with undifferentiated roles. Masculinity and femininity were significant predictors of control-related coping styles whereas female biological gender was a significant predictor or direct action coping.
Gianakos (2000)
Gender differences in EI have been found.
Females had higher total measured trait EI than males. Schutte et al., 1998 Females had higher scores only on the “social skills” factor of trait EI. Petrides &
Furnham, 2000b Women performed higher on all tasks of the MEIS than men. Mayer et al., 2000
Women and men higher in femininity showed more empathic concern for others when addressing moral dilemmas.
Skoe et al., 2002
Gender differences in EI and coping with stress in close interpersonal relationships have been shown.
No sex differences were found with repair or clarity; however, females had higher scores than men on attention when dealing with stress in close interpersonal relationships. Masculinity was positively related with repair and clarity but negatively related to attention. No significant gender role differences were found along the femininity dimension. With respect to coping with stress in close interpersonal relationships, no differences were found between men and women. However, masculinity was negatively related to the use of instrumental support, self-distraction, denial, venting, and self-blame; no relationships emerged with femininity. Masculinity was also more strongly related to well-being than femininity.
Zomer, 2003
Females obtained higher scores than males on task-oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping, and avoidant coping. Being female predicted constructive responses to interpersonal conflict even after accounting for EI. Gender role was not investigated.
Fitness and Curtis, 2005
Gender differences in EI and occupational well-being measures have been shown.
High trait EI was related to higher levels of perceived control, satisfaction, and commitment, as well as lower levels of job stress for men but not women.
Petrides & Furnham, 2003
Women were more able to understand the emotions of others than men in a group of teachers. Men showed higher scores on role insufficiency than women.
Gardner, 2005
Gender differences in coping with work stress have been shown.
Social support coping was more helpful in reducing psychological distress and psychosomatic complaints for women but not for men when coping with work stress in male-dominated financial companies in Spain (N = 461). On the other hand, social support coping indicated increased psychological distress and psychosomatic complaints in men. Direct action coping was more beneficial for men than women.
Gonzales-Morales et al., 2006
59
Purpose of the Present Investigation
The present investigation concentrates on individual differences in emotional processes, with the
understanding that emotions are central to the process of coping and adaptation (Folkman & Lazarus,
1988). Individual differences in emotional processes, or skill levels, are considered to be represented by
the construct of emotional intelligence. The primary objective of the current research is to explore the
ways in which emotional intelligence (EI) facilitates adaptive coping when dealing with stress in personal
relationships and work stress, with interpersonal and occupational contexts being two domains in life
which are vital in fostering well-being. It aims at providing evidence in support of an extended
adaptational model contextualizing EI within the coping process (see Figure 3).
The study will address some of the limitations of existing research summarized above and
provide unique contributions to this area of research by: (1) Evaluating an adaptational model
contextualizing emotional intelligence within the coping process; (2) Assessing well-being in relation to
coping behaviour; (3) Investigating and comparing stress responses across two different contexts (i.e.,
interpersonal and occupational); (4) Investigating how individuals cope with stress in personally salient
contexts; (5) Using a community sample to help increase the generalizability of the findings; and, (6)
Exploring gender differences in terms of both biological sex and sociological gender role in (a) EI,
coping, and well-being, as well as (b) the adaptational model contextualizing emotional intelligence
within the coping process.
60
Figure 3. Adaptational Model Contextualizing Emotional Intelligence within the Coping Process.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
The guiding questions of the current investigation are:
(1) How do emotionally intelligent individuals cope with stress in close relationships and the workplace?
Hypothesis One: EI will be related to distinct coping strategies for interpersonal and occupational stress.
Specifically, with respect to stress in close interpersonal relationships, EI (assessed using the TMMS)
will be positively related to emotional expression, support from others, emotional processing, active
coping, acceptance, religion, humour, and denial and negatively related to venting, self-blame,
alcohol/drug use, and denial (assessed using the COPE, Brief COPE and emotional approach coping
scales). With respect to occupational stress, it is expected that EI will reveal patterns of adaptive
Stressors: Interpersonal and Occupational
Coping Responses Emotion-focused, problem-
focused, avoidant, etc.
Appraisals
• Emotional Intelligence • Gender (sociological
and biological)
Subjective Well-Being Global Life and domain-specific
and Satisfaction, Affect, Depression, Anxiety, Stress
(Primary) (Secondary)
Person Attributes Mediators/Mechanisms
Outcome
61
coping and will be related to support from others, emotional processing, active coping, and
acceptance, and negatively related to venting, self-blame, alcohol/drug use, and denial. The TMMS
subscales comprising EI (i.e., attention, clarity, and repair) will be differentially linked to the coping
strategies, with clarity and repair accounting for most of the relationships between overall EI and the
coping strategies.
(2) Are there differences in the coping strategies used across contexts and their relationships to EI and
well-being?
Hypothesis Two: Differences will emerge in coping behaviours across contexts as well as their
relationships to EI and well-being.
Based on research revealing coping differences across contexts, it is believed that there will be
differences in coping strategies used between interpersonal and occupational contexts, as well as their
relationships to subjective well-being (SWB; composite assessed using the DASS-21, PANAS, and
life satisfaction scales). Although research is sparse in this area and has revealed some contradictory
findings, theoretical models and existing studies would suggest the benefit of emotion-focused
strategies (e.g., emotional expression, emotional processing, humour, social support, and venting)
when dealing with stress in close interpersonal relationships. In comparison to stress in close
interpersonal relationships, work stress is suggested to be linked with problem-focused strategies
(e.g., active coping), and less self-blame (Vitaliano et al., 1995). It is believed that certain coping
strategies (e.g., emotional expression, religion) which may be adaptive (i.e., related to SWB) in
dealing with stress in close interpersonal relationships would not be adaptive with work stress. In
addition, there will be similar patterns of coping types (e.g., maladaptive types and adaptive types, or
approach/avoidant types) which emerge between contexts, and EI (assessed by the TMMS) will be
able to differentiate between these coping types. These coping types will also be differentiated in
terms of SWB.
(3) Does coping behaviour mediate the relationship between EI and well-being for both interpersonal and
occupational stress?
62
Hypothesis Three: Coping behaviour will mediate the relationship between EI and well-being for both
interpersonal and occupational stress.
Coping behaviour (both strategies and coping types) will mediate the relationship between EI and
well-being for both interpersonal and occupational stress. In other words, EI will predict the use of
certain coping strategies (and coping type; i.e., adaptive types), which in turn, predict well-being (see
Figure 4). Coping strategies which will most likely emerge as mediators include emotional
expression, emotional processing, social support, active coping, venting/self-blame, denial, and
acceptance.
Figure 4. Example of Multiple Mediation Model Depicting Coping Strategies as Potential Mediators
Between EI and Well-Being.
(4) What is the role of gender in EI and coping with interpersonal and occupational stress? Is coping
associated with differential outcomes for men and women? Does gender moderate the relationship
between EI and well-being, and between EI and coping behaviour?
Hypothesis Four: Gender will be differentially related to EI and the coping strategies used in each
context. Gender will moderate the relationship between EI and SWB and between EI and coping
strategies.
Gender (sex assessed by male/female; gender role assessed by PAQ agency/masculinity and
communion/femininity scales) will be differentially related to EI (e.g., males will be lower in EI than
females; both communion and agency will be related to EI). Gender will be differentially related to
certain coping strategies. More specifically, being female will be linked with emotion-focused coping
Social Support
Emotional Intelligence
Subjective Well-Being
Venting/Self-Blame
a1
c
c'
b1
b2 a2
63
using emotion expression, emotion processing, venting/self-blame, denial, acceptance, and being
male with problem-focused coping and alcohol/drug use; in addition, communion will be positively
related to emotion-focused coping and agency to active coping. The interactional relationships
(between gender and EI) will help explain differences in the types of coping strategies used and
SWB. However, differences will be attributed more so to sociological gender roles (i.e.,
agency/communion) rather than biological sex (male/female).
64
Chapter Two: Method
Participants
The sample consisted of 300 participants from a general population of internet users, of
which approximately 66.7% were women (n = 200), and 33.3% were men (n = 100). A donation of $5.00
was made to each participant’s choice of charity. Ages ranged from 18 to 62 (M = 31.91, SD = 10.97).
Three participants did not indicate age; however, all participants consented to being over 18 years old. A
requirement for inclusion in the study was that all participants had to be employed at some point over the
past twelve months, with the majority (79.7%; n = 239) being currently employed at the time of the
survey while the remaining participants (20.3%; n = 61) were unemployed at the time of the survey.
When employed, 19.3% (n = 58) revealed they worked over 45 hours per week; 50.0% (n = 150) worked
between 30 to 45 hours per week; 18.7% (n = 56) worked 15 to 30 hours per week; and 11.0% (n = 33)
less than 15 hours per week; three participants did not indicate hours worked per week. With respect to
native language, 74.7% (n = 224) were native English-speaking, 22.3% (n = 67) indicated another native
language, and 3.0% (n = 9) did not provide a response. Most participants (98.7%; n = 296) indicated they
were completely fluent in English and only four participants (1.3%) indicated they were somewhat fluent.
Marital status revealed that 41.3% (n = 124) of the participants were single; 17.7% (n = 53) were in a
relationship but not cohabitating; 34.3% (n = 103) were married or common-law; 5.3% (n = 16) were
separated or divorced, and; 1.3 % (n = 4) were widowed. The majority of the sample lived in Canada
(85.7%; n = 257), with 11.3% (n = 34) living in the United States and two participants (less than 1%)
from Europe; the remaining participants (1.7%; n = 5) indicated other countries, including Israel,
Pakistan, Germany, England, Indonesia, and Argentina; two participants did not indicate country. Level
of education revealed that 55.7% (n = 167) of the sample graduated from a university, 15.0 % (n = 45)
graduated from a community college, 3.3 % (n = 10) completed a trade or technical training program;
22.3% (n = 67) graduated from high school; 2.7% (n = 8) did not complete high school; three participants
did not indicate level of education.
64
65
Measures
Background information/demographics. Data were collected on participants’ gender, age,
location (country/city/town), level of education, income, native language, fluency in English, marital
status, occupation/job title, and hours at work per week.
Trait meta-mood scale (TMMS short form; Salovey et al., 1995). The TMMS was designed to
evaluate three skills comprising emotional intelligence based on a three-factor solution: (1) Attention to
Feelings (the degree of attention individuals devote to their feelings); (2) Clarity of Feelings (the ability
to discriminate among emotions); and (3) Mood repair (the ability to regulate and repair mood so that
negative mood states are reduced and positive emotions are enhanced). Each of these scales consists of 10
items which are evaluated on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Research indicates that the TMMS has predictive and concurrent validity, as well as internal consistency
(Cronbach’s alpha coefficients reported as Attention: .86; Clarity: .88; Repair: .82). Predictive validity
and criterion validity have also been established through discriminant analysis and the attainment of
strong correlations with several related questionnaires, including the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, and the
Mood Awareness Scale (Swinkles & Giuliano, 1995). Overall, the TMMS subscales have good
psychometric properties (see Lee & Lee, 1997; Salovey et al., 2002).
Brief COPE (Carver, 1997). The 28-item Brief COPE contains 14 subscales, nine measuring
“adaptive” coping (i.e., active coping, planning, instrumental support, emotional support, humour,
reframing, self-distraction, acceptance, and religion), and five measuring “maladaptive” coping (i.e.,
venting, substance abuse, self-blame, behavioural disengagement, and denial). Participants were asked to
indicate how they have responded to a specific stressor in close interpersonal relationships and
occupational stressor they have experienced in the past year. Validity of the measure has been established
(see Carver et al., 1989; Schutte & Malouff, 1999). Carver (1977) found internal consistency of the Brief
COPE subscales to be as follows: Planning, .73; active coping, .68; acceptance, .57; positive reframing,
.64; religion, .82; humour, .73; instrumental support, .64; emotional support, .71; denial, .54; self-
distraction, .71; substance use, .90; venting, .50; self-blame, .69; behavioural disengagement, .65.
Because of the lower internal reliabilities of three of the subscales (i.e., acceptance, denial, and venting),
66
these three subscales were supplemented with five additional items in total (i.e., two additional items for
acceptance and venting; one additional item for denial) from the full version of the COPE questionnaire
(Carver, Scheier & Weintraub, 1989). The internal reliabilities on the full version of the COPE for
acceptance, venting, and denial are: .65, .77, and .71, respectively. Subsequent factor analysis of this
instrument indicated that these methods of coping can also be broadly categorized as active coping
(intention to act to reduce the stressor), emotion-focused coping (attempts to ameliorate one’s feelings of
stress), and avoidance coping (including denial and giving up) (Lyne & Rogers, 2000).
Emotional approach coping (EAC) scales (Stanton et al., 2000). These two scales (i.e.,
emotional expression and emotional processing, or active attempts to acknowledge and understand
emotions) were developed to demonstrate that items assessing emotion-focused coping in existing coping
questionnaires are confounded with distress and self-deprecation. The scales may be embedded in both
dispositional and situational versions of coping questionnaires, and in both versions, the scales
demonstrate high internal consistency (Cronbach’s ά = .72 to .94) and four-week test-retest reliability (r =
.72 to .78). While the two scales are moderately to substantially intercorrelated (r = .45 to .75), they
revealed convergent and discriminant validity with other variables (e.g., avoidance-oriented coping, self-
esteem, hope, depressive symptoms and trait anxiety) (see Park, Edmondson, Fenster & Blank, 2008).
Biological gender. Indicated by the endorsement of male or female in the demographic measure.
Personal attributes questionnaire (short form; Spence, Helmreich & Stapp, 1973; Spence &
Helmreich, 1978). The Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) is commonly used for assessing sex role
orientation. The short form is most widely used and consists of 24 items, eight of which represent
characteristics that are associated with more masculine behaviour (i.e., “instrumentality” or “agency”),
and eight of which represent characteristics that are associated with more feminine behaviour (i.e.,
“expressiveness”, or “communion”). The other eight items were originally designed to measure
“androgyny”, or behaviour that is seen as gender neutral. The agency items reflect a positive orientation
towards the self, including adjectives such as independent, self-confident and makes decisions easily. The
communion items reflect a positive orientation towards others, including adjectives such as helpful, kind
and understanding of others. Internal consistencies for the PAQ are reportedly strong, particularly with
67
the masculinity/instrumentality/agency and feminity/expressiveness/communion scales (alpha
coefficients in the .70 and .80 range), even in recent explorations of the measure’s reliability (Choi, 2004;
Hill et al., 2000; Spence & Helmreich, 1978).
Depression anxiety stress scales (DASS-21, short form; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). The
DASS-21 is designed to measure depression, hyperarousal, and tension in clinical and non-clinical
groups, with each scale consisting of seven items. The depression scale includes items that assess
dysphoric mood, low self-esteem, and anhedonia. The anxiety scale is composed of items that measure
physiological arousal and fear. Finally, the stress scale consists of items relating to a tendency to
overreact to stressful events, tension, and irritability (Antony et al., 1998). The three DASS scores can
also be summed to produce a global measure of negative emotional symptoms. In a non-clinical sample
(N = 1794), Cronbach’s alphas for the depression, anxiety, and stress subscales were .88, .82, .90,
respectively, and .93 for the total scale (Henry & Crawford, 2005). The validity of the scales has also
been established (Antony et al., 1998; Henry & Crawford, 2005).
Satisfaction with life scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985). The SWLS is a brief, five-item
measure designed to assess global life satisfaction (cognitive component) without tapping into affect. The
measure has proven good psychometric properties, including high internal consistency (Cronbach’s ά =
.87), and high temporal reliability with a two-month test-retest stability coefficient of .82. Predictive,
concurrent and discriminant validity have also been established. The SWLS was modified in the current
research to also assess the extent to which individuals are also satisfied with their home life, social life
and work life.
Positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988). The
PANAS (Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988) was developed to measure two dominant and relatively
independent dimensions of affect: positive and negative affect. Positive affect reflects the extent to which
a person feels enthusiastic, active, and alert. Negative affect is a general dimension of subjective distress
and unpleasureable engagement. It encompasses several aversive mood states, such as anger, fear,
nervousness, disgust and guilt. The PANAS consists of two 10-item mood scales that have demonstrated
high internal consistency, stability, and convergent and discriminant validity. Watson et al. (1988)
68
reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the various time reference periods ranging from .86 to .90 for
the positive affect scale and .84 to .87 for the negative affect scale. For the general population, alpha was
.88 for positive affect and .87 for negative affect.
Procedure
A cross-sectional survey design was used to measure self-report questionnaire data collected in
2009 via an internet survey tool, “Survey Monkey”. The study was advertised through email recruitment
(see Appendix A) via various electronic mailing list servers, social networking, and other community
websites (e.g., www.craigslist.com). Participation was voluntary and participants’ anonymity was
maintained. The questionnaire protocols took participants approximately 30 minutes to complete. An
informed consent form was presented to participants upon entering the website (Appendix A).
In terms of privacy and confidentiality, individuals were informed that there would be no
identifying information requested. Individuals were informed that there is some degree of risk in terms of
privacy and confidentiality with online recruitment, such as viewing or tracking of online activity by
another party. However, every possible precaution was taken to eliminate the risk and ensure privacy and
confidentiality. Responses on the website remained secure by using SSL encryption. Moreover, responses
were automatically downloaded after completion of the survey to a fire-walled, secure, continuously-
monitored location and no online records of responses were kept.
Participants were required to agree to the terms of the study presented in the informed consent, as
well as the inclusion criteria (i.e., 18 to 65 years old, fluent in English, have been employed part-time or
full-time over the past 12 months) prior to being presented with the first questionnaire by clicking a
button. The reason for the age requirement was because the study investigates an adult population prior to
the standard age of retirement. Although many individuals work past retirement, they may choose to do
so for different reasons than individuals who are in their pre-retirement years, and the purpose of their
work may carry a different meaning in this stage of life. The reason for requiring that participants have
been employed over the past 12 months is because the current study investigates occupational stress, with
the stressor having occurred within the past 12 months. Most studies involving recall of events inquire
about short-term events that have transpired over no more than one year ago. The reason for this is that
69
memory function has been shown to significantly decline after one year. For example, research has shown
that 20% of critical details, selected at the time of occurrence to be "certainly” remembered, were
irretrievable after one year (see Bradburn et al., 1987). However, other researchers have found that time
of recall (even after one year period), was unrelated to life event measures, particularly with the provision
or elicitation of contextual and emotional cues (Byrne, Geraci and Uhde, 1987; Kessler, 1997).
Participants were informed that the purpose of the study was to examine the emotional processes
involved in coping with conflict in relationships and work stress. Participants completed the protocol on-
line at their leisure. For motivational purposes, a progress metre appeared on the computer screen
indicating how far along the participant was in completing the questionnaire, with words of
encouragement displayed at given points along the way (see Appendix A). At the conclusion of the
survey, participants were given the option of choosing one of six charity organizations in Canada to
which an anonymous donation of $5.00 was made by the primary researcher. The charities were: (1) Sick
Kids Hospital; (2) Canadian Cancer Society; (3) The Arthritis Society; (4) Heart & Stroke Foundation;
(5) Canadian Women’s Foundation; and, (6) The United Way. Upon completion of the protocol, the final
page (see Appendix A) again provided contact information with regards to any questions or concerns
participants may have had, as well as how to obtain the final results of the study. The questionnaire
protocols were administered in random order (i.e., the order of the questionnaires were changed with
approximately every twenty questionnaires completed). The Satisfaction with Life Scales were
administered at the end of each questionnaire package in order to minimize mood effects.
The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Toronto, in
accordance with guidelines provided by the Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research
Involving Humans, which include policies of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Natural
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council of Canada.
70
Chapter Three: Results
This chapter examines the diagnostic actions taken to ensure the integrity and appropriateness of
the data. Prior to data analysis, all items were examined for accuracy of data transfer and entry, and
principle components and cluster analyses were conducted on the gender, coping, and well-being
measures to obtain total variable scores. Next, variables were evaluated for missing values, and fit
between their distributions and the assumptions of univariate and multivariate analyses. Descriptive
statistics provided the sample characteristics, and the independent and dependent variable measures were
subjected to tests of reliability and validity. The issue of missing data was addressed, with the pattern of
missing data explored and steps taken to impute the missing data. Once these preliminary analyses were
completed, the data were subjected to bivariate and multivariate statistical procedures. Examples of the
relationship and work stressors provided by some of the participants are shown in Table 4 and Table 5.
Preliminary Analysis
The first step conducted to ensure the integrity of the data was to check the accuracy of transfer
of data from the internet-based protocol into the statistical computer program (Microsoft Excel and the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS version 19.0; SPSS, Inc.). To complete this task, an
analysis of frequencies and descriptive statistics was conducted, and data ranges were verified for each
variable entered to ensure all data were within the prescribed ranges. Subscale scores were then computed
on all the questionnaires, with the exception of the coping strategies data and PAQ, which first required
an exploration of factor structures. In terms of exploratory analyses, the intercorrelations between the
research variables were examined for data to support the validity of the interpretations of the research
measures. Preliminary analyses revealed that correlations between the TMMS and well-being were
unexpectedly reversed, which led to a re-examination of the data transferred. The re-examination rectified
a survey protocol default on SurveyMonkey, requiring data to be reverse-keyed only for the TMMS.
70
71
Table 4 Stressor in Close Interpersonal Relationships Examples Provided By Participants My brother and I have a little strain in our relationship lately over money.
After twenty-two years of being at the hip, both mother/daughter and best friends, with my mother, I am ready to move out with a partner and there has been a lot of anger and emotion about this because she feels she is not ready though I am.
I want person A to take more responsibility for housework as person A is not employed. I try not to be resentful or to mention circumstances beyond person A's control usually, but when I get frustrated I make remarks more and more frequently for a few days until I finally start to yell at person A as I feel like all responsibility is on my shoulders. I 'vent' for a while, then we hug and sit down and talk about what stresses have triggered the outburst.
I am not liked by my husband’s family and it bothers me a lot. They don't like me because they think I am not good enough for him. I have none of my family around me and no friends, sometimes I feel so alone.
Friend and I have had several disagreements about her lack of confidence/need for approval and subsequent disagreements about self-centredness.
Had a conflict with a friend who I thought wasn’t putting in enough time in our friendship, so I sent him a email outlining the problem, got no response, and deleted him from Facebook.
I no longer see my husband's father and step-mother. The last time I did she told me, after I had an obvious weight gain, that if she gained 20 pounds she would kill herself. My husband didn't stand up for me. She is notorious for calling my husband names and telling him he's a loser and nobody says anything about her behaviour. I have tried to. But I have found that after these dinners with them it takes me a long time to recover and my state of mind is too fragile to include myself and put myself up to her scrutiny so I don't go. My husband still goes and I feel horrible about the entire situation.
My spouse started and maintained a close and flirty relationship with a woman that I do not know well.
I've had emotional stress with my mother that never has a real outward conflict but is extremely difficult as we don't talk at all except about 'the weather'. I feel constant disapproval and there is a general incompatibility in our tastes, values, morals.
My parents thought that I was going out with friends too much than spending time with family. I don’t usually go out a lot and I am old enough to decide what I want, but that day they just put me down so bad. I felt as if my parents are hypocrites and don’t care about my feelings.
As the oldest child in my family I often feel like I am in the middle when it comes to my parents’ very recent divorce.
A family member is an alcoholic who phones me while drunk to accuse me of things and say
72
offensive manipulative things about other family members. I refuse to engage in these arguments, usually.
I desire the opposite sex to a fault, and while I have never cheated, it eats me up inside, and I find that I tend to retreat inwards when it comes to the reality of a committed relationship, and this causes stress and conflict with my partner.
Dealing with estate planning for Parent A with Parent B no longer alive and Sibling A and Sibling B. Sibling A is married with her own children/husband; Sibling B is single.
I am gay and don't want to tell my parents about it. My parents live in China and during past few years, I almost call them every day. While I was turning 40 years old last year, my parents pressed me to marry more and more. Once my mom told me over the phone she felt shame because I am still single. I got very angry. I hung up the phone and didn't call them for several weeks.
Table 5 Occupational Stressor Examples Provided By Participants Office gossip and how draining it is to walk into work with my head held high, while co-workers
under the age of 25 play silly games.
I did not like co-worker A, and they had a really stuck up attitude. I did not realize that co-worker A had been working at the establishment as long as she had, and I thought she was newer than me (and co-worker A thought I was newer than her) when really we started around the same time, and never ended up working together until later on. She took over the space that I had been set-up in, so I had to find another spot in the establishment to work. She also took over cash handling responsibilities ... I didn't trust her and felt that she was going to steal money that was rightfully mine.
Not getting enough commission work and my boss talking behind my back.
I work for a family on a pretty irregular basis. They booked me recently for 3 days in a row and then the morning of, they e-mailed me to cancel. I find this stressful because I really rely on that money, and this is becoming a habit of theirs.
Boss was trying to be very cheap about attending a conference.
I had 9 patients die in the span of 3 hours.
I am often pressured to get something done quickly, usually with vague instructions, faulty equipment, and unfamiliar locations. I work long hours on my feet.
I was bullied by my manager. She would belittle me in front of others and tell me my work and ability were disappointing. I didn't feel good about my job performance.
73
I experienced stress at work when advocating for patients but coming up against resistance from hospital staff due to difference in opinion, ignorance, bureaucratic issues, etc. Stress arises when you realize the discordance between what you know to be best practice, and what you are actually providing the clients.
I dislike my job. It is high stress- shift work, poor working conditions, no breaks, dangerous and lacks consistency. I have been trying to get out of this job for over a year now.
I had just begun a new job. The demands of the job were a lot to handle - I was pulling 12 hour days trying to prove myself in a new role. I became very stressed out for a few days when my boss asked me to do multiple assignments which put me 'under the gun'. I got the work done, but it was a ton of work, and I really tried hard to do a good job because I was new to the role.
Dealing with politics.
A male colleague has a very demanding personality and when things do not go the way exactly the way he wants it, he belittles and mutters sexist comments to the person who is helping. I was assisting this colleague and experienced his outbursts. I retaliated by explaining that he could do the work himself.
I become very stressed when there is lack of autonomy. I was comfortable in my work environment and adapting to new management however, a particular person, Person A, began to crowd my space, second guessing my tasks, duties and responsibilities. He was not genuine in his approach and very overbearing. I felt devalued and degraded, so I left my job.
I have been struggling with unrealistic workload and demands. My boss requires me to work overtime to complete paperwork and it's very draining on my personal life.
This work stress relates to job security. My boss is person A. I like working for person A but he went through a difficult time recently because of economic difficulties. He was not sure he could keep the business afloat. As a result, he became rather depressed. He spends many work hours talking about how bad things were... making employees very nervous. Some began believing the business was doomed and began considering other jobs. I started considering what my next job would be, when this business would fail. Person A convinced many employees that the business probably would not recover. It was very difficult coming to work during this time. I found myself avoiding person A because of his "doom and gloom" attitude.
74
Data screening: statistical assumptions. Prior to evaluating study hypotheses, data screening
was completed, which included an examination of the descriptive statistics for all the variables, univariate
outliers, linearity and homoscedasticity, homogeneity of variance, normality, multivariate outliers,
multicollinearity and singularity, and missing data, to ensure assumptions were met. All variables were
examined for influential cases to ensure the variable distributions met statistical assumptions of the
planned analyses. Boxplots revealed relatively few outliers (less than or equal to five outliers per
variable) for attention, clarity, repair, agency, communion, negative affect, positive affect, anxiety, and
denial (for both work and relationship contexts), with nine outliers for alcohol/drug Use (work), 13
outliers for alcohol/drug use (relationships), 16 outliers for religion (relationship), and 18 outliers for
religion (work)4. Subsequent preliminary analyses were performed for variables without the outliers, with
variables transformed to approximate normal, and with winsorization of outliers. It was decided that
winsorization proved to be the best alternative as it adequately reduced the impact of the outliers while
maintaining sample size and power. Transformation was not used because of the difficulty it presented
with the interpretation of the results.
All variables were screened for univariate normality. First, upon visual examination of
histograms, normal P-P and Q-Q plots, it appeared that some of the variables slightly deviated from
normal. Normality was further assessed by inspection of skewness and kurtosis values for each of the
study variables, as well as the use of a more objective tests of univariate normality (the Kolmogorov-
Smirnov index5), and suggested that a number of variables were approximately nonnormally distributed,
with the exception of the following 11 variables: Clarity, agency, well-being, emotional expression
(relationship), emotional processing (work), venting/self-blame (relationship and work), active coping
(relationship and work), acceptance (work), and relationship coping satisfaction (see Table 6 to Table 9).
75
Table 6 Descriptive Statistics for Emotional Intelligence and Gender Variables
n Mean/Pooled Mean1
Std. Dev. Var. Skew Ratio Kurtosis Ratio
Overall EI 287 10.62/10.65 1.61 2.59 -.87 -1.32
Attention 287 3.72/3.72 .63 .39 -2.26 -0.85
Clarity 287 3.39/3.40 .71 .51 -1.53 -0.64
Repair 287 3.50/3.52 .83 .69 -3.29 -0.73
Agency 289 3.42/3.43 .62 .38 -0.80 -1.10
Communion 289 3.98 .64 .41 -3.47 -1.25
1 Pooled mean only shown if it is different from the mean for the listwise data.
Table 7 Descriptive Statistics for Relationship Coping Strategies
n Mean/Pooled Mean1
Std. Dev. Var. Skew Ratio Kurtosis Ratio
Emotional Expression 266 2.39/2.38 .81 .66 1.55 -1.93
Support from Others/ Social Support 273 2.25 .92 .84 2.65 -2.71
Emotional Processing 266 2.68/2.67 .84 .70 0.00 -3.35
Venting/Self-Blame 273 2.39 .75 .56 1.15 -2.43
Active Coping 273 2.69 .79 .62 -0.55 -2.91
Acceptance 266 2.76 .76 .57 0.30 -3.18
Denial 273 1.55 .66 .43 8.12 2.32
Alcohol/Drug Use 273 1.51/1.52 .79 .62 9.07 1.81
Religion 265 1.61/1.60 .85 .72 7.60 -0.27
Humour 266 1.92/1.91 .86 .74 4.58 -1.24
1 Pooled mean only shown if it is different from the mean for the listwise data.
76
Table 8 Descriptive Statistics for Work Coping Strategies
n Mean1 Std. Dev. Var. Skew Ratio Kurtosis Ratio
Emotional Expression 274 2.29/2.28 .83 .70 2.43 -1.72
Support from Others 277 2.47 .87 .76 0.58 -3.12
Emotional Processing 273 2.61 .80 .64 -0.09 -2.13
Venting/Self-Blame 277 2.21 .74 .54 1.71 -2.34
Active Coping 277 2.82 .78 .61 -1.56 -2.45
Acceptance 274 2.62/2.61 .73 .54 1.41 -2.25
Denial 277 1.49/1.50 .64 .41 8.20 2.38
Alcohol/Drug Use 277 1.46 .74 .55 9.65 2.59
Religion 274 1.58/1.57 .81 .66 8.40 0.96
Humour 274 2.24/2.22 .98 .96 2.43 -3.22
1 Pooled mean only shown if it is different from the mean for the listwise data.
77
Table 9 Descriptive Statistics for Well-Being Scales
n Mean1 Std. Dev. Var. Skew Ratio Kurtosis Ratio
Subjective Well-Being 254 -.01/-.02 .71 .51 -1.86 -2.06
Positive Affect 254 3.32 .84 .71 -2.82 -0.83
Negative Affect 254 2.42 .88 .77 3.81 -0.79
Stress 250 2.15 .73 .53 2.12 -1.90
Depression 250 1.94 .83 .70 4.45 -1.84
Anxiety 250 1.69 .67 .45 5.91 -0.55
General Life Satisfaction 250 4.27/4.26 1.66 2.75 -1.92 -3.16
Social Life Satisfaction 250 3.77 1.72 2.94 -0.25 -3.58
Career Life Satisfaction 247 3.77/3.75 1.88 3.54 0.34 -4.02
Home Life Satisfaction 250 4.35 1.74 3.03 -2.10 -2.94
1 Pooled mean only shown if it is different from the mean for the listwise data.
Where possible, the analyses were conducted using both parametric and nonparametric methods
to address the issue of nonnormality. Because results were similar across methods, the results presented
were conducted using mostly parametric methods. It is no surprise that the results were similar across
methods, since it has long been established that the violation of normality assumptions in parametric
statistical analyses is of little to no significance because parametric methods have shown to be quite
robust, particularly with large sample sizes. In fact, Box (1953) mocked the idea of testing the variances
prior to applying an F-test, “To make a preliminary test on variances is rather like putting to sea in a
rowing boat to find out whether conditions are sufficiently calm for an ocean liner to leave port! (p.
333).” Monte Carlo simulations (research using dummy data) have found the t-test, correlation, analysis
of variance, least-squares regression, factor analysis, and related linear techniques to be relatively robust
78
against non-extreme deviations from normality provided errors are not severely asymmetric and sample
size is large (Bennett, 1977; Glass et al., 1972; Lumley et al., 2002; StatSoft, Inc., 2010; Vasu, 1979)6.
Log-linear analysis, logistic regression, and related techniques using maximum likelihood estimation are
even more robust against moderate departures from normality (Steenkamp & van Trijp, 1991).
Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) suggest that with large samples, variables with statistically
significant skewness and kurtosis usually do not deviate sufficiently from normality to contribute to
significant differences in the analyses. They cite research revealing that with positive kurtosis,
underestimation of variance disappears with samples of 100 or more cases, whereas underestimates of
variance associated with negative kurtosis disappear with samples of 200 or more (see Waternaux, 1976).
It has also been recognized that current nonparametric tests typically do not possess the power, versatility,
and extension to multivariate situations that characterize their parametric counterparts (Labovitz, 1970),
so the tendency to embrace nonparametric techniques is frequently undesirable and often unwarranted
(Nunnally, 1967; Pringle, 1976).
Univariate multicollinearity was tested by screening for large bivariate correlations (a cutoff of r
≥ .85 is typically used). However, no evidence of multicollinearity was found, with correlations among
variables not being in excess of r = .61.
Data Reduction
Coping strategies factors for stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace.
Once the data had been initially screened, the next issue for analysis was to reduce the data via factor
analytic methods in order to determine the factor structures of the coping and gender measures for this
particular sample. The dimensionality of the 41 coping items was examined through factor analysis (FA)
to identify and compute composite coping scores for underlying factors. The following widely used
criteria were applied as guidelines to determine the number of factors to rotate: 1) eigenvalues being over
1; 2) an examination of breaks in the scree plots; 3) the proportion of variance accounted for by the last
factor deemed large enough to be important (e.g., at least 5%) (Kahn, 2006); 4) the total variance
accounted for by the factor solution (at least 40% and above, Tinsley & Tinsley, 1987), and; 5) the
interpretability of the factor solution. A fifth criterion which was applied to enable comparison of coping
79
strategies between work and relationship contexts in further analyses was a common factor structure.
Several factor structures (with various rotation methods) were compared for consistencies of item
loadings across contexts, resulting in the removal of the following six items from the final factor
solutions: 1, 6, 12, 16, 17, and 19. Data screening for both relationship and work items suggested
reasonable factorability, using the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy (at least
.6) and significant results on Bartlett’s test of sphericity.
Close interpersonal relationship coping strategies factors. The dimensionality of the 35 items
retained from the coping questionnaire was investigated using various extraction and rotation methods7.
The final solution used a principal components extraction method8. Communality values tended to be
moderate to high (ranging .54 to .88). Both oblique and orthogonal rotations were explored, and revealed
an acceptable 10-factor solution, which was identical across the method of rotation. Although the original
authors of the COPE instrument used an oblique rotation, the current research presents the orthogonal
solution because the varimax rotation seemed to provide a relatively simpler solution while maintaining a
factor structure identical to that of a promax rotation. The varimax-rotated solution, yielding ten
interpretable factors, is shown in Table 10. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure was .81 and Bartlett’s test
of sphericity was significant (χ2 (595) = 5086.69, p < .001) (see Table 11).
80
Table 10 Principal Components Analysis with Varimax Rotation of Coping Strategies for Stress in Interpersonal Relationships Questionnaire Items Coping Strategies -
Relationship
1 – Emotional Expression
41. I’ve allowed myself to express my emotions. .83 42. I’ve let my feelings come out freely. .83 40. I’ve taken time to expression my emotions. .81 39. I’ve felt free to express my emotions. .75 21. I’ve been letting my feelings out. .53
2 – Support from Others
10. I’ve been getting help and advice from other people. .87 5. I’ve been getting emotional support from others. .85 23. I’ve been trying to get advice or help from other people about what to do.
.83
15. I’ve been getting comfort and understanding from someone. .81
3 – Emotional Processing
37. I’ve taken time to figure out what I’m really feeling. .86 38. I’ve delved into my feelings to get a thorough understanding of them.
.84
36. I’ve realized that my feelings are valid and important. .76 35. I’ve acknowledged my emotions. .64
4 – Venting / Self-Blame
30. I’ve been getting upset, and am really aware of it. .77 33. I’ve been feeling a lot of emotional distress and finding myself expressing those feelings a lot.
.77
13. I’ve been criticizing myself. .68 26. I’ve been blaming myself for the things that happened. .63 3. I’ve been getting upset and letting my emotions out. .62
5 – Active Coping
14. I’ve been trying to come up with a strategy about what to do. .79 7. I’ve been taking action to try to make the situation better. .77 2. I’ve been concentrating my efforts on doing something about the situation I’m in.
.76
25. I’ve been thinking hard about what steps to take. .75
6 – Acceptance
29. I’ve been getting used to the idea that it happened. .84
81
20. I’ve been accepting that it has happened and that it can’t be changed. .76 24. I’ve been learning to live with it. .78 31. I’ve been accepting the reality of the fact that it happened. .72
7 – Denial
34. I’ve been pretending that it hasn’t really happened. .87 32. I’ve been acting as though it hasn’t even happened. .83 8. I’ve been refusing to believe that it has happened. .59
8 – Alcohol/Drug Use9
11. I’ve been using alcohol or other drugs to get me through it. .91 4. I’ve been using alcohol or other drugs to make myself feel better. .90
9 – Religion
22. I’ve been trying to find comfort in my religion or spiritual beliefs. .90 27. I’ve been praying or meditating. .89
10 – Humour
28. I’ve been making fun of the situation. .90 18. I’ve been making jokes about it. .86
Note. n = 244. Only loadings in absolute magnitude above .50 are presented. Table 11 Total Variance Explained and Cronbach’s Alpha for the Coping Factors for Stress in Interpersonal Relationships
Relationship Coping Factor Items Percent (%) of
Variance Accounted For
Cronbach’s
Alpha
F1 - Emotional Expression 21, 39, 40, 41, 42 10.88 .90
F2 - Support from Others 5, 10, 15, 23 9.36 .91
F3 - Emotional Processing 35, 36, 37, 38 8.68 .89
F4 - Venting/Self-Blame 3, 13, 26, 30, 33 8.50 .78
F5 - Active Coping 2, 7, 14, 25 7.99 .82
F6 - Acceptance 20, 24, 29, 31 7.36 .80
F7 - Denial 8, 32, 34 5.84 .71
F8 - Alcohol/Drug Use 4, 11 5.80 .89
F9 - Religion 22, 27 5.13 .88
F10-Humour 18, 28 4.99 .79
Total ---- 74.53 ---- Note: *The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure was .81 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (χ2 (595) = 5086.69, p < .001).
82
Coping strategies factors for workplace stress. The dimensionality of the 35 items retained from
the coping questionnaire for work stress was investigated using various extraction and rotation methods10.
The final solution used a principal components extraction method11. Although the initial solution
suggested nine factors, upon further examination a forced ten-factor solution was adopted which was
comparable to the relationship coping strategies, and based on prior research, eigenvalues12, and increased
levels of communalities among the individual items. Thus, the results of the ten-factor solution are
presented below (see Table 12). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure was .83 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity
was significant (χ2 (595) = 5520.33, p < .001) (see Table 13). Communality values tended to be moderate
to high (ranging .40 to .94). Both oblique and orthogonal rotations were explored, and revealed an
acceptable ten-factor solution, which was identical across the method of rotation, as well as with the
factors that emerged in the factor solution for coping strategies in the context of stress in close
interpersonal relationships (above). Although the original authors of the COPE instrument used an
oblique rotation, the current research presents the orthogonal solutions because identical factor structures
emerged across the rotation types, and varimax rotations seemed to provide relatively simpler solutions,
while maintaining a factor structure identical to that of a promax rotation.
83
Table 12 Principal Components Analysis with Varimax Rotation of Coping Strategies for Workplace Stress Questionnaire Items Coping Strategy – Work
1 – Emotional Expression
41. I’ve allowed myself to express my emotions. .84 42. I’ve let my feelings come out freely. .81 40. I’ve taken time to expression my emotions. .80 39. I’ve felt free to express my emotions. .77 21. I’ve been letting my feelings out. .71
2 – Support from Others
10. I’ve been getting help and advice from other people. .84 15. I’ve been getting comfort and understanding from someone. .83 23. I’ve been trying to get advice or help from other people about what to do.
.81
5. I’ve been getting emotional support from others. .81
3 – Emotional Processing
37. I’ve taken time to figure out what I’m really feeling. .84 38. I’ve delved into my feelings to get a thorough understanding of them.
.81
36. I’ve realized that my feelings are valid and important. .68 35. I’ve acknowledged my emotions. .63
4 – Venting / Self-Blame
30. I’ve been getting upset, and am really aware of it. .79 33. I’ve been feeling a lot of emotional distress and finding myself expressing those feelings a lot.
.73
13. I’ve been criticizing myself. .72 26. I’ve been blaming myself for the things that happened. .66 3. I’ve been getting upset and letting my emotions out. .64
5 – Active Coping
14. I’ve been trying to come up with a strategy about what to do. .85 2. I’ve been concentrating my efforts on doing something about the situation I’m in.
.82
25. I’ve been thinking hard about what steps to take. .80 7. I’ve been taking action to try to make the situation better. .79
6 – Acceptance
29. I’ve been getting used to the idea that it happened. .81 31. I’ve been accepting the reality of the fact that it happened. .80
84
24. I’ve been learning to live with it. .75 20. I’ve been accepting that it has happened and that it can’t be changed. .71
7 – Denial
32. I’ve been acting as though it hasn’t even happened. .87 34. I’ve been pretending that it hasn’t really happened. .86 8. I’ve been refusing to believe that it has happened. .55
8 – Alcohol/ Drug Use
11. I’ve been using alcohol or other drugs to get me through it. .95 4. I’ve been using alcohol or other drugs to make myself feel better. .94
9 – Religion
22. I’ve been trying to find comfort in my religion or spiritual beliefs. .89 27. I’ve been praying or meditating. .88
10 – Humour
18. I’ve been making jokes about it. .91 28. I’ve been making fun of the situation. .90
Note. n = 248. Only loadings in absolute magnitude above .50 are presented. Table 13 Total Variance Explained and Cronbach’s Alpha for Coping Strategies for Workplace Stress
Work Coping Factor Items Percent (%) of
Variance Accounted For
Cronbach’s
Alpha
F1 - Emotional Expression 21, 39, 40, 41, 42 11.92 .93 F2 - Support from Others 5, 10, 15, 23 9.00 .89 F3 - Emotional Processing 35, 36, 37, 38 8.17 .88 F4 - Venting/Self-Blame 3, 13, 26, 30, 33 8.31 .79 F5 - Active Coping 2, 7, 14, 25 8.49 .86 F6 - Acceptance 20, 24, 29, 31 7.53 .80 F7 - Denial 8, 32, 34 6.03 .73 F8 - Alcohol/Drug Use 4, 11 5.86 .92 F9 - Religion 22, 27 5.14 .87 F10-Humour 18, 28 5.12 .87 Total ---- 75.58 ---- Note: *The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure was .83 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (χ2 (595) = 5520.33, p < .001). ** In order to maintain consistency and clarity, the above work coping factors were re-numbered according to the ordering of factors which emerged from the FA of the stress in close interpersonal relationships coping items in the previous section.
85
Gender. Although recent research has confirmed the reliability of the somewhat dated PAQ, there
has been some concern around the internal consistency of the androgyny scale. Initially, a FA was
conducted on the 24-item questionnaire, but because it produced uninterpretable results, only the eight
instrumentality and eight expressivity items from the original scale were included in further analyses13.
Various extraction and rotation methods for the 16 items retained were explored, with the final solution
using a principal components extraction method. Communality values tended to be low to moderate
(ranging from .18 to .63)14. Both oblique and orthogonal rotations were explored, and revealed an
interpretable two factor solution, which was similar across the method of rotation. The two factor
varimax-rotated solution is shown in Table 14. Factor one, “communion” (loading items 3, 7, 8, 9, 12, 15,
21, and 22), accounted for 24.27% of the variance. Factor two, “agency” (loading items 2, 6, 10, 16, 17,
19, 20 and 24), accounted for 18.78% of the variance. Cronbach’s alphas were moderate to strong (.74 for
agency and .81 for communion). No substantial increases in alpha for either scale could have been
achieved by eliminating more items. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure was .81 and Bartlett’s test of
sphericity was significant (χ2 (120) = 1267.76, p < .001).
86
Table 14 Principal Components Analysis with Varimax Rotation of Gender
Items Components
1 – Communion
2 – Agency
G21: Understanding of others .79
G12: Kind .76
G15: Aware of feelings of others .75
G22: Warm in relations with others .71
G9: Helpful to others .70
G7: Able to devote self completely to others .63
G8: Gentle .59
G3: Emotionala .38
G19: Self-confident .76
G20: Feels superior .67
G24: Stands up well under pressure .63
G6: Active .58
G2: Independent .57
G16R b: Can make decisions easily .56
G17: Never gives up easily .49
G10: Competitive .41
Note. n = 269. These are varimax-rotated principal components. Only loadings in absolute magnitude above .38 are presented. a Although the loading of this item (“emotional”) was low on the communion factor, its removal did not significantly increase the internal reliability of the scale. Other researchers have noted the same finding (i.e., Helgeson et al., 2007; Voci & Kramer, 2009), which appears to be sample-specific, but have removed the item because it significantly increased the reliability of the scale. b This item loaded negatively, as in the literature, and was reversed.
Subjective well-being composite. Because the measures of well-being were significantly
intercorrelated (r = -.21 to .73, all ps < .001; see Table 15), I constructed an overall subjective well-being
composite by reverse scoring the negative indices (i.e., negative affect, stress, depression, anxiety) to
render them all in the same direction, standardizing the scores across well-being measures to render them
in the same scale, and averaging them together into an overall well-being index (Cronbach’s alpha = .87)
(see Table 16).
87
Table 15 Intercorrelations Using Pearson’s Product Moment Coefficients for Scales Comprising Well-Being
NA Stress Depress. Anxiety GLS SLS CLS HLS
Positive Affect (PA) -.26** -.24** -.52** -.21** .49** .49** .35** .34**
Negative Affect (NA) .73** .67** .62** -.42** -.32** -.28** -.30**
Stress .71** .72** -.38** -.33** -.34** -.30**
Depression .64** -.57** -.48** -.37** -.46**
Anxiety -.37** -.30** -.26** -.27**
General Life Satisfaction .66** .54** .65**
Social Life Satisfaction .38** .49**
Career Life Satisfaction .28**
Home Life Satisfaction ---- Table 16 Subjective Well-Being Component
Subjective Well-
Being
Positive Affect .59
Negative Affect -.74
Stress -.76
Depression -.87
Anxiety -.70
General Life Satisfaction .79
Social Life Satisfaction .69
Career Life Satisfaction .58
Home Life Satisfaction .63
Note. n = 247. These are varimax-rotated principal components.
Diagnostics/Missing Values
Understanding when and why variables are missing is crucial. An overall summary of missing
values is presented in Figure 5. The rate that each variable was missing was examined, as well as the
pattern of variable absence. The percentage of missing values across variables in the dataset ranged from
1.0% to 17.7%, with five variables having no missing values (i.e., sex, employed over past 12 months, if
currently employed, marital status, and fluency in English) (see Table 17).
88
Figure 5. Overall Summary of Missing Values. Table 17 Percentage of Missing Data
n
Missing
Count Percent
Age 297 3 1.0
Sex 300 0 .0
Marital Status 300 0 .0
Level of Education 297 3 1.0
Native Language 291 9 3.0
Country 298 2 .7
Relationship Coping Satisfaction 264 36 12.0
Work Coping Satisfaction 268 32 10.7
Attention 287 13 4.3
Clarity 287 13 4.3
Repair 287 13 4.3
EI 287 13 4.3
Agency 289 11 3.7
Communion 289 11 3.7R1: Emotional Expression 266 34 11.3R2: Support from Others 273 27 9.0R3: Emotional Processing 266 34 11.3R4: Venting/Self-Blame 273 27 9.0R5: Active Coping 273 27 9.0R6: Acceptance 266 34 11.3R7: Denial 273 27 9.0R8: Alcohol/Drug Use 273 27 9.0R9: Religion 265 35 11.7
89
R10: Humour 266 34 11.3W1: Emotional Expression 274 26 8.7W2: Support from Others 277 23 7.7W3: Emotional Processing 273 27 9.0W4: Venting/Self-Blame 277 23 7.7W5: Active Coping 277 23 7.7W6: Acceptance 274 26 8.7W7: Denial 277 23 7.7W8: Alcohol/Drug Use 277 23 7.7W9: Religion 274 26 8.7W10: Humour 274 26 8.7
Positive Affect 254 46 15.3
Negative Affect 254 46 15.3
Stress 250 50 16.7
Depression 250 50 16.7
Anxiety 250 50 16.7
General Life Satisfaction 250 50 16.7
Social Life Satisfaction 250 50 16.7
Career Life Satisfaction 247 53 17.7
Home Life Satisfaction 250 50 16.7
Well-Being 254 46 15.3
In addressing missing data, many researchers explain that pairwise deletion, mean substitution,
and regression-based single imputation should never be used, even with small rates of missingness.
However, they conditionally endorse the use of complete cases analysis, particularly with a small
proportion of missing data (Graham et al., 2003). Experts have not arrived at an agreement with respect to
the percentage of missing data that becomes problematic. Schafer (1999) recommended 5% as the cutoff
for listwise deletion for missing data. Bennett (2001) suggested that when more than 10% of data is
missing, statistical analyses are likely to be biased; and yet others have used 20%.
More recently, multiple imputation (MI) has been gaining much attention as an optimal method
of dealing with missing data because it has been shown to result in more efficient and unbiased parameter
estimates and standard errors in comparison with other methods (e.g., single imputation with expectation-
maximization, full-information maximum likelihood), even when a high percentage of data is missing. It
also accommodates various other data scenarios, including but not limited to normality violations15,
90
categorical data, nested and clustered data, and small sample sizes. MI has proven to provide acceptable
estimations of regression coefficients and standard errors across both missing completely at random
(MCAR) and missing at random (MAR) data patterns (Cole, 2008).
Implementing MI requires that the data are missing completely at random (MCAR) or missing at
random (MAR), conditional on the imputation model16. In MCAR, the probability of nonresponse is
independent of either observed or missing values. It is important to note that when nonresponse is
MCAR, deletion (or complete case analysis) is a potential strategy given that the randomness of the
missing values does not induce bias, although efficiency and power will be negatively affected (Schafer
& Graham, 2002). Data that are missing at random (MAR) require a pattern where the missing data are
related to observed data (i.e., another variable in the dataset), but not to the missing data (Schlomer,
Bauman, & Card, 2010). An example of MAR may occur when a participant accidentally omits an
answer on a questionnaire.
Little’s (1998) missing completely at random (MCAR) test was conducted to confirm the
distribution of missing values and suggested that all missing values were missing completely at random
(Chi-Square = 908.68, df = 875, p = .21). As a follow-up, a series of t-tests, chi-square tests, and logistic
regression was undertaken to assess whether individuals who generated responses on the scales (e.g.,
depression) and individuals who did not generate responses on scales differed on other variables (e.g.,
Sex, clarity, attention, Communion, etc). Non-significant findings suggested that missing data on the
variables were random; otherwise, at least one variable should differ between individuals who responded
to this variable and individuals who did not respond to this variable.
The first step in MI, proposed by Rubin (1987), is to create several imputed datasets. Then, data
analysis is performed on each dataset, with the parameter estimates and their standard errors saved for
each dataset. Final results are obtained by averaging (pooling) the parameter estimates across these
multiple analyses, which results in an unbiased parameter estimate.17 The standard errors of the parameter
estimates are based on both the standard errors of the analysis of each dataset and the dispersion of
parameter estimates across datasets. By accounting for the random fluctuations that occur between each
91
imputation run in this way, the MI procedure provides accurate standard errors and therefore, accurate
inferential conclusions (Enders, 2010; Schlomer, Bauman & Card, 2010).
The imputation model. The issue of performing multiple imputations at the scale- or item-level
was considered. Schafer and Graham (2002) have suggested that if MI is not practical for item-level
imputation, then imputation after averaging of the available items works reasonably well, especially if the
reliability is moderately high (Cronbach’s alpha > .70), and the items to be averaged form a single unified
construct. As a rule of thumb, Cole (2008) suggests that researchers consider if the level of analysis will
take place on summary scores or item-level data. If statistical analyses are on scale-level data, then there
may not be much advantage to imputing the item-level data. The current data were imputed on a scale
level. Essentially, missing data occurs for this analysis when someone skips an entire section, not items
within scales. Monte Carlo studies of missing data in multiple item scales have found that under a broad
range of conditions, using the average of non-missing items to impute missing scale items leads to
extremely low levels of bias (e.g., with correlations changing in the third decimal place) (Fichman &
Cummings, 2003; Roth, Switzer & Switzer, 1999).
Next, the number of missing datasets to impute was considered. Little and Rubin (1987) and
Schenker (1986) have demonstrated that even in extreme cases where the proportion of missing
information constituted about a third of the dataset, no more than five replicates (m<= 5) of the model
provides efficient estimates. Three to five imputations are generally considered adequate (e.g., Schafer,
1997), although some researchers argue that 10 or 20 imputations provide higher efficiency rates. For
example, with 50% missing information, m = 10 imputations provides 95 % efficiency, while additional
imputations do little to remove noise from the estimate itself (see Schafer & Graham, 2002; Schlomer et
al., 2010). In the current study, 10 imputations were used.
Given the size of the dataset and space/memory limitations, certain decisions were made
regarding which variables to impute and how to specify the imputation models18. With respect to the
imputation model, at minimum, it must include any variables that will be used in a subsequent statistical
analysis. Additional variables to include in the MI model include auxiliary variables and interaction
92
variables that may be used in the statistical analysis. Auxiliary variables are variables that are ancillary to
the research questions of interest, but are potential correlates of missingness or correlates of one or more
variables that have missing data. Auxiliary variables help improve estimation of the missing data,
particularly if the auxiliary variables are highly correlated with the variables that have higher rates of
missingness (Cole, 2008). They also help improve estimation for the possibility of NMAR missingness.
In an MI model, the inclusion of interaction variables which may be used in the statistical
analysis is advised in order to preserve higher-order effects. Cole (2008) cautions that the MI model and
analytic model should be compatible, and that including interactional information that will not be
analyzed will lead to spurious underfitting of the data, leading to poor predictive power, and increasing
the odds of a Type II error. Preliminary analyses using a centering technique (see Enders, 2010) to
compute the interactions between all possible combinations of IVs were conducted (via regression) and
revealed no significant interaction effects (Cole, 2008; Enders, 2010; Graham, 2009; Schlomer, Bauman
& Card, 2010)19. Thus, the MI models used in the current investigation primarily included the analysis
variables, as well as two auxiliary variables, with separate models imputed for relationship and coping
strategies. I noticed that when fewer auxiliary were included, the more closely the analysis results were to
the original data. Overall, the results using the MI dataset were consistent with the original dataset.
Data analysis was primarily conducted in SPSSv.19.01. This version of SPSS allows the
imputation of missing values by regression models that are appropriate to the type of variable being
imputed: Linear for more or less continuous variables and logistic for ordinal categorical data. MI using
the predictive mean matching method was used. It is similar to the regression method except that for each
missing value, it imputes an observed value which is closest to the predicted value from the simulated
regression model (Rubin 1987, p. 168). The predictive mean matching method ensures that imputed
values are plausible and may be more appropriate than the regression method if the normality assumption
is violated (Horton and Lipsitz 2001, p. 246). Multivariate outliers were set to missing and subsequently
imputed, because they could exert undue influence on the parameter estimates and inflate the variability
93
of the multiple imputations (C. Enders, personal communication, March 31, 2011; also see Arnold &
Kronmal, 2003).
Statistical Analyses
Hypothesis one: EI will be related to distinct coping strategies for stress in close
interpersonal relationships and the workplace. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were computed
among the ten coping strategies (stress in close interpersonal relationships) and EI20. Using the
Bonferroni approach to control for Type I error across the 10 correlations, a p value of less than .01
(.10/10 = .01) was required for significance21. The results of the correlational analyses presented in Table
18 show that within the context of stress in close interpersonal relationships, overall EI was positively
related to emotional expression, support from others, emotional processing, active coping, and religion.
However, EI was also negatively related to venting/self-blame, denial, and alcohol/drug use.
Further investigation into the construct of EI and its relationship with coping was pursued
evaluating the relationship between the EI subscales components and coping strategies, to ensure similar
patterns of relationships with coping strategies emerged among the three EI subscales. Pearson’s
correlation coefficients were computed among the ten coping strategies (for stress in close interpersonal
relationships) and three subscales comprising EI (clarity, attention, repair)22. Using the Bonferroni
approach to control for Type I error across the 30 EI subscale correlations, a p value of less than .003
(.10/30 = .003) was required for significance. However, p values of less than .015 for the EI subscales are
shown as well. The results of the correlational analyses (see Table 18) show that in general, attention to
emotional information was significantly related to increased use of emotional expression, support from
others, emotional processing, and decreased use of humour. Correlations approached a level of
significance between attention and active coping in a positive direction, and negatively with alcohol/drug
use. Emotional clarity was positively associated with emotional expression, emotional processing, as well
as negatively with venting/self-blame and denial strategies. Ability to repair mood was positively related
to emotional expression, support from others, emotional processing, active coping, and religion, but
negatively to venting/self-blame. Overall, the patterns of relationships were similar among the EI
94
subscales and coping strategies (i.e., when attention was shown to be significantly related to emotional
expression, it was related positively, in the same direction as clarity and mood repair).
Table 18 also presents moderate to strong positive relationships between overall EI, clarity, and
repair with well-being, with a weaker relationship between attention and well-being.
Table 18 Pooled Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between Trait Emotional Intelligence, EI Subscales, Coping Strategies Within the Context of Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships, and Well-Being Relationship Coping Strategies
EI Attention Clarity Repair
C1: Emotional Expression .42*** .38** .33** .21**C2: Support from Others .20*** .20** -.02 .23**C3: Emotional Processing .48*** .48** .34** .29**C4: Venting/Self-Blame -.20*** .13 -.26** -.28**C5: Active Coping .21*** .16* .10 .20**C6: Acceptance .11 .06 .06 .11C7: Denial -.18** -.10 -.21** -.11C8: Alcohol/Drug Use -.16** -.16* -.12 -.09C9: Religion .24*** .14 .13 .21**C10: Humour -.06 -.20** -.04 .05Subjective Well-Being .64*** .24** .52** .60**
Note: N = 300; All tests of significance are two-tailed. For Overall EI: All relationships shown were significant using Bonferroni correction procedure. For correlations marked with an asterisk (**), EI was negatively correlated with denial, p = .003, and alcohol/drug use, p = .005; Correlations marked with an asterisk (***) were significant at p < .001. For EI subscales: For correlations marked with an asterisk (*), attention was correlated with active coping, p = .011, and alcohol/drug use, p = .008; Correlations marked with an asterisk (**) were significant at p < .002
Next, Pearson’s correlation coefficients were computed among the ten coping strategies for work
stress and EI23. Using the Bonferroni approach to control for Type I error across the 10 overall EI
correlations, a p value of less than .01 was required for significance; however, p values of less than .015
are shown as well. The results of the correlational analyses presented in Table 19 show that within the
context of work stress, EI was positively related to emotional expression, support from others, emotional
processing, and active coping. EI was also negatively related to venting/self-blame, denial, and
alcohol/drug use. Weaker positive correlations approaching a level of significance were shown between
EI with acceptance and religion.
95
Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficients were computed among the ten coping
strategies (for work stress) and three factors comprising EI (attention, clarity, repair). Statistical
significance of each correlation was determined by using a Bonferroni-corrected significance level of
.003. The results of the correlational analyses presented in Table 19 show that in general, emotional
attention was positively related to emotional expression, support from others, and emotional processing,
while it was negatively related to denial. A weak negative correlation approaching a level of significant
emerged between attention and alcohol/drug use. Clarity was positively associated with emotional
expression, emotional processing, and active coping, with negative correlations found with venting/self-
blame, denial, and alcohol/drug use. Repair was positively related to emotional expression, support from
others, emotional processing, and active coping, while negatively correlated with venting/self-blame.
Weaker correlations approaching a level of significance emerged between repair with religion in a
positive direction, and with alcohol/drug use in a negative direction.
Table 19 Pooled Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between EI, EI Subscales, and Coping Strategies Within the Context of Workplace Stress
EI Attention Clarity Repair
R1: Emotional Expression .36*** .37** .21** .21**R2: Support from Others .24*** .25** .12 .19**R3: Emotional Processing .46*** .46** .30** .29**R4: Venting/Self-Blame -.23*** .03 -.30** -.19**R5: Active Coping .35*** .16 .26** .30**R6: Acceptance .16* .06 .13 .10R7: Denial -.23*** -.20** -.23** -.06R8: Alcohol/Drug Use -.26*** -.16* -.20** -.17*R9: Religion .16* .07 .10 .18*R10: Humour .07 -.10 .09 .12
Note: N = 300; All tests of significance are two-tailed. For Overall EI: Correlations marked with an asterisk (*), EI was correlated with acceptance, p = .013, and religion, p = .015; Correlations marked with an asterisk (***) were significant at p < .001 and met criteria for Bonferroni correction procedure. For EI subscales: Correlations marked with an asterisk (*), Attention and repair were correlated with Alcohol/drug use, p = .006; Repair was correlated with religion, p = .004; Correlations marked with an asterisk (**) were significant at p < .003 and met criteria for Bonferroni correction procedure.
96
A comparison between EI and relationship versus work stressors showed similar patterns of
coping, with EI being significantly positively related to emotional expression, support from others,
emotional processing, and active coping, as well as negatively related to venting/self-blame, alcohol/drug
use, and denial coping (see Table 20). However, with respect to stress in close interpersonal relationships,
EI was also significantly positively related to religion whereas this relationship was only approaching a
level of significance within the context of work stressors. In addition, within the context of work stress,
EI revealed a stronger negative relationship with alcohol/drug use when compared to stress in close
interpersonal relationships, although both correlations were statistically significant.
In comparing relationships between the EI facets and coping strategies between the two contexts,
attention was consistently positively related to the use of emotional expression, support from others, and
emotional processing across the two contexts, while it was negatively related to humour only in the
context of stress in close interpersonal relationships and negatively to denial only in the context of work
stress (see Table 20). Clarity was consistently positively related to emotional expression and emotional
processing, and negatively related to venting/self-blame and denial across contexts. When dealing with
work stress, clarity was also positively related to active coping and negatively to alcohol/drug use, while
these relationships were not significant when dealing with stress in close interpersonal relationships. The
ability to repair mood was positively related to emotional processing, emotional expression, support from
others, and active coping, and negatively to venting/self-blame across both contexts. When dealing with
stress in close interpersonal relationships, repair was positively related to religion while this relationship
was not considered significant (using Bonferroni’s criterion) for occupational stress. Acceptance was not
a strategy that was statistically significantly related to any of the EI facets in either work or interpersonal
contexts, while the only significant relationship for use of humour as a coping strategy was with attention
to emotional information in a negative direction, and only in the context of stress in close interpersonal
relationships. For the most part, it appears that the relationships between the EI subscales and coping
strategies are well-captured by the measure of overall EI and its relationships to the coping strategies. The
97
analysis of coping strategy use among the EI subscales may suggest which component of overall EI was
most responsible for a particular coping relationship.
Table 20 A Comparison of Overall Emotional Intelligence and EI Subscales with Coping Strategies Used Across Close Interpersonal Relationship and Workplace Contexts for the Overall Sample
Note: N = 300. All relationships shown were significant using Bonferroni correction procedure. All tests of significance are two-tailed. For Overall EI: Correlation marked with an asterisk (**), EI was negatively correlated with denial, p = .003, and alcohol/drug use, p = .005. Correlations marked with an asterisk (***) were significant at p < .001. For EI Subscales: All correlations are significant at p < .002 for stress in close interpersonal relationships and p < .003 for occupational stressors. R+ and R- denote the direction of correlation within the context of stress in close interpersonal relationships. W+ and W- denote the direction of correlation within the context of work stressors.
Hypothesis two: Differences will emerge in coping behaviours across contexts as well as
their relationships to EI and well-being.
Examining differences in coping strategies used across interpersonal and occupational
stressors. A series of t-tests was conducted to evaluate whether differences in the use of coping strategies
exist across relationships and work contexts (applying a Bonferroni correction (.10/10 = .01)24 (see Table 21).
The results indicated significant differences in the extent to which the following coping strategies are used
across relationship and work contexts: Support from others, venting/self-blame, acceptance, and humour (see
Figure 6). The extent to which emotional expression and active coping were used across contexts approached
a level of significance. When dealing with stress in close interpersonal relationships, individuals reported
EI Attention Clarity Repair
W1: Emotional Expression ***R+ ***W+ R+ W+ R+ W+ R+ W+W2: Support from Others ***R+ ***W+ R+ W+ R+ W+W3: Emotional Processing ***R+ ***W+ R+ W+ R+ W+ R+ W+W4: Venting/Self-Blame ***R - ***W- R - W- R - W-W5: Active Coping ***R+ ***W+ W+ R+ W+W6: Acceptance W7: Denial **R - ***W- W- R- W- W8: Alcohol/Drug Use **R - ***W- W- W9: Religion ***R+ R+ W10: Humour R-
98
using significantly more venting/self-blame and acceptance than when they were dealing with work stress.
When dealing with work stress, they relied on more support from others and humour than they did with stress
in close interpersonal relationships. Pooled effect sizes were small to medium (ranging .13 to .34). These
results were similar for both the original data file, as well as the pooled data file25. No significant differences
across coping contexts emerged with emotional processing, active coping, denial, alcohol/drug use, and
religion.
Table 21 Pooled Comparisons of Coping Strategies Used Across Interpersonal and Work Contexts
Coping
Strategy Inter-
personal M
Work
M
95%
Confidence
Interval
t-tests Effect
Size
(Cohen’s
d)26
Rel. Inc. in
Variance/ Fraction of
Miss. Info27Lower Upper
Emotional
Express 2.39 2.29 .02 .19 t(451) = 2.47, p = .014 .13
.09/.09
Support of
others 2.25 2.45 -.30 -.10 t(179) = -4.02, p < .001 -.22
.16/.14
Emotional
Processing 2.68 2.60 -.01 .17 t(73) = 1.77, p = .08, n.s. .10
.29/.23
Venting/ Self-blame
2.39 2.21 .09 .27 t(171) = 4.04, p < .001 .24
.16/.14
Active
Coping 2.69 2.83 -.25 -.01 t(135) = -2.15, p = .03,
n.s.
-.17
.19/.16
Accept 2.76 2.62 .04 .22 t(108) = 2.88, p < .005 .18
.22/.19
Denial 1.56 1.50 -.02 .14 t(1015) = 1.45, p = .15,
n.s.
.09
.06/.06
Alcohol/ Drug Use
1.52 1.48 -.05 .13 t(63) = .91, p = .37, n.s. .05 .32/.25
Religion 1.60 1.57 -.06 .12 t(45) = .69, p = .49, n.s. .04 .42/.31
Humour 1.92 2.24 -.44 -.19 t(121) = -4.88, p < .001 -.34
.20/.17
Note: Relative efficiency rates ranged 97.0 to 99.4%28. Bonferroni correction (p = .10/10 = .01) was applied.
99
Figure 6. Mean Comparisons of Coping Strategies Used Across Interpersonal and Work Contexts.
The relationships between coping strategies and well-being. Pearson’s correlation coefficients
were computed among the ten coping strategies (for stress in close interpersonal relationships) and
subjective well-being. Using the Bonferroni approach to control for Type I error across the 10
correlations, a p value of less than .01 (1.0/10 = .01) was required for significance. The results of the
correlational analyses presented in Table 22 show that within the context of stress in close interpersonal
relationships, SWB was significantly positively related to emotional expression, support from others, and
emotional processing, while it was related negatively to venting/self-blame, denial, and alcohol/drug use.
Table 23 presents the results for the correlational analyses between SWB and coping strategies used
within the context of work stress, and revealed that within the context of work stress, SWB was
significantly and positively related to support from others, emotional processing, and active coping, while
it was negatively related to venting/self-blame, denial, and alcohol/drug use. For comparison purposes,
correlations between EI and the coping strategies (from hypothesis one) are presented again.
100
Table 22
Pooled Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between Subjective Well-Being and Coping Strategies
Within the Context of Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships for the Overall Sample
Relationship Coping Strategies
Well-Being EI
C1: Emotional Expression .26*** .42***C2: Support from Others .17** .20***C3: Emotional Processing .28*** .48***C4: Venting/Self-Blame -.42*** -.20***C5: Active Coping .13 .21***C6: Acceptance -.02 .11C7: Denial -.23*** -.18**C8: Alcohol/Drug Use -.25*** -.16**C9: Religion .14 .24***C10: Humour -.02 -.06 Note: N = 300; All tests of significance are two-tailed. All relationships shown met a Bonferroni-corrected significance level. For SWB: Correlations marked with an asterisk (**) were significant at p < .01; (***) were significant at p < .005. For Overall EI: Correlations marked with an asterisk (**), EI was negatively correlated with denial, p = .003, and alcohol/drug use, p = .005; (***) significant at p < .001. Table 23 Pooled Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between Subjective Well-Being and Coping Strategies Within the Context of Work Stress for the Overall Sample
Work Coping Strategies
Well-Being EI
C1: Emotional Expression .13 .36***C2: Support from Others .25*** .24***C3: Emotional Processing .18*** .46***C4: Venting/Self-Blame -.45*** -.23***C5: Active Coping .19*** .35***C6: Acceptance .04 .16*C7: Denial -.26*** -.23***C8: Alcohol/Drug Use -.23*** -.26***C9: Religion .08 .16*C10: Humour .10 .07 Note: N = 300; All tests of significance are two-tailed. For SWB: Correlations marked with an asterisk (***) were significant at p < .005 All relationships shown met a Bonferroni-corrected significance level.
For Overall EI: Correlations marked with an asterisk (*), EI was correlated with acceptance, p = .013, and religion, p = .015; Correlations marked with an asterisk (***) were significant at p < .001 and met a Bonferroni-corrected significance level.
101
A comparison of the relationship of SWB to coping strategies across relationship and work
contexts revealed that SWB was positively related to emotional processing and support from others, as
well as negatively related to venting/self-blame, denial, and alcohol/drug use in both coping contexts
(seeTable 24). However, differences in coping strategies and well-being also emerged, with individuals
reporting greater subjective well-being when using emotional expression as a coping strategy to deal with
interpersonal (but not work) stress, while using active coping to deal with work (but not interpersonal)
stress.
Table 24
A Comparison of Well-Being and Coping Strategies Used Across Close Interpersonal Relationship and
Workplace Contexts for the Overall Sample
Note: N = 300. All tests of significance are two-tailed. All relationships shown met a Bonferroni-corrected significance level (p < .01). R+ and R- denote the direction of correlation within the context of stress in close interpersonal relationships. W+ and W- denote the direction of correlation within the context of work stressors.
The above correlational analyses confirmed the existence of weak to strong bivariate
associations among (a) emotional intelligence, some of the coping strategies people use in dealing with
both relationship and occupational stressors, and subjective well-being as well as (b) the proposed
mediators and subjective well-being. These results establish the necessary preconditions for the mediation
analyses which follow in hypothesis three.
Well-Being
C1: Emotional Expression R+ C2: Support from Others R+ W+C3: Emotional Processing R+ W+C4: Venting/Self-Blame R - W-C5: Active Coping W+C6: Acceptance C7: Denial R - W-C8: Alcohol/Drug Use R - W-C9: Religion C10: Humour
102
Investigating coping types across close interpersonal relationship and occupational contexts. In
order to ascertain whether people use the same patterns of coping strategies across contexts, and thus,
may be classified into coping “types”, separate cluster analyses were run on the standardized scores for
coping strategies used in dealing with relationship and work stress29. Two-step cluster analysis procedures
were followed up by K-means cluster analysis. In both contexts, the initial two-step procedure suggested
three clusters. The K-means procedures which followed attempted 2, 3, and 4 cluster solutions.
In the context of stress in close interpersonal relationships, the three-cluster solution was
accepted, which resulted in the first cluster being characterized by the minimal use of most coping
strategies (with the exception of a moderate use of Denial), and labelled, “Minimal Coping” (n = 103)
(see Table 25). The second cluster, was characterized by the high use of coping strategies which are
generally thought to be more negative (including high Maladaptive, Denial, Alcohol/Drug Use, but also
Humour), and was referred to as “Negative Coping” or “Maladaptive Coping” (n = 69). The third cluster,
was characterized by the high use of coping strategies more commonly consistent with adaptive coping
(including high Emotional Expression, Other Support, Emotional Processing, Active Coping, Acceptance,
Religion, and low Denial), and was referred to as “Positive Coping” or “Adaptive Coping” (n = 90).
Table 25 Coping Clusters for Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships
Relationship Clusters
1: “Minimal”
(n = 103)
2: “Maladaptive”
(n = 69)
3: “Adaptive”
(n = 90)
C1: Emotional Expression -.49 .81
C2: Support from Others -.61 .75
C3: Emotional Processing -.57 .91
C4: Venting/Self-Blame -.60 .68 C5: Active Coping -.61 .67
C6: Acceptance -.36 .30
C7: Denial .98 -.45
C8: Alcohol/Drug Use -.44 .86 C9: Religion -.39 .27
C10: Humour -.34 .55
103
In the context of work stress, a three-cluster solution was also accepted, and was similar to the
relationship clusters, with a minimum of four variables characterizing the clusters30. Similarly, the first
cluster was characterized by the minimal use of most coping strategies (with the exception of a moderate
use of Denial and Alcohol/drug use), and labelled, “Minimal Coping” (n = 105) (see Table 26). The
second cluster, labelled “Maladaptive Coping” (n = 81), was characterized by the high use of coping
strategies which are generally considered negative (including high venting/self-blame strategies, denial,
alcohol/drug use, but also humour). The third cluster, labelled “Adaptive Coping” (n = 83), was
characterized by the high use of coping strategies more commonly consistent with adaptive coping
(including high emotional expression, support from others, emotional processing, active coping,
acceptance, and religion, but also low denial and with low alcohol/drug use as an additional variable
characterizing this cluster in comparison to the relationship clusters).
Table 26 Coping Clusters for Workplace Stress
Work Clusters
1: “Minimal”
(n = 105)
2: “Maladaptive”
(n = 81)
3: “Adaptive”
(n = 83)
C1: Emotional Expression -.72 .74
C2: Support from Others -.62 .70
C3: Emotional Processing -.73 .90
C4: Venting/Self-Blame -.60 .62 C5: Active Coping -.40 .73
C6: Acceptance -.37 .62
C7: Denial .79 -.41
C8: Alcohol/Drug Use 1.02 -.47
C9: Religion -.47 .47
C10: Humour -.33 .25
EI and close interpersonal relationship coping style groups. Within the context of stress in close
interpersonal relationships, a one-way analysis of variance was conducted to evaluate the relationship
between interpersonal coping style groups and EI. The independent variable, interpersonal coping style
104
groups, included three levels: Maladaptive, minimal, and positive. The dependent variable was overall EI.
The ANOVA was significant, Fmin (2, 297) = 20.07, Fmax = 36.84, p < .001, across all imputations. I used
partial eta-squared (ηp2) as an indicator of effect size for these group comparisons, where values of .01,
.06, and .14 are associated with small, medium, and large effects, respectively (Cohen, 1988). The
strength of the relationship (ηp2) between close interpersonal relationship coping style groups and overall
EI was large, with the coping style groups accounting for approximately 16.6% of the variance in the
dependent variable31.
Follow-up tests were conducted to evaluate pairwise differences among the means. Using a
conservative approach, I chose not to assume that the variances were homogeneous and conducted post
hoc comparisons with the use of the Games-Howell test, a test that does not assume equal variances
among the three groups32. There were significant differences in the means between adaptive and
maladaptive, as well as adaptive and minimal coping style groups; however, there was no significant
difference between the maladaptive and minimal coping style groups. The adaptive coping style group
showed significantly higher EI than the other two groups. The 95% confidence intervals for the pairwise
differences, as well as the means and standard errors for the three coping style groups are reported in
Table 27, with approximate distributions shown in Figure 7.
Table 27 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Emotional Intelligence Across Coping Clusters for Close Interpersonal Relationship Stress
Relationship Clusters Mean Std. Error. Maladaptive Minimal
Maladaptive 9.98 .20
Minimal 10.34 .15 -.87 to .13 p = .289
Adaptive 11.54 .17 -2.06 to -1.08** -1.68 to -.71** Notes: 1 **p < .001, *p < .05 2Relative efficiency ranges 96.0 to 98.2. For the following comparisons, Maladaptive-Minimal, Maladaptive-Positive, Positive-Minimal, respectively: Fraction Missing Info, .40, .42, .18, respectively; relative increase in variance, .61, .67, and .22, respectively.
105
Figure 7. Boxplots Comparing Emotional Intelligence Means Across Coping Clusters for Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships.33
EI and workplace coping style groups. A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to
evaluate the relationship between occupational coping style and EI. The independent variable, work
coping style, included three levels: maladaptive, minimal, and positive. The dependent variable was
overall EI. The ANOVA was significant, Fmin (2, 297) = 27.73, Fmax = 40.21, p < .001, across all
imputations. The strength of the relationship (ηp2) between work coping style and overall EI was large,
with the coping style accounting for 19.1% of the variance in the dependent variable34.
Follow-up tests were conducted to evaluate pairwise differences among the means. Post hoc
comparisons with the use of the Games-Howell test found significant differences in the means between
adaptive and maladaptive, as well as adaptive and minimal coping style groups; however, a significant
difference was not found between the maladaptive and minimal coping style groups. The adaptive work
coping style group showed significantly higher EI than the other two groups. The 95% confidence
intervals for the pairwise differences, as well as the means and standard errors for the three coping style
groups are reported in Table 28 with approximate distributions shown in Figure 8.
106
Table 28 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Emotional Intelligence Across Coping Clusters for Workplace Stress
Work Clusters Mean Std. Error. Maladaptive Minimal
Maladaptive 9.89 .17
Minimal 10.40 .14 -1.01 to -0.02 p = .084
Adaptive 11.61 .17 -2.21 to 1.23** -1.66 to -.75** Note: **p < .001, *p < .05; Relative efficiency ranges 97.2 to 98.4. For the following comparisons, Maladaptive-Minimal, Maladaptive-Positive, Positive-Minimal, respectively: Fraction Missing Info, .29, .28, .16, respectively; relative increase in variance, .38, .36, and .19, respectively.
Figure 8. Boxplots Comparing Emotional Intelligence Means Across Coping Clusters for Workplace Stress.35
Coping style groups and subjective well-being across contexts. A one-way analysis of variance
was conducted to evaluate the relationship between interpersonal coping style and well-being. The
independent variable, relationship coping style, included three levels: maladaptive, minimal, and positive.
The dependent variable was SWB. The ANOVA was significant across all imputations, Fmin (2, 297) =
10.34, Fmax = 20.99, p < .001. The strength of the relationship (ηp2) between relationship coping style and
SWB was moderate, with the coping style accounting for approximately 9.5% of the variance in the
107
dependent variable36. Follow-up tests were conducted to evaluate pairwise differences among the means.
Post hoc comparisons with the use of the Games-Howell test revealed significant difference in the means
among all three groups. When coping with stress in close interpersonal relationships, the adaptive coping
style group showed significantly higher well-being than the other two groups, while the minimal coping
style group also showed significantly higher well-being than the negative coping style group. The 95%
confidence intervals for the pairwise differences, as well as the means and standard errors for the three
coping style groups are reported in Table 29, with distributions shown in Figure 9.
Table 29 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Well-Being for Close Interpersonal Relationship Coping Clusters
Relationship Clusters Mean Std. Error. Maladaptive Minimal
Maladaptive -.32 .09
Minimal -.03 .07 -0.53 to -0.05* p = .037
Adaptive .25 .07 -0.80 to -0.33** -0.49 to -0.05* p = .018
Notes: 1 **p < .001, *p < .05 2Relative efficiency ranges 96.7 to 98.7. For the following comparisons, Maladaptive-Minimal, Maladaptive-Positive, Positive-Minimal, respectively: Fraction Missing Info, .31, .34, .13, respectively; relative increase in variance, .43, .49, and .15, respectively.
Figure 9. Boxplots for Close Interpersonal Relationship Coping Clusters and Subjective Well-Being.37
108
Next, a one-way analysis of variance was conducted to evaluate the relationship between
occupational coping style and SWB. The independent variable, work coping style, included three levels:
maladaptive, minimal, and positive. The dependent variable was SWB. The ANOVA was significant
across all imputations, Fmin (2, 297) = 8.06, Fmax = 14.33, p < .001. The strength of the relationship (ηp2)
between work coping style and well-being was moderate, with the coping style accounting for
approximately 7% of the variance in the dependent variable38. Follow-up tests were conducted to evaluate
pairwise differences among the means. Post hoc comparisons with the use of the Games-Howell test
found significant differences in the means between adaptive and maladaptive, as well as maladaptive and
minimal coping style groups; however, a significant difference was not found between the adaptive and
minimal coping style groups. The adaptive work coping style group showed significantly higher well-
being than the maladaptive but not the minimal group, while the minimal group also showed significantly
higher well-being than the maladaptive group. The 95% confidence intervals for the pairwise differences,
as well as the means and standard errors for the three coping style groups are reported in Table 30, with
distributions shown in Figure 10.
Table 30 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Well-Being for Work Coping Clusters
Work Clusters Mean Std. Error. Maladaptive Minimal
Maladaptive -.27 .08
Minimal .00 .07 -0.50 to -0.04* p = .024
Adaptive .21 .08 -0.71 to -0.25** -0.44 to -0.02 p = .130 Notes: 1 **p < .001, *p < .05 2Relative efficiency ranges 97.8 to 98.8. For the following comparisons, Maladaptive-Minimal, Maladaptive-Positive, Positive-Minimal, respectively: Fraction Missing Info, .12, .20, .23, respectively; relative increase in variance, .14, .23, and .28, respectively.
109
Figure 10. Boxplots for Work Coping Clusters and Subjective Well-Being.39
Summary of Hypothesis Two Results
The results indicated significant differences in the extent to which four coping strategies were
used between contexts; specifically, with respect to stress in close interpersonal relationships, individuals
reported using more emotional expression, venting/self-blame, and acceptance than when dealing with
work stress, while they used more humour with work stress than with stress in close interpersonal
relationships. Weak to strong correlations were observed with: (a) EI and coping strategies; and (b) the
coping strategies and SWB. These results established the necessary preconditions for the mediation
analyses in hypothesis three.
In addition, three coping “types” were found (i.e., maladaptive, adaptive, and minimal),
revealing that people use similar patterns of coping across contexts. EI was able to distinguish among all
three coping types (adaptive, maladaptive, and minimal) across both contexts with a large effect size
noted. SWB was able to distinguish among all three types only within the context of close interpersonal
stress; however, within the work context, SWB was able to distinguish only adaptive from maladaptive
(but not minimal) coping types, with the minimal type still being distinguished from the maladaptive type
with respect to SWB. The relationships between SWB and coping types were moderate in strength.
110
Hypothesis three: Coping behaviour is expected to mediate the relationship between EI and
well-being for both stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace.
Multiple mediation analysis. A multiple mediation analysis using mediated hierarchical
regression procedures was performed to determine whether coping behaviour mediates the relationship
between EI and well-being for both stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace (using
the SPSS macro developed by Preacher & Hayes, 2008). There are several advantages of performing
multiple mediation as opposed to separate simple mediation tests, including the ability to: (a) evaluate
whether an overall mediation effect exists before assessing specific effects of proposed mediators; (b)
tease apart the unique mediating effect that certain variables have within a single model, controlling for
the presence of other mediators as well as covariates (hypothesis four assesses the need for the potential
effect of sex as a covariate); and (c) enhance parsimony in model specification, which increases statistical
power and reduces the probability of Type I errors (Preacher and Hayes, 2008).
Multiple mediation analysis also addresses the limitations of other common mediation methods.
Most notably, the limitations of Baron and Kenny’s (1986) widely used approach include low power,
increased probability of Type I error, not being able to address suppression effects, and not providing a
test to evaluate the indirect effect that an independent variable has on a dependent variable via a proposed
mediator. In addition, the main assumption using Sobel’s (1982) test to determine the significance of the
indirect effect is that the sampling distribution is normally distributed; however, most often the
assumption of normality to test for the indirect effect is not attainable, unless the sample is very, very
large (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Thus, bootstrapping, a nonparametric resampling procedure, was used to
assess the significance of the indirect effect, given that it does not require that the normality assumption
be met and reduces the probability of Type I error. Bootstrapping generates an empirical approximation
of the sampling distribution of a statistic through repeated random resampling from the available data,
and uses this distribution to calculate superior confidence intervals (CIs) that are bias corrected and
accelerated (see Preacher and Hayes, 2008, for details). For the present analyses, 1,000 resamples were
drawn.
111
Multicollinearity was assessed for all variables included in the models through an examination of
variance inflation factors (VIF) and tolerance levels, with all variables falling well within acceptable
levels (Table 31). Initially, all ten of the coping strategies identified in the current research were
investigated for significant mediation between EI and SWB; no prediction was made regarding which
specific strategies would significantly mediate the link between EI and SWB. A preliminary analysis of
multiple mediation was conducted on the original set of data as well as m = 5 separate imputation
iterations of the relationship and work variables (see Appendix B; Tables B-1 and B-2). The results were
shown to be stable across the MI datasets. Three coping mechanisms (i.e., support from others,
venting/self-blame, and alcohol/drug use) consistently emerged as statistically significant mediators for
the interpersonal context, while two coping mechanisms (i.e., support from others, venting/self-blame)
were consistently found to be statistically significant mediators for the work data.
Table 31 Assessing Multicollinearity for Mediation Models
Collinearity Statistics Tolerance VIF
EI .91 1.10R2: Support from Others .86 1.16R4: Venting/Self-Blame .85 1.18R8: Alcohol/ Drug Use .93 1.08W2: Support from Others .85 1.18W4: Venting/Self-Blame .83 1.20
Note: These two statistics quantify the level of multicollinearity present. They provide a standardized index of the effects of possible collinearity on the variance of the coefficients in a multiple regression. A tolerance level of less than .2 or .1 indicates potential multicollinearity. Different researchers suggest different cutoff points for acceptable levels of VIF. The lowest cutoff point is 5 and the most widely accepted cutoff point is 10 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).
Two final mediation models (one within each context) were built using the three significant
coping strategies used in the context of stress in close interpersonal relationships, and the two coping
mechanisms used to cope with work stress (see Table 32 and Table 33, respectively; these results reflect
the results from the pooled data). These final mediation models were used to confirm that these particular
112
coping strategies significantly mediated the relationship between EI and SWB. As shown in Table 32,
with respect to the interpersonal context, the effect on well-being attributed to EI was reduced from .27
(see Total Effect of EI) to .23 (see Remaining Direct Effect) by the set of three mediator variables (i.e.,
support from others, venting/self-blame, and alcohol/drug use). Because the residual direct effect of EI on
SWB remains significant in the model (see Remaining Direct Effect of EI on SWB), these results
demonstrate partial rather than complete mediation by the coping strategy variables. An examination of
the specific indirect effects indicates that all three coping strategies are mediators, since their 95% CIs do
not contain zero. The overall model accounts for a substantial amount of the variance in subjective well-
being, approximately 48%, denoting a large effect size. A sensitivity analysis using mediated hierarchical
regression was conducted using the multiply imputed datasets (m = 10), with the pooled results
accounting for approximately 51% of the variance in SWB (Table 33)40.
113
Table 32 Mediation of the Effect of Emotional Intelligence on Subjective Well-Being Through Proposed Coping Strategies for Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships (n = 235) Emotional Intelligence (IV) to Coping Strategies (Mediators) (a paths)
b se t p Support from Others .09 .04 2.44 .016 Venting/Self-Blame -.07 .03 -2.46 .015 Alcohol/Drug Use -.07 .03 -2.28 .023 Direct Effects of Coping Strategies (Mediators) on SWB (DV) (b paths)
b se t p Support from Others .10 .04 2.48 .014 Venting/Self-Blame -.29 .05 -6.04 .000 Alcohol/Drug Use -.09 .04 -1.99 .048 Total Effect of EI (IV) on SWB (DV) (c path)
b se t p EI .27 .02 12.14 .000 Remaining Direct Effect of EI (IV) on SWB (DV) (c-prime path)
b se t p EI .23 .02 10.90 .000 Model Summary for DV Model R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p .49 .48 54.82 4.00 230.00 .000
Bootstrap Results for Indirect Effect
(ab paths) Point
Estimates SE Z
Bootstrapping (Bias Corrected and Accelerated
95% CIs)
Lower Upper Indirect Effects
Total .04 .01 3.29 .01 .06 Support from Others
.01 .01 1.75 .00 .02
Venting/ Self-Blame
.02 .01 2.29 .01 .04
Alcohol/Drug Use .01 .00 1.51 .00 .02 Contrasts
C1 -.01 .01 -1.14 -.04 .01 C2 .00 .01 .36 -.01 .02 C3 .02 .01 1.52 -.00 .04
114
Table 33 Pooled Results of the Mediated Hierarchical Regression for Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships (n = 300)
EI and Coping Predicting SWB R
2
Adj.
R2
ΔR2
Sig. FΔ
b
s.e. t p FMI/RIV
Dependent variable: SWB Step 1: EI .40 .40 .40 < .001 .28 .02 12.92 < .001 .24/ .33Step 2: Support from Others
.52 .51 .11 < .001 .11 .04 2.85 .005 .04/ .19
Venting/Self-Blame
-.31 .05 -5.84 < .001 -.41/-.20
Alcohol/Drug Usea
-.09 .05 -1.81 .074 -.18/ .01
a Alcohol/Drug Use was approaching a level of significance when pooled across m = 10, and significant at p = .048 using the listwise data. Therefore, it is not considered as potent a mediator as support from others and venting/self-blame.
Table 34 presents the final mediation results for the occupational context, and shows that the
effect on well-being attributed to EI was reduced from .28 (see Total Effect of EI) to .22 (see Remaining
Direct Effect) by the two mediator variables (i.e., support from others, and venting/self-blame). Because
the residual direct effect of EI on SWB remains significant in the model (see Remaining Direct Effect of
EI on SWB), these results demonstrate partial rather than complete mediation by the coping strategy
variables. An examination of the specific indirect effects indicates that the two coping strategies are
mediators, since their 95% CIs do not contain zero. The overall model accounts for a substantial amount
of the variance in subjective well-being, approximately 51%, denoting a large effect size. A sensitivity
analysis using mediated hierarchical regression was conducted using the multiply imputed datasets (m =
10), with the pooled results accounting for approximately 53% of the variance in SWB (see Table 35)41.
115
Table 34 Mediation of the Effect of Emotional Intelligence on Subjective Well-Being Through Proposed Coping Strategies for Occupational Stress (n = 237) Emotional Intelligence (IV) to Coping Strategies (Mediators) (a paths)
b se t p Support from Others .11 .04 3.21 .002 Venting/Self-Blame -.11 .03 -3.84 .000 Direct Effects of Coping Strategies (Mediators) on SWB (DV) (b paths)
b se t p Support from Others .18 .04 4.62 .000 Venting/Self-Blame -.35 .05 -7.52 .000 Total Effect of EI (IV) on SWB (DV) (c path)
b se t p EI .28 .02 12.35 .000 Remaining Direct Effect of EI (IV) on SWB (DV) (c-prime path)
b se t p EI .22 .02 10.02 .000Model Summary for DV Model R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p
.52 .51 84.15 3 233 .000
Bootstrap Results for Indirect Effect
(ab paths) Point
Estimates SE
Bootstrapping (Bias Corrected and Accelerated 95% CIs)
Lower Upper Indirect Effects
Total .06 .01.01 .01
.04 .09 Support from Others
.02 .01 .04
Venting/Self-Blame
.04 .02 .07
ContrastsC1 -.02 .02 -.05 .01
116
Table 35 Results of the Pooled Mediated Hierarchical Regression for Occupational Stress (n = 300)
EI and Coping Predicting SWB R
2
Adj.
R2
ΔR2
Sig. FΔ
b
s.e. t p FMI/RIV
Dependent variable: SWB Step 1: EI .40 .40 .40 < .001 .29 .02 13.59 < .001 .07/.07Step 2: Support from Others
.18 .04 4.68 < .001 .16/.19
Venting/Self-Blame
.53 .53 .14 -.38 .05 -7.78 < .001 .24/.31
Investigating coping style group as a potential mediator. In order to examine coping style group
as a potential mediator, given that it is a categorical, nominal variable, analysis of covariance was
performed after a preliminary analysis evaluating the homogeneity of slopes assumption, which indicated
a linear relationship between the covariate and the dependent variable in both work and interpersonal
contexts. Preliminary analyses also suggested that the relationship between the covariate and the
dependent variable did not differ significantly as a function of the independent variable, in either context.
Within the context of stress in close interpersonal relationships, the test for homogeneity of slopes result
was Fmin (2, 294) = .02, Fmax = 1.35, p = .637, partial η2 = .004. Within the context of work stress, these
effects were also not deemed to be significant, Fmin (2, 294) = .63, Fmax = 2.78, p = .258, partial η2 = .01.
The independent variable for the ANCOVAs was coping type, while the covariate was emotional
intelligence. Results were similar for both relationship and work contexts. In the context of stress in close
interpersonal relationships, after adjustment by covariates, well-being was not found to vary significantly
with coping style, with Fmin (2, 296) = 1.84, Fmax = 8.82, p = .083. In the context of work stress, after
adjustment by the covariate, well-being was also not found to vary significantly with coping style, Fmin (2,
296) = .91, Fmax = 3.16, p = .16. Means and standard errors are reported in Table 36.
117
Table 36 Pooled Descriptives for Coping Clusters with Emotional Intelligence as Covariant in Well-Being
Relationship Clusters
Relationship M
Relationship Std. Error
Work M
Work Std. Error
Maladaptive -.14 .08 -0.06 0.06
Minimal .06 .06 0.07 0.05
Adaptive -.00 .07 -0.08 0.07
Hypothesis Four: Gender will be differentially related to EI and the coping strategies used
in each context. Gender will moderate the relationship between EI and SWB and between EI and
coping strategies.
Initial analysis: Assessing potential confounding of sex and gender and relationships to well-
being. Prior to investigating whether gender is differentially related to EI and the coping strategies, the
potential confounding of sex and gender (agency, communion) was assessed. Two independent-samples
t-tests were conducted to evaluate whether males and females differ in their levels of agency and
communion. Results revealed significant sex differences existed in levels of agency, with males (M =
3.54; SD = .59) having higher scores than females (M = 3.37; SD = .62), t(8086.44) = 2.35, p = .019. No
significant sex differences emerged with respect to communion, t(1089.87) = -1.58, p = .115, but females
(M = 4.03; SD = .61) did have somewhat higher scores on average than males (M = 3.89; SD = .68).
An independent samples t-test did not reveal significant differences between the sexes (i.e., males
versus females) in well-being, t(138.38) = -.15, p = .88. In further exploring gender differences in well-
being, gender role was found to be significantly positively related to well-being, with agency showing a
strong link and communion a moderate one (r = .52, p < .001 and r = .25, p < .001, respectively).
Gender differences and emotional intelligence. A series of independent-samples t-tests were
conducted to evaluate whether sex differences exist in emotional intelligence (see Table 37). Results did
not reveal any significant sex differences in overall EI, or the clarity and repair subscales; however,
118
significant sex differences did emerge with the attention subscale (applying a Bonferroni correction
(.10/4= .025))42.
The relationships between EI and the EI subscales were also examined with respect to agency and
communion, and revealed both agency and communion to be significantly positively related to overall EI
to a moderate extent. Communion was also significantly positively related to all EI subscales (attention,
clarity, and repair), while agency was significantly positively related to clarity and repair, but not
attention (see Table 38).
Table 37 Pooled Male and Female Comparisons Across Emotional Intelligence, Attention, Clarity, and Repair
Male (n = 100)
Female (n = 200)
95% Confidence
Interval
t-tests Pooled
Cohen’s
d
R.I.V.
/F.M.I.
M SD M SD Lower Upper
EI 10.41 1.62 10.77 1.61 -.75 .03t(22294.47) = -1.79, p = .07 -.22 .01
Attention 3.51 0.65 3.83 0.59 -.48 -.17
t(1693.03) = -4.17,
p < .001 -.52 .04
Clarity 3.44 0.68 3.38 0.73 -.11 .23
t(5397.59) = .68,
p = .49 .09 .02
Repair 3.46 0.83 3.55 0.84 -.29 .11
t(11756.27) = -.85,
p = .40 .11 .02
Note: Relative efficiency ranged 99.6 to 99.9%. Table 38 Pooled Pearson’s Product Moment Correlations for EI and EI Subscales With Agency and Communion
Agency Communion
EI .44*** .39***
Attention .07 .38***
Clarity .46*** .24***
Repair .41*** .27***
Note: N = 300; All tests of significance are two-tailed. ***p < .001
119
Gender differences and coping strategies. A series of independent-samples t-tests were
conducted to evaluate whether sex differences exist in coping strategies (see Table 39 and Table 40).
With respect to stress in close interpersonal relationships, sex differences were found with support from
others (with females having higher means than males), and alcohol/drug use (with males having higher
means than females) (applying a Bonferroni correction (.10/10= .01))43. With respect to work stress, sex
differences were found only with support from others (with females having higher means than males).
Sex differences did not emerge with any of the remaining coping strategies. With respect to relationship
strategies, effect sizes were medium for support from others and alcohol/drug use, pooled Cohen’s d= -
.48 and .42, respectively. With respect to work strategies, effect size was medium, pooled Cohen’s d= -
.49 for support from others.
Pearson product moment correlations were used to assess the relationships between agency and
communion with respect to the coping strategies people use to deal with conflict and work stress (see
Table 41). Using the Bonferroni approach to control for Type I error across the 20 correlations, a p value
of less than .0025 (.05/20 = .0025) was required for significance. However, given the conservative
significance value using Bonferroni’s approach, relationships with p values of less than .01 are also
shown. Within the context of stress in close interpersonal relationships, agency was significantly
positively related to emotional processing and active coping, and negatively to venting/self-blame,
whereas communion was significantly positively related to emotional expression and emotional
processing. Within the context of occupational stress, agency was significantly positively related to
emotional expression, emotional processing, active coping, and humour, whereas communion was
significantly positively related to emotional expression, support from others, emotional processing, and
active coping.
120
Table 39 Pooled t-tests for Sex Differences in Coping Strategies Used With Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships
Relationship
Coping
Strategies
Male (n = 100)
Female
(n = 200)
95% Confidence
Interval
t-tests RIV/ FMI
M SD M SD Lower Upper C1: Emotional Expression 2.24 0.85 2.45 0.78 -0.42 0.00
t(512.18) = -1.96, p = .05, n.s.
.08/ .09
C2: Support from Others 1.96 0.88 2.39 0.90 -0.65 -0.20
t(555.72) = -3.77,
p < .001 .08C3: Emotional Processing 2.61 0.84 2.71 0.83 -0.31 0.10
t(1851.63) = -0.98,
p = .33, n.s. .04C4: Venting/ Self-Blame 2.27 0.73 2.45 0.76 -0.36 0.00
t(1424.58) = -1.93,
p = .05, n.s. .05C5: Active Coping 2.68 0.76 2.70 0.80 -0.21 0.17
t(1244.06) = -0.25,
p = .80, n.s. .05
C6: Acceptance 2.79 0.69 2.74 0.78 -0.13 0.23
t(1290.59) = -0.54,
p = .59, n.s. .05
C7: Denial 1.52 0.63 1.56 0.66 -0.19 0.13
t(767.43) = -0.39,
p = .69, n.s. .06/ .07
C8: Alcohol/ Drug Use 1.75 0.89 1.40 0.70 0.15 0.56
t(958.49) = 3.36,
p < .001 .06
C9: Religion 1.51 0.79 1.64 0.86 -0.33 0.08
t(865.35) = -1.20,
p = .23, n.s. .06
C10: Humour 1.90 0.87 1.92 0.85 -0.24 0.20
t(277.74) = -0.15,
p = .88, n.s. .11/ .12
Note: Relative efficiency ranged 98.9 to 99.6%.
121
Table 40 Pooled t-tests for Sex Differences in Coping Strategies Used With Work Stress
Work Coping
Strategies
Male (n = 100)
Female
(n = 200)
95% Confidence
Interval
t-tests RIV/ FMI
M SD M SD Lower Upper C1: Emotional Expression 2.18 0.82 2.33 0.82 -0.35 0.07
t(325.05) = -1.34, p = .18, n.s. .10/.11
C2: Support from Others 2.20 0.82 2.60 0.86 -0.62 -0.20
t(250.07) = -3.76, p < .001 .12/.13
C3: Emotional Processing 2.56 0.82 2.63 0.78 -0.28 0.14
t(188.56) = -0.69,
p = .49, n.s. .14/.15C4: Venting/ Self-Blame 2.10 0.74 2.27 0.72 -0.35 0.02
t(320.02) = -1.77,
p = .08, n.s. .10/.11
C5: Active Coping 2.91 0.77 2.77 0.78 -0.06 0.34
t(260.49) = 1.39,
p = .17, n.s. .11/.13
C6: Acceptance 2.61 0.67 2.61 0.76 -0.19 0.19
t(77.62) = .00,
p = 1.0, n.s. .22/.27
C7: Denial 1.48 0.66 1.50 0.64 -0.18 0.15
t(210.73) = -0.20,
p = .84, n.s. .13/.14C8: Alcohol/ Drug Use 1.61 0.84 1.39 0.69 0.01 0.41
t(422.58) = 2.10,
p = .04, n.s. .09/.10
C9: Religion 1.59 0.79 1.56 0.82 -0.17 0.23
t(504.81) = 0.33,
p = .74, n.s. .08/.09
C10: Humour 2.21 0.97 2.23 0.98 -0.27 0.23
t(188.02) = -0.16,
p = .87, n.s. .14/.15
Note: Relative efficiency ranged 97.8 to 99.2%.
122
Table 41 Pooled Comparisons of the Relationships Between Agency and Communion With Coping Strategies Across Interpersonal and Occupational Contexts Using Pearson Product Moment Coefficients Relationship Coping Agency Communion
Work CopingAgency Communion
C1: Emotional Expression
.17** .22*** C1: Emotional Expression
.22*** .28***
C2: Support from Others .10 .12
C2: Support from Others .17* .21***
C3: Emotional Processing .22*** .22***
C3: Emotional Processing .20*** .24***
C4: Venting/ Self-Blame -.26*** .04
C4: Venting/ Self-Blame -.15 .00
C5: Active Coping .19*** .09
C5: Active Coping .29*** .21***
C6: Acceptance .05 .05 C6: Acceptance .12 .09
C7: Denial -.19** -.10 C7: Denial -.10 -.09C8: Alcohol/ Drug Use -.02 -.14
C8: Alcohol/ Drug Use -.02 -.15
C9: Religion .11 .17** C9: Religion .10 .13
C10: Humour .09 -.09 C10: Humour .20*** .07 Note: N = 300. All tests of significance are two-tailed. *p < .01 **p < .005 ***p < .0025
Gender and coping style groups. Exploratory analyses using a two-way contingency table
revealed no significant sex differences in coping types used in either relationship or work contexts,
pooled Pearson χ2(2, 300) = 4.04, p = .215, Cramer’s V = .112, and pooled Pearson χ2(2, 300) = 4.21, p =
.820, Cramer’s V = .034, respectively. However, gender differences, in terms of agency and communion,
in coping types were found to be significant. With respect to stress in close interpersonal relationships,
differences in agency were found to be significant using ANOVA across all imputations, Fmin (2, 297) =
8.39, Fmax = 14.08, p < .001. The strength of the relationship (ηp2) between coping style groups and
agency was moderate, with coping style groups accounting for approximately 6.7% of the variance in
agency44. Follow-up tests were conducted to evaluate pairwise differences among the means. Post hoc
comparisons with the use of the Games-Howell test found significant differences in the means between
adaptive and maladaptive, as well as adaptive and minimal coping style groups; however, no significant
123
differences were found between minimal and maladaptive styles. The adaptive work coping style group
was significantly higher in agency than the other two groups. Table 42 presents the 95% confidence
intervals for the pairwise differences, as well as the means and standard errors for the three coping style
groups, with Figure 11 illustrating mean differences.
Table 42 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Agency for Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships
Relationship Clusters Mean Std. Error. Maladaptive Minimal
Maladaptive 3.25 0.07
Minimal 3.37 0.06 -0.32 to 0.07 p = .315
Adaptive 3.64 0.06 -0.60 to -0.18** -0.46 to -0.07* p = .009 Notes: 1 **p < .001, *p < .01 2Relative efficiency ranges 98.5 to 99.0. For the following comparisons, Maladaptive-Minimal, Maladaptive-Positive, Positive-Minimal, respectively: Fraction Missing Info, .15, .11, .12, respectively; relative increase in variance, .17, .11, and .14, respectively.
Figure 11. Mean Differences in Agency Across Coping Style Groups for Stress in Close Interpersonal
Relationships.
124
With respect to stress in close interpersonal relationships, differences in communion were also
found to be significant with ANOVA across all imputations, Fmin (2, 297) = 2.90, Fmax = 6.34, p = .021.
The strength of the relationship (ηp2) between coping style groups and communion was small, with
coping style groups accounting for approximately 2.9% of the variance in communion45. Follow-up tests
were conducted to evaluate pairwise differences among the means. Post hoc comparisons with the use of
the Games-Howell test found significant differences in the means between adaptive and minimal coping
style groups, with the adaptive group being significantly higher in communion than the minimal coping
group. However, no significant differences were found between adaptive and maladaptive, or maladaptive
and minimal styles. Table 43 presents the 95% confidence intervals for the pairwise differences, as well
as the means and standard errors for the three coping style groups, with Figure 12 illustrating mean
differences.
Table 43 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Communion for Stress in Close Interpersonal Relationships
Relationship Clusters Mean
Std. Error. Maladaptive Minimal
Maladaptive 3.95 0.08
Minimal 3.89 0.06 -0.20 to 0.25 p = .897
Adaptive 4.12 0.07 -0.43 to 0.01 p = .095 -0.43 to -0.04 p = .025* Notes: 1 *p < .05 2Relative efficiency ranges 98.3 to 98.5. For the following comparisons, Maladaptive-Minimal, Maladaptive-Positive, Positive-Minimal, respectively: Fraction Missing Info, .16, .17, .15, respectively; relative increase in variance, .19, .20, and .18, respectively.
125
Figure 12. Mean Differences in Communion Across Coping Style Groups for Stress in Close
Interpersonal Relationships.
With respect to work stress, differences in agency were found to be significant with ANOVA
across all imputations, Fmin (2, 297) = 2.41, Fmax = 7.38, p = .03. The strength of the relationship (ηp2)
between coping style groups and agency was small, with coping style groups accounting for
approximately 2.8% of the variance in agency46. Follow-up tests were conducted to evaluate pairwise
differences among the means. In Table 44, post hoc comparisons with the use of the Games-Howell test
found significant differences in the means between adaptive and maladaptive coping style groups, with
the adaptive style being significantly higher in agency than the maladaptive group. No significant
differences were found between adaptive and minimal, or minimal and maladaptive styles. Figure 13
illustrates mean differences in agency between the coping style groups.
126
Table 44 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Agency for Occupational Stress
Work Clusters Mean
Std. Error. Maladaptive Minimal
Maladaptive 3.32 0.06
Minimal 3.38 0.06 -0.25 to 0.13 p = .731
Adaptive 3.57 0.07 -0.45 to -0.04* p = .022 -0.39 to 0.02 p = .128 Notes: 1 *p < .05 2Relative efficiency ranges 97.7 to 99.3. For the following comparisons, Maladaptive-Minimal, Maladaptive-Positive, Positive-Minimal, respectively: Fraction Missing Info, .07, .13, .24, respectively; relative increase in variance, .08, .15, and .29, respectively.
Figure 13. Mean Differences in Agency Across Coping Style Groups for Occupational Stress.
With respect to work stress, differences in communion were also found to be significant with
ANOVA across all imputations, Fmin (2, 297) = 6.29, Fmax = 12.65, p < .001. The strength of the
relationship (ηp2) between coping style groups and communion was small to moderate, with coping style
accounting for approximately 5.9% of the variance in communion47. Follow-up tests were conducted to
evaluate pairwise differences among the means. Post hoc comparisons with the use of the Games-Howell
127
test found significant differences in the means between adaptive and maladaptive, as well as adaptive and
minimal coping style groups, with the adaptive coping style group being significantly higher in
communion than the other two groups. No significant differences were found between maladaptive and
minimal styles. Table 45 presents the 95% confidence intervals for the pairwise differences, as well as the
means and standard errors for the three coping style groups, with Figure 14 illustrating mean differences.
Table 45 Pooled 95% Confidence Intervals of Pairwise Differences in Mean Changes in Communion for Occupational Stress
Work Clusters Mean Std. Error. Maladaptive Minimal
Maladaptive 3.89 0.07
Minimal 3.91 0.06 -0.23 to 0.19 p = .937
Adaptive 4.22 0.07 -0.55 to -0.12* p = .002 -0.51 to -0.13* p = .002 Notes: 1 *p < .05 2Relative efficiency ranges 97.0 to 98.9. For the following comparisons, Maladaptive-Minimal, Maladaptive-Positive, Positive-Minimal, respectively: Fraction Missing Info, .12, .16, .31, respectively; relative increase in variance, .12, .18, and .42, respectively.
Figure 14. Mean Differences in Communion Across Coping Style Groups for Occupational Stress.
128
Moderation analysis. Moderation was conducted using hierarchical regression to evaluate
whether gender (i.e., in terms of males or females, agency, and communion) moderates the relationship
between (1) EI and coping strategies used; and (2) EI and well-being. Following the procedure outlined
by Aiken and West (1991) for testing interactions (or moderation effects) involving continuous variables,
all continuous variables were converted to z scores and gender, EI skills, and the product terms between
gender and EI skills were used to predict (1) coping strategies; and (2) well-being. Given the large
number of coping strategies, those of particular interest were the coping strategies which emerged as
significant within the mediation model presented in hypothesis three (i.e., support from others and
venting/self-blame across contexts, and alcohol/drug use within the interpersonal context).
The first set of regression models presented in Table 46 examined the role of sex (in terms of
male-female) as a moderator of the relationship between EI and the coping strategies, as well as EI and
well-being. A series of moderated regressions for sex was performed to explore the incremental variance
of the product term beyond that of main effects. No significant interactions emerged for any of the
moderation models in either work or relationship contexts, or with well-being. However, when EI and sex
were entered together, results revealed significant main effects for both variables in predicting support
from others, venting/self-blame, and alcohol/drug use (in relationships); only EI significantly predicted
well-being, with sex being a non-significant predictor.
The next set of regression models presented in Table 47 examined agency as a potential
moderator. A series of moderated regressions for gender were performed to explore the incremental
variance of the product term beyond that of main effects. No significant interactions emerged for any of
the moderation models. However, when agency and EI were entered together, significant main effects for
EI emerged when predicting support from others (relationship and work), venting/self-blame (work),
alcohol/drug use (relationship), and well-being. When entered together with EI, agency was significant in
predicting only venting/self-blame (relationships), and well-being. It should be noted that EI was
nonsignificant in predicting venting/self-blame (relationships), when entered with agency; however, EI
explained more of the variance in well-being than did agency.
129
Table 46 Pooled Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Coping Strategies and Well-Being from EI
By Sex Interactions
Gender X EI Predicting Coping
or SWB R
2
Adj.
R2
ΔR2
Sig. FΔ β
s.e. t p FMI/RIV
Dependent variable: Support from Others – Relationship
Step 1: Sex .081 .074 .081 < .001 .389 .113 3.444 < .001 .080/.085 EI .165 .053 3.125 .002 .059/.062Step 2: Sex X EI .081 .071 .000 .873 .003 .110 .025 .980 .037/.038
Dependent variable: Support from Others – Work
Step 1: Sex .096 .090 .096 < .001 .419 .126 3.329 < .001 .129/.144 EI .215 .060 3.577 < .001 .151/.173Step 2: Sex X EI .096 .087 .000 .773 .005 .128 .043 .966 .137/.154
Dependent variable: Venting/Self-Blame – Relationship
Step 1: Sex .059 .053 .059 < .001 .215 .093 2.316 .021 .059/.062 EI -.162 .045 -3.578 < .001 .121/.135Step 2: Sex X EI .061 .051 .002 .482 .065 .092 .701 .483 .041/.042
Dependent variable: Venting/Self-Blame – Work
Step 1: Sex .073 .067 .073 < .001 .290 .126 2.304 .021 .089/.095 EI -.248 .059 -4.214 < .001 .096/.104Step 2: Sex X EI .075 .066 .002 .552 .079 .135 .589 .556 .211/.256
Dependent variable: Alcohol/Drug Use – Relationship
Step 1: Sex .064 .057 .064 < .001 -.329 .098 -3.354 < .001 .080/.085 EI -.108 .047 -2.303 .021 .102/.111Step 2: Sex X EI .073 .063 .009 .117 .156 .100 1.565 .118 .116/.128
Dependent variable: Well-Being Step 1: Sex .407 .403 .407 < .001 -.121 .112 -1.073 .285 .295/.394 EI .641 .048 13.439 < .001 .116/.128Step 2: Sex X EI .408 .402 .000 .738 -.009 .103 -.089 .929 .148/.168
Note: For all models, Step 1, df (2, 297); Step 2, df (1, 296); pooled parameter estimates represent mean values for m = 10; all values are similar to results obtained via listwise deletion. Final efficiency rates range from 97.2 to 99.7.
130
Table 47 Pooled Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Coping Strategies and Well-Being from EI By Agency Interactions
Gender X EI Predicting Coping
or SWB R
2
Adj.
R2
ΔR2
Sig. FΔ
β s.e. t p FMI/RIV
Dependent variable: Support from Others – Relationship
Step 1: Agency .041 .035 .041 .003 .011 .070 .161 .873 .195/.232 EI .196 .067 2.940 .003 .101/.110Step 2: Agency X EI .042 .032 .001 .767 -.015 .061 -.242 .809 .146/.166
Dependent variable: Support from Others – Work
Step 1: Agency .062 .056 .062 < .001 .079 .067 1.181
.238 .143/.162
EI .203 .069 2.942 .004 .191/.226Step 2: Agency X EI .067 .058 .005 .285 -.064 .060 -1.059 .290 .146/.165
Dependent variable: Venting/Self-Blame – Relationship
Step 1: Agency .076 .070 .076 < .001 -.207 .064 -3.217 < .001 .072/.076 EI -.111 .066 -1.687 .092 .103/.112Step 2: Agency X EI .078 .068 .002 .497 -.039 .059 -.656 .512 .146/.165
Dependent variable: Venting/Self-Blame – Work
Step 1: Agency .058 .052 .058 < .001 -.065 .067 -.979 .328 .125/.139 EI -.204 .065 -3.123 .002 .089/.095Step 2: Agency X EI .067 .057 .009 .175 -.087 .065 -1.346 .180 .263/.339
Dependent variable: Alcohol/Drug Use – Relationship
Step 1: Agency .029 .022 .029 .019 .061 .069 .887 .376 .156/.179 EI -.184 .067 -2.741 .006 .106/.116Step 2: Agency X EI .029 .019 .000 .766 -.017 .058 -.287 .774 .068/.072
Dependent variable: Well-Being Step 1: Agency .476 .473 .476 < .001 .300 .049 6.053 < .001 .110/.120 EI .503 .050 9.974 < .001 .145/.165Step 2: Agency X EI .479 .473 .002 .309 -.046 .046 -.999 .319 .188/.223
Note: For all models, Step 1, df (2,297); Step 2, df (1, 296); pooled parameter estimates represent mean values for m = 10; all values are similar to results obtained via listwise deletion. Final efficiency rates range from 97.4 to 99.3.
131
The final series of moderated regressions for communion are shown in Table 48, with no
significant interactions. However, when communion and EI were entered together, significant main
effects for EI emerged when predicting support from others (relationship and work), venting/self-blame
(relationship and work), and well-being; EI was marginally significant in predicting alcohol/drug use
(relationships). When entered together with EI, communion was significant in predicting only support
from others (work), and venting/self-blame (relationships); however, EI explained more of the variance in
the dependent variables than communion.
132
Table 48
Pooled Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Coping Strategies and Well-Being from EI By
Communion Interactions
Gender X EI Predicting Coping
or SWB R
2
Adj.
R2
ΔR2
Sig. FΔ Final β
s.e. Final t p FMI/RIV
Dependent variable: Support from others – Relationship
Step 1: Communion .043 .037 .043 .002 .052 .065 .798 .425 .098/.107 EI .180 .063 2.881 .004 .028/.029Step 2: Communion X EI
.044 .034 .001 .653 -.019 .059 -.328 .743 .133/.150
Dependent variable: Support from others – Work
Step 1: Communion .073 .067 .073 < .001 .138 .062 2.204 .028 .051/.054 EI .183 .066 2.784 .006 .149/.169Step 2: Communion X EI
.073 .064 .000 .824 -.005 .058 -.084 .933 .061/.064
Dependent variable: Venting/Self-Blame – Relationship
Step 1: Communion
.059 .052 .059
< .001 .144 .064 2.250 .025 .090/.097
EI -.258 .064 -4.030 < .001 .089/.096Step 2: Communion X EI
.070 .061 .012 .073 -.103 .058 -1.794 .073 .109/.119
Dependent variable: Venting/Self-Blame – Work
Step 1: Communion
.064 .058 .064 < .001 .109 .063 1.718 .086 .064/.068
EI -.275 .063 -4.375 < .001 .058/.061Step 2: Communion X EI
.069 .060 .005 .266 -.066 .060 -1.102 .271 .117/.129
Dependent variable: Alcohol/Drug Use – Relationship
Step 1: Communion
.032 .025 .032 .014 -.086 .065 -1.312 .190 .101/.109
EI -.124 .064 -1.929 .054 .061/.065Step 2: Communion X EI
.036 .026 .004 .271 .062 .056 1.100 .271 .030/.030
Dependent variable: Well-Being Step 1: Communion
.404 .400 .404 < .001 .001 .054 .019 .985 .177/.207
EI .635 .053 11.989 < .001 .157/.180Step 2: Communion X EI
.405 .399 .001 .463 -.033 .045 -.732 .464 .076/.081
Note: For all models, Step 1, df (2,297); Step 2, df (1, 296); pooled parameter estimates represent mean values for m = 10; all values are similar to results obtained via listwise deletion. Final efficiency rates range from 97.2 to 99.7.
133
Summary of Hypothesis Four Results
The potential confounding of sex and gender role (agency, communion) was first assessed and
revealed males had higher levels of agency than females, but no difference emerged with communion. No
significant differences were observed between males and females with SWB; however, agency was
moderately correlated with SWB while communion was only weakly related with SWB. No significant
differences were observed between males and females with respect to EI and its clarity and repair facets;
however, females had significantly higher attention scores than males. In addition, communion was
weakly to moderately related to EI and its facets (attention, clarity, and repair); however, agency was
moderately related to EI and its facets of clarity and repair but not attention. Although the latter
relationships were significant, results also suggested that agency was more strongly related than
communion with clarity and repair.
In dealing with conflict in relationships, females relied on more support from others than did males,
while males indicated more alcohol/drug use than females. No other differences were seen here. In
dealing with occupational stress, males and females differed only on seeking support from others, with
females having higher means. In terms of gender roles and coping strategies used with interpersonal
conflict, agency was significantly positively related to emotional processing and active coping, and
negatively related to venting/self-blame, while communion was related with emotional expression and
processing. In terms of gender roles and coping strategies used with work stress, agency was
significantly positively related to emotional expression, emotional processing, active coping, and humour,
while communion was positively related with expression, support from others, emotional processing, and
active coping. Agency and communion were able to differentiate between certain coping types, although
the effects were mostly weak. With respect to interpersonal stress, agency differentiated adaptive coping
types from both maladaptive and minimal coping types, while communion differentiated only adaptive
from minimal coping types. With respect to workplace stress, agency only differentiated adaptive from
maladaptive coping types, while communion differentiated adaptive coping types from both maladaptive
and minimal coping types.
134
Moderation analyses revealed no significant interaction effects (sex x EI; agency x EI; communion
x EI) for any of the moderation models (predicting coping strategies, including support from others,
venting/self-blame, alcohol/drug use, and SWB) in either work or relationship contexts.
135
Chapter Four: Discussion
In achieving a greater sense of subjective well-being, the results revealed that it is important to
take into account the levels of emotional skills individuals possess, the coping strategies they use, their
gender assignment, as well as degree of gender socialization – and suggested the value of considering
these constructs both as separate entities as well as simultaneously as a process that occurs in adaptation
to stress in close interpersonal relationships and the workplace. Chapter four begins with a review of each
the four hypotheses in order to make sense of the findings and their consistency, or lack of consistency in
some cases, with some of the research described in the literature review. An overview is then provided
delineating the unique contributions of the current findings to the field, followed by a discussion of
therapeutic and organizational implications. Next, theoretical considerations and future directions are
discussed, as are some of the research limitations.
Hypothesis One: EI will be related to distinct coping strategies for interpersonal and occupational
stress
The first hypothesis of this research was that EI would relate to distinct coping strategies for
interpersonal and occupational stress, and that these coping strategies would be linked with patterns of
adaptive coping. The relationship between EI and adaptive coping patterns was confirmed with results
showing that EI was predominantly linked with a similar pattern of coping strategies applied across the
two contexts. Emotionally intelligent individuals seemed to cope with relationship conflict and work
stress by increasingly focussing on understanding emotional responses, expressing their emotions, getting
comfort and advice from others, and taking action to resolve their situations. They also used less denial
and venting/self-blame to cope with stress across contexts. A difference in coping behaviour emerged
between contexts, with EI being significantly related with increased religious coping in the interpersonal
but not occupational domain. As expected, EI appeared to provide participants with the ability to use
emotional information to guide, and not cloud, their judgment in effective action by implementing more
adaptive coping strategies in dealing with their particular relationship conflict and work situations. The
current findings clarified the specific areas of emotional skills (EI) related to the adaptive and
135
136
maladaptive coping strategies by investigating relationships between the coping strategies and the EI
subscales (attention, clarity, and repair).
It is important to point out that data reduction did suggest the possible confounding of emotional
coping and venting items often used in existing coping research, given that one of the items which
typically has been grouped with venting (i.e., “I’ve been letting my feelings out”), actually loaded on the
emotional expression factor (although it was the lowest loading item on this factor). Upon closer
examination of the items comprising the factors, the nature of venting items reflected a somewhat
uncontrollable release of negative feelings, which may be likened to “emotional leakage” (Goleman,
1995), while the emotional expression items reflected a more thoughtful, controlled method to expressing
emotions (which may be positive or negative in nature). In comparison with emotionally skilled
individuals, those with fewer emotional skills displayed coping behaviour which demonstrated less
control over their emotions and difficulty with modulating emotions when faced with stressors. This
maladaptive coping behaviour may have worsened the outcome of the situations they were dealing with,
for example, by scaring others away due to their emotional outbursts or excessive negativity and thereby
limiting the amount of emotional support they received. The uncontrollable release of distress feelings
may be viewed as being cyclical, contributing to increased stress, depression, anxiety, and negative affect.
These results provide some support for the Kennedy-Moore and Watson (1999) emotional expression
model (reviewed in chapter one). In addition, these findings suggest that having strong emotional skills
provides a degree of control over emotion-focussed coping behaviour, and an abundance of research has
shown that the amount of control individuals perceive themselves to have over stressful situations
influences how difficult the stressors will be for them to cope with (Kobasa, 1979).
The relationship observed between EI and active coping with both interpersonal and occupational
stress may provide some support to the notion that, “Too much emotional intensity could interfere with
the cognitive functioning that is necessary for effective problem-focused coping (Folkman & Lazarus,
p.314)”. While significant relationships between EI and active coping were shown when dealing with
both interpersonal and work stressors, this relationship was somewhat stronger within the occupational
137
context (r = .21 versus r = .35, respectively). Thus, the emotional skills participants possessed appeared to
be particularly helpful in enabling active coping within the work environment. Another consideration is
that active coping might be more appropriate or important in work contexts. In healing relationships, the
coping process seems to be more intrapersonal in nature, not requiring as much external, active coping as
needed when dealing with occupational stress.
The results confirmed research reviewed earlier by Salovey et al. (2002) linking emotional repair
to active coping in a laboratory experiment. Therefore, the current results extend the ecological validity of
some of their findings to real-life situations. They also confirmed research findings by Fitness and Curtis
(2005), who reported emotional repair to be related to task-oriented coping when dealing with an
interpersonal stressor (N = 170). Fitness and Curtis (2005) did not find a significant link between task-
oriented (or active) coping and the attention subscale of EI, as in the current study. However, it should be
noted that in the present study, the relationship between attention and active coping with conflict
approached significance which may be attributed to a larger sample size, increasing power. Attention was
not significantly related to active coping with work stress either. In contrast to coping with stress in close
interpersonal relationships where clarity did not result in increased active coping, when dealing with
occupational stress, clarity (and not only repair) was positively related to active coping.
The current research also provides some insight into substance use in dealing with interpersonal
and workplace stressors, an area in which research is limited. Within the work environment, those higher
in EI tended to use significantly less alcohol/drugs, while this relationship was still significant but weaker
when dealing with stress in close interpersonal relationships (r = -.26 versus r = -.16). This finding may
simply be attributed to the structure imposed by organizational climates, where the access and
opportunity for substance use is restricted. In addition, emotionally intelligent individuals may be able to
discern that in work situations, where they may already have little control because of the “environmental
press” dictated by the organizational climate, losing what little control they have by using alcohol or
drugs would only contribute to more stressful outcomes48. Less emotionally skilled individuals may be
more likely to turn to alcohol use when dealing with work stressors, because alcohol/drug use represents a
138
means of regulating negative emotions (e.g., depression, anxiety, or anger) or thoughts that result from
aversive work environments (Frone, 1999). EI may serve as a protective factor in a work environment
because having emotional skills helps people in regulating negative emotions so that they would not need
to turn to substances as an attempt to manage distress emotions. An implication for organizations include
supporting their employees in coping with work stress by providing them with outlets (e.g., therapeutic
support, stress-management workshops) that help reduce the emotional impact of stressors so as to avoid
the need to turn to external strategies (such as alcohol use) for dealing with work stress.
One of the differences which emerged was with EI, and more specifically, its repair facet, being
positively associated with religion as a form of coping with close interpersonal but not work stress. The
nature of stress in close interpersonal relationships has to do with connection to others, so people higher
in EI may draw on spiritual connection in effort to help in healing their relationships; doing so may be
helpful in the process of forgiveness (Lawler-Row, 2010). The emotional skill of repairing negative mood
states may be considered an important part of the forgiveness process. Generally, mixed findings have
been shown in terms of the relationship between religion and occupational stress, with only some studies
finding a link (e.g., Barhem, Younies, & Muhamad, 2009; Maldonado Feliciano, 2005; Pienaar,
Rothmann, Van de Vijver, 2009). These mixed findings may be attributed to the potential confounding of
extraneous variables, such as gender role, religious orientation (including meditative practices), levels of
faith, cultural background, work climate, and types of occupational stressors.
Interestingly, acceptance, which has been considered an adaptive coping strategy in the literature,
was not related to EI or any of its subscales. Acceptance may not be necessary in making positive
changes when faced with relationship and work stress. For instance, one of the participants in the current
study, “Mary”, who was high in EI and SWB wrote about an interpersonal conflict with her sister
involving her sister taking advantage financially of her family, “I'd like to just accept my sister for who
she is without judgement, but it is very hard. Sometimes distance between two people is okay. Sometimes
conflict is okay. I think it makes room for change in both people.” Therefore, Mary saw this conflict as a
situation for personal growth, and chose to not accept her sister’s behaviour. For Mary, accepting her
139
sister’s behaviour would appear to stunt her personal development and forming a more mature adult
relationship with her sister. Mary’s response reflects a degree of confidence that she has the ability to
“repair” her emotional state, as well as the flexibility of knowing that she does have a choice to accept her
sister. Thus, acceptance is accessible within her coping repertoire, as she sees fit. Perhaps, in certain
stressful situations, acceptance may be akin to learned helplessness, a psychological state that describes
people feeling powerless to change their self or situation (Seligman, 1975). Accepting a stressful work
situation “as is” would not contribute to improving the situation in any way. It should be noted that the
unexpected finding of a lack of significant relationships with acceptance may be measurement based, and
perhaps requires more specific and detailed items to clarify a definition of acceptance for participants
completing the survey. While acceptance was not shown to be used by emotionally intelligent individuals
in dealing with conflict in personal relationships or work stress, this relationship may be dependent on the
nature of the stressor. For example, acceptance has been shown to have beneficial effects when dealing
with grief or chronic pain (see Kubler-Ross, 1969), and emotionally intelligent individuals may be able to
implement acceptance as a strategy more readily in dealing with these types of stressors, with studies
needed to further explore these areas.
The subscales comprising EI suggested specific emotional skills were linked with particular
coping strategies. This information may be useful to therapists in terms of helping their clients develop
certain areas of emotional skills in promoting the use of certain adaptive coping strategies when facing
conflict situations and work stress. For example, when dealing with work and stress in close interpersonal
relationships, support from others was significantly related to attention to emotional information and the
ability to repair negative mood states, but emotional clarity was not a skill that was significantly
positively related to gaining support from others. Thus, when clients indicate a lack of social resources,
therapists may be more inclined to focus on helping their clients develop their emotional attention and
repair skills rather than clarity. However, emotional clarity was significantly negatively related to
venting, self-blame, and denial coping across contexts, whereas attention to emotion and repair were not
as strongly related to these coping strategies (with the exception of repair being negatively correlated with
140
venting/self-blame when dealing with stress in close interpersonal relationships, and attention being
negatively correlated with denial when dealing with work stress). In application, therapists working with
clients who are self-critical and/or using denial/avoidance when dealing with conflict and work stress
may wish to begin by helping these clients gain a better understanding of their emotional experiences
(i.e., emotional clarity). Rather than letting their emotions paralyze and trap them in a state of avoidance,
helping clients understand their emotions (i.e., by naming feeling “anxious” or “afraid” and
understanding why they feel this way) seems to allow people to face their situations. In promoting active
coping across contexts, therapists may primarily seek to build clients’ skills in emotional repair, although
developing emotional clarity may also help with active coping when dealing only with occupational
stress. A more thorough discussion of therapeutic applications will be presented in the summary and
implications section below.
The current results also confirmed that EI is moderately related with subjective well-being, with
clarity and repair facets being moderately related with subjective well-being and attention to emotion
being weakly related. These results are consistent with the previous research findings noted earlier and
suggest that clarity and repair are the emotional skills most salient in achieving well-being. It is important
to note that a linear rather than curvilinear relationship was found between attention and well-being, and
so the idea that excessive emotional attention is detrimental to well-being was not supported. Fitness and
Curtis (2005) pointed out that the ability to pay attention to feelings may serve an informational function,
with more cognitive work being needed in terms of establishing their meaning, consequences, and
regulation. The ability to pay attention to emotional information may act as a stepping stone for the
higher-level emotional skills in achieving well-being, and without attention to emotion, clarity and repair
would not be attainable. Taken together, emotionally intelligent individuals appear to pay more attention
to emotional information, and possess an increased ability to regulate emotions and integrate emotions
rationally in their actions (i.e., coping strategies) so as to obtain more positive and less negative outcomes
when dealing with stressful personal and work situations.
141
Hypothesis Two: Differences will emerge in coping behaviours across contexts as well as their
relationships to EI and well-being
Hypothesis two examined whether people apply coping strategies consistently regardless of the
type of stressors they face (i.e., interpersonal or occupational). In general, the results indicated both
similarities and differences in the ways people cope with relationship and work stress. As expected, when
dealing with stress in close interpersonal relationships, individuals reported using significantly more
emotion-focused strategies, including venting, self-blame, and acceptance than when they were dealing
with work stress, with emotional expression approaching a level of significance. Unanticipated was the
finding that relationship rather than occupational stress was associated with more reports of self-blame
since pattern was reversed in an earlier study (Vitaliano et al., 1995). However, this may have resulted
from the grouping of self-blame with venting items which made it unclear as to whether differences
found were attributable more so to venting or self-blame. Interestingly, when dealing with occupational
stress, individuals reported relying more on support from others and humour than when they were dealing
with stress in close interpersonal relationships. Because social support consisted of both instrumental and
emotional items, it is unclear whether participants used more of one form of social support than the other.
In view of the contradictory findings cited earlier surrounding the types of coping strategies used with
work stress, it is not surprising that no clear patterns were shown with active coping as a problem-focused
strategy. No significant differences emerged in the extent to which coping strategies were used between
contexts with respect to emotional processing, active coping, denial, alcohol/drug use, and religion,
suggesting that people use these strategies equally.
Given the questions of whether coping strategy effectiveness is different depending on the
context and whether they help at all in the context of occupational stress, hypothesis two also explored
the relationships between subjective well-being in relation to the coping strategies people applied.
Findings suggested that participants were generally not coping well with either interpersonal or
occupational stress. For example, more humour was used with occupational stress, yet humour was
unrelated to SWB. Similarly, acceptance was unrelated to SWB, yet participants reported using more
142
acceptance with interpersonal conflicts than workplace stress. A comparison of the relationship of
subjective well-being to coping strategies between relationship and work contexts revealed that not all
strategies typically considered to be adaptive were associated with well-being. For example, acceptance,
religion, and humour, which are strategies generally considered to be adaptive in the literature, were not
related to SWB. Differences in the relationships between coping strategies and well-being also emerged,
with individuals reporting greater subjective well-being when using emotional expression as a coping
strategy to deal with interpersonal but not work stress, as well as when using active coping to deal with
stress in the workplace but not close interpersonal relationships. These findings suggest that expressing
emotions when dealing with conflict in personal relationships may be psychologically healthy, but in a
professional work environment, expressing emotion may not increase SWB. On the other hand, actively
working to resolve problems in a professional work environment contributes positively to psychological
health, whereas active coping strategies do not seem to increase SWB when dealing with relationship
conflict where emotional connection to others is key.
In further exploring coping behaviours across contexts, the coping strategies were classified into
three coping “types”: Individuals who primarily used adaptive strategies, those who generally used
maladaptive strategies, and those who used little of either adaptive or maladaptive coping strategies. The
three coping types which emerged were identical across the two contexts, with only a minor difference in
the grouping of one of the coping strategies (i.e., little alcohol/drug use was grouped with adaptive coping
when dealing with work stress, while it was grouped with minimal coping when dealing with stress in
close interpersonal relationships). Humour was grouped under maladaptive coping, and may represent a
confounding of humour styles (e.g., aggressive humour, self-defeating humour, self-enhancing, and
affiliative humour; see Martin et al., 2003). In both contexts, a somewhat larger number of people were
grouped under minimal coping, in comparison with the adaptive and maladaptive coping groups,
suggesting that most people generally do not implement coping strategies to any great extent when
dealing with either conflict in relationships or stressors in the workplace.
143
While the increased use of coping strategies has been considered beneficial, it is conceivable that
individuals in the minimal coping group might have been more adept at handling stressors given their
emotional skills, and needed to access coping strategies to a lesser extent than the other participants. In
investigating this possibility, it was found that EI was significantly able to differentiate the adaptive
coping group from both the maladaptive and minimal coping groups in each of the two contexts. EI was
generally related to a pattern of implementing adaptive coping strategies, suggesting that those with
higher emotional skills actively apply positive coping strategies, while those with lower emotional skills
either do not access coping strategies much and/or apply maladaptive strategies to a greater degree.
Although there was no statistically significant difference in emotional skills between minimal and
maladaptive groups, it may be of practical significance to point out that in comparison, the EI means were
observed to be somewhat higher in the minimal group.
The adaptive copers were also differentiated from both the maladaptive and minimal coping
groups when dealing with stress in close interpersonal relationships in terms of achieving greater
subjective well-being; no difference in SWB was found between minimal and maladaptive groups. When
dealing with work stress, however, the adaptive coping group showed significantly higher SWB than the
maladaptive coping group only and not the minimal coping group. In terms of practical significance, it
should be noted that the means for SWB were observably, although not statistically, higher for the
adaptive copers in comparison with the minimal copers. The minimal coping group also fared
significantly better than the maladaptive copers to some degree in both contexts. Therefore, it may be
easier for the “minimal group” to learn to develop emotional skills and move towards implementing more
adaptive coping strategies than it would be for the maladaptive coping group (where participants may
need to learn to both eliminate maladaptive patterns and implement positive patterns).
Altogether, these findings suggest that individuals who are emotionally skilled and have greater
subjective well-being implement positive coping strategies to a larger degree than those less skilled.
Although it is possible that emotionally skilled individuals would need to access fewer coping strategies
in general because they would naturally be able to “repair” their emotional states in response to stressors,
144
in actuality, it appears that they access coping strategies to a large extent. The coping strategies which
those higher in EI access are primarily adaptive in nature and most likely used to repair the negative
mood states they may experience as a result of the stressors. Individuals in the minimal coping group may
not access any coping strategies to a large extent because they may be at a loss for how to cope given
their somewhat lower levels of emotional skills (in comparison with the adaptive coping group). They
may pointlessly try a little of everything in terms of coping strategies to deal with the stressors they face.
It may also be that their lack of emotional skills fail to convey the extent to which the stressors are
affecting them (e.g., because of lower attention or clarity with regards to emotional information), and as a
result they may not detect the need to implement coping strategies to a greater extent.
Hypothesis Three: Coping behaviour will mediate the relationship between EI and well-being for
both interpersonal and occupational stress
The mediation model results examining the relationship between EI and well-being were similar
across occupational and interpersonal contexts. In terms of coping with both interpersonal and
occupational stress, a partial mediation was found between emotional intelligence and well-being through
the use of social support and less self-blame/venting. In terms of coping with stress in close interpersonal
relationships, EI also promoted well-being through a reduced reliance on alcohol/drug use. In other
words, the current study suggested that EI is valuable in increasing well-being when dealing with
interpersonal and occupational stress primarily because effective emotional understanding, awareness,
and management tends to increase social support and decrease venting and self-blame across both
contexts, as well as reduce alcohol/drug use when dealing with stress in close interpersonal relationships.
These results further demonstrated that a direct link remained between EI and well-being, after
controlling for coping mechanisms. Although a full mediation was not found, the overall models,
consisting of EI and the coping strategies (social support, venting/self-blame, alcohol/drug use)
impressively explained approximately 51% of the variance in subjective well-being for stress in close
interpersonal relationships, while EI and the coping strategies (social support and venting/self-blame)
similarly explained an impressive 53% of the variance in SWB for occupational stressors.
145
It is important to keep in mind that everyone who participated in the current study, regardless of
their levels of EI, reported an interpersonal conflict situation. It appears, then, that both emotionally
intelligent and less emotionally skilled individuals experience conflicts in close relationships in their
lives. A high level of emotional skill does not implicate a lack of interpersonal conflicts, but it appears to
affect how well individuals navigate through conflict to maintain high levels of well-being. As was noted
earlier, social supports are not always positive in nature and may have deleterious consequences for well-
being. In the case of interpersonal conflict, it may be considered more likely for the conflict situation
between two people to “spread” more widely and affect other members closely related to the individual
who is directly faced with the conflict. However, those who were emotionally skilled appeared to be able
to draw on positive social support systems in helping them cope, which led to increased SWB. These
positive social supports may belong to the immediate group affected by the conflict (e.g., family members
supporting the individual who is upset because of her partner’s long work hours), or the social support
may come from other networks (e.g., friends of the upset partner who are unrelated to the family,
particularly in the situation where family members may be supporting the partner’s efforts to provide
financially for the family). Therefore, it is possible that emotionally skilled individuals have larger social
networks upon which they may rely on when other interpersonal relationships go awry.
While it may be that emotionally intelligent individuals have a larger network of positive social
supports in their lives, it is not implied that emotionally intelligent individuals are all extraverts. In the
case of emotionally intelligent introverts, it may be that they have fewer, but very stable and reliable
positive social supports whom they can look to for comfort when dealing with conflict in a different
relationship. For instance, having one positive role model in the life of an individual has been shown to
make a positive impact and begin the process of building resilient characteristics, such as, emotional
intelligence (Werner, 1999). Because the support coping scale consisted of both emotional and
instrumental support items in the current study, it is unclear whether the type of social support is
important in terms of the findings. However, the principal components analysis made no distinction
146
among the items comprising the social support scale, and therefore, the interpretation may be made that
EI acts through either type of social support to augment overall well-being.
Given the beneficial effects of social support in terms of general health and psychological well-
being, it is not surprising that emotionally intelligent individuals use social support coping to deal with
conflict in their personal lives and work stress. In the case of work stress, one type of work stress cited by
participants was bullying situations (either through their coworkers or managers/supervisors). It may be
that particularly when dealing with troubled relationships, either in their personal or professional lives,
emotionally intelligent individuals seek social supports elsewhere to perhaps re-affirm their ability to be
accepted, cared for, and adored socially. Gaining social support and continuing to build positive social
bonds elsewhere may work to minimize rather than magnify the troubled interpersonal relationships or
work demands they are dealing with. It may reassure the individuals that they are able to form positive
bonds and are not to be blamed for their troubled conflictual relationships. Speaking to others may also
help them process their conflictual and occupational situations to work towards attaining solutions that
mitigate the effects of the stressors.
Interestingly, alcohol/drug use was found to be a mediator of the relationship between EI and
well-being when dealing with relationship, but not work stress. The successful navigation of stress in
close interpersonal relationships seems to require emotional skills with those more skilled being less
inclined to increase substance use – an avoidant strategy which, in turn, resulted in greater distress.
However, significant results for alcohol/drug use as a mediator were found only when using listwise data
(p = .048), with results approaching a level of significance when pooled across m = 10 datasets (p =
.074). Therefore, this coping strategy may not be considered as potent a mediator as support from others
and venting/self-blame. This particular coping variable is usually largely skewed within the general
population and the study sample was reflective of this pattern. Given the tendency for multiple imputation
to normalize variables, it is possible that after imputing the missing data, power may actually have been
sufficiently reduced for statistics involving this particular coping strategy to render the pooled findings
non-significant.
147
It is somewhat surprising that of the ten coping strategies included as possible mediators, only
three were found to be significant with the relationship data model, and two with the work data model. A
possible explanation for this may be that when entering all the coping strategies together in a mediation
model, social support and venting/self-blame may simply simultaneously explain more of the variance in
EI’s relationship to well-being than any of the other coping strategies assessed. That emotional expression
and processing were not found to be significant mediators may be attributed to their potential overlap
with EI skills, and the possibility that they may explain more shared variance in SWB. The current study
also far from exhausted the different types of coping strategies and had other coping strategies been
included, they may have been shown to also be salient in explaining the relationship between EI and
SWB.
One unexpected finding warranting further comment was that active coping was not a significant
mediator of the relationship between EI and subjective well-being in either context. It may be that when
dealing with interpersonal and occupational stressors, emotional skill is not necessarily required for active
coping to significantly increase well-being. For example, working on a task at work (e.g., returning
customers’ calls) may be considered an active coping strategy which helps reduce work overload, and
may help one feel better about being more on top of things or less overwhelmed. However, completing
this particular work task may not require a high degree of emotional skill – whereas intuitively, accessing
social support would.
Another possible explanation may be best illustrated by an example directly from a study
participant, a 32-year-old woman who was considered to be highly emotionally intelligent and
psychologically well-adjusted. In dealing with a stressful situation at work in which she felt marginalized
because she tried to speak up against unethical practices by individuals in her organization, she
recognized that because she had little power in her workplace, it would be better for her to step back and
not take an active approach to handling the situation,
I am in a situation where I have to endure this for a year.... I do not want to get involved in office politics because I have a year to go before I finish my degree. I need to finish my research and defend after which I will be in a less vulnerable situation and can take a stand. I don't enjoy backing off but at this point it appears the best solution. Am not happy about it
148
but feel I don't have a choice in the matter. How important strategy and credentials are ... if you want to challenge unethical practice you need to be in a position of power since there are limited accountability systems in place within the institution and individual personalities count for more.
Thus, there may be occupational and interpersonal situations in which active coping would not be
beneficial in increasing subjective well-being, regardless of one’s level of emotional intelligence. It
has been shown that perceived control affects coping strategies used in the workplace (Petrides and
Furnham, 2003), and future research may wish to control for this factor.
At the same time, it is also important to keep in mind that active coping on its own may offer a
different route to augmenting well-being than through the EI path. To increase subjective well-being, it
may be easier to guide individuals who are not high in their level of emotional skill to implement active
coping strategies rather than develop emotional skills, which may be more challenging to do. Then again,
it may not make sense to coach specifically on implementing active coping strategies to deal with work
stress because an emphasis needs to be placed on what may be the ability and flexibility emotionally
intelligent individuals have in recognizing when to implement certain strategies and when not to. It is
important to keep in mind that EI is positively related to active coping, and therefore, there is generally an
increased likelihood for individuals with higher EI to recognize that active coping may be more
worthwhile than stewing over their stressors. The subtleties of the particular stressor situations (e.g., type
of work stress) were not fully captured in the analysis of the data, and would be more difficult to control
for and factor in without conducting an experimental study. This may also explain why additional
significant coping strategies mediators (other than social support, venting/self-blame, and alcohol/drug
use) were not found.
In considering that subjective well-being was assessed by calculating a composite score across
several indices (e.g., depression, anxiety, stress, negative affect, positive affect, life satisfaction, etc.), it is
possible that additional significant mediators would be found when considering specific aspects of well-
being rather than overall psychological well-being. A composite score assumes that a person's overall
well-being is made up of an equal combination of depression, anxiety, stress, positive affect, life
satisfaction, etc. When using a composite well-being score, it is unknown to what extent the results reflect
149
the common variance which is shared among the components or the unique variances of the specific
components (Busseri, Sadava & DeCourville, 2007). Without further statistical procedures, it is unknown
whether the results found using subjective well-being represent the variance that is shared among the
components or the variance specific to depression, stress, anxiety, positive affect, negative affect, or life
satisfaction.
Because the mediation models demonstrated only a partial mediation, it made it apparent that EI
may be working through other unexamined coping mechanisms and has strong direct effects on
increasing subjective well-being. It follows that increasing emotional skills alone may help in promoting
SWB. Whether it is possible to learn emotional skills and to what extent, has been an area of controversy
(Matthews and Zeidner, 2000).
Investigating coping style group as a potential mediator. In order to examine coping style
group as a potential mediator between EI and SWB, analysis of covariance was performed given that it is
a categorical, nominal variable, with results showing that well-being was not found to vary significantly
with coping style across both interpersonal and occupational contexts, after adjustment by covariates (i.e.,
emotional intelligence). Thus, coping style group does not appear to be a potential mediator of the
relationship between EI and SWB. The reason that coping style group was not found to be a significant
mediator may be explained statistically. In constructing the coping groups, the coping data was clustered
and collapsed into only three groups, thereby leaving out potentially important information. Therefore, it
may be more informative and practical for future research in this area to continue to examine the
intricacies of coping behaviour through the examination of each particular coping strategy rather than a
general coping style (e.g., adaptive or maladaptive).
Hypothesis Four: Gender will be differentially related to EI and the coping strategies used in each
context. Gender will moderate the relationship between EI and SWB and between EI and coping
strategies.
As anticipated, the results of the gender analysis did suggest the confounding of sex and gender
differences. Generally, the current sample reflected men to be significantly higher in agency than women,
150
but no significant sex differences existed with communion, suggesting that men and women may be
differentiated along the agentic but not communion dimension. In other words, on average, men may be
as expressive as women while at the same time, more agentic than women. This finding is contrary to the
notion of restrictive emotionality in men reviewed earlier (Blazina & Watkins, 1996). While neither men
nor women were significantly better off in terms of subjective well-being, well-being was significantly
and positively related to gender role (i.e., both agency and communion). However, a stronger relationship
was found between SWB and those possessing agentic in comparison with communal characteristics (r =
.52 and r = .25, p < .001, respectively). Although there was a statistically significant difference in the
extent to which men and women internalize the agentic role, it is important to note that on a practical
level, the differences in the means appeared to be minimal. These results may be compared with those
reported earlier by Ghaed and Gallo (2006), indicating women to be significantly higher in femininity
then men, with no significant sex differences emerging with agency. In terms of the implications that
these findings have on cultural and societal levels, as suggested by Twenge (1997), these findings may
reflect a general trend in our society of women becoming more autonomous than in the past, with men
and women evening up the gaps on their levels of expressiveness or tendencies towards others. The
results suggest a slight shift from traditional cultural and societal expectations valuing the characteristics
of agency in men (i.e., self-confidence, autonomy, active) more so than communion (e.g., kind,
understanding, and helpful to others).
In terms of EI, no significant sex differences emerged between men and women. As expected,
however, a significant sex difference was found in the extent of attention individuals pay to emotional
information, with women possessing higher levels than men (Lane, Sechrest, and Riedel, 1998; Zomer,
2003). Gender role differences in emotional attention were observed as well, with communion being
positively associated with attentional skills, and agency being unrelated to attention. In comparison with
men, EI appears to implicate greater attention and awareness of emotional information in females and in
individuals who are higher in their levels of communion. Agency was more strongly positively related to
clarity and repair than expressivity although significant positive relationships were seen with both. These
151
findings appear contrary to Conways (2000) research reviewed earlier revealing higher masculinity to be
associated with lower complexity in representations of one’s own and others’ emotions and no relation
between complexity of emotional representation and femininity. However, it makes sense that those who
were more independent (agentic) were clearer about their emotions and better able to regulate them,
whereas those with more expressive traits were more attentive to emotional information. These gender
findings are consistent with previous research investigating sex differences in EI, and seem to reflect the
varying interpersonal styles between the sexes shaped by societal expectations, with men being
encouraged to be more rational and women more emotional (Jordan, 1997; Rider, 2000; Zomer, 2001,
2003). Other trait investigations (e.g., the Big Five), similarly show weak links to male-female sex
differences, while stronger links are reported with socialized gender differences (i.e., agency-communion)
(e.g., Ghaed & Gallo, 2006). Overall, however, the relationship between EI and agency and EI and
communion are very similar (r = .44 vs. r = .39, respectively) suggesting that while both are moderately
related to emotional intelligence, the way that EI is achieved in agentic and communal personalities is
different. It may be that the increased attention to emotional information in communion is ruminative in
nature and given the negative relationship between excessive rumination and well-being, perhaps helps
explain why communal personalities are not as strongly related to SWB as agentic personalities.
When examining gender in relation to coping strategies, differences were found to be attributed
more so to gender role (i.e., agency/communion) rather than sex (i.e., male/female). The only sex
differences in coping strategies to emerge were with: 1) alcohol, with men using this strategy more than
women when dealing with interpersonal conflict (and not with occupational stress), and; 2) support from
others, with women using this strategy more than men in both relationship and work contexts. These
results make sense considering cultural influences regarding the importance of attachment and
relationships to women. They are consistent with other studies showing men to use more withdrawal
coping, females more social support coping, and a lesser likelihood of men’s willingness to seek help
from others (Blazina & Watkins, 1996; Gilligan, 1993; Gonzales-Morales et al., 2006; Nolen-Hoeksema
et al., 1994; Tamres et al., 2002).
152
Statistics also report greater reliance on alcohol consumption as a coping strategy by men;
interestingly, the men in this sample showed increased alcohol/drug use in the context of stress in close
interpersonal relationships but not work, perhaps because of the more conservative structures set in place
within work environments, as well as the need to be alert on the job. As explained earlier, Burda & Vaux
(1987) found that social drinking may facilitate supportive exchanges in men by easing restrictions
against traditionally feminine behaviours, and perhaps this is being tapped into by the current findings.
Unexpectedly, these findings do not provide support for the earlier research cited linking sex differences
with other types of coping strategies (e.g., rumination and emotional expression being used more so by
women than men). Although the results suggest the confounding of gender role with sex in existing
research examining coping and EI, it is important to point out that the existing research cited has
examined these constructs with general coping style rather than in relation to specific situations as was
done in the current study; this may have contributed to the discrepancies reported.
Several gender role differences emerged with respect to coping. Interpersonally, communion was
linked with emotional expression and emotional processing, while agency was significantly positively
related to emotional processing, active coping, and negatively to self-blame/venting. In conflict
situations, it is common for women to often seek their male partners to be more expressive of their
emotions, as men are more likely to cope by withdrawal or expressing frustrations in destructive ways
(Fitness & Curtis, 2005). Interpersonally, the agentic gender role was found to be more action-oriented in
coping with conflict (i.e., processing emotions, actively coping), and less expressive of emotion
(including distress emotions). In contrast, communion as a gender role was shown to be emotion-oriented
in coping with conflict in relationships, but in a seemingly productive, active manner to help with
processing emotions. In light of these results, it appears that the link between emotional expression,
emotional processing, and active coping with gender is more related to the degree of internalization of
gender role (i.e., agency or communion) rather than being male or female because no significant
differences were found between males and females along these coping dimensions.
153
In terms of work stress, both agency and communion were significantly related with emotional
expression, emotional processing, and active coping. Agentic individuals appear to be more comfortable
and confident in voicing their feelings about situations at work than in their personal/intimate
relationships. Differences in work stress emerged with humour being positively related to agency, but
unrelated to communion. Communion was positively related to social support, while the relationship was
not significant for agency and social support. Keeping in mind that women in this study were lower than
men in agency and that agency was unrelated to the use of social support, the latter findings are supported
by the cross-cultural study conducted in Spain reviewed earlier, where social support coping reduced
distress for women but not for men when dealing with occupational stress (Gonzales-Morales et al.,
2006). Overall, the results of the current study suggest that existing research has likely confounded male
and female differences in EI and coping with gender socialization. Additional studies are needed to
clarify these relationships.
Investigating gender differences and coping style groups. In terms of coping style groups (i.e.,
adaptive, minimal, and maladaptive), the current findings again suggested that gender effects were
primarily attributable to the social constructs of agency and communion, rather than being male or female
since no significant differences emerged with sex, while they did with the gender social constructs.
Within the context of work, findings were intuitive, with agency significantly differentiating between
adaptive and maladaptive coping groups; there was no significant difference in agency between adaptive
and minimal groups. Communion did significantly differentiate between the adaptive coping group in
contrast to both minimal and maladaptive coping groups in the occupational context, with higher
communion seen among the adaptive coping group. This suggests that success in dealing with workplace
stress is strongly related to turning towards others (or, communion). With respect to stress in close
interpersonal relationships, the adaptive work coping style group was significantly higher in agency than
the other two groups, as anticipated. Unexpectedly, in terms of stress in close interpersonal relationships,
the adaptive coping group possessed significantly more communal characteristics than the minimal, but
not the maladaptive coping group.
154
The lack of a significant difference in level of communion between adaptive and maladaptive
coping groups, together with a significant difference emerging between adaptive and minimal groups is
difficult to interpret. A possible explanation for this effect may be attributed to the expressive quality of
communion, with communion also having been termed “expressiveness” by some. The minimal group
showed little expressiveness, because it used little of any particular type of coping strategy. However, the
maladaptive group used more venting/self-blame (among other expressive maladaptive coping strategies),
which is a form of expression and requires some level of sensitivity to others. Thus, the maladaptive
group was somewhat higher in expressiveness than the minimal coping group and did not differentiate
itself statistically from the adaptive group in terms of expressiveness (although it is observably lower in
mean). Similarly, a tendency towards others (or communion) did not seem to significantly differentiate
between maladaptive and adaptive groups, because coping strategies in both groups may have involved
some form of expression (whether positive or negative in nature). Further investigation is needed as to the
sensitivity of the communion construct in detecting maladaptive dimensions of coping, since this
construct is intended to reflect adaptive tendencies towards others (apparent in its association with SWB).
Since these unexpected results did not emerge within the context of work stress, it may suggest a possible
confounding of the operationalization of this construct (e.g., with unmitigated communion), particularly
when assessed in different contexts (e.g., interpersonal and occupational). Even so, the magnitude of the
effect size for both agency and communion was rather small, and even smaller in comparison with the
effects observed between EI and coping style groups suggesting variance in coping style groups to be
better explained by EI.
Unexpectedly, the moderation analysis revealed that the ways in which emotional intelligence
and coping strategies were related to well-being was not significantly affected by sex (i.e., being male or
female) or socialized gender role (i.e., agency/communion). In other words, gender did not interact with
emotional skills in a way that affected coping strategy choice or well-being. For example, although it was
considered possible that perhaps being female or having more expressive traits, together with being
emotionally intelligent might result in the increased use of social support than it would for an emotionally
155
intelligent male (or agentic individual), this was not the case. Therefore, any significant correlational
relationships between the gender measures with respect to EI or coping strategies appears to be limited to
simple and not interactional effects. Given the moderation results, it was unnecessary to control for
gender in the above path analysis models.
Overview of Research Contributions
Taken together, the findings presented support for the place for emotional intelligence within an
extended adaptational model contextualizing EI within the transactional model of stress and coping. The
results of the current investigation confirmed that individual differences in emotional processes play a
crucial role in how individuals cope with both interpersonal and occupational stress to affect subjective
well-being. The current investigation presents as being the first or earliest I found which compares stress
responses in relation to EI and coping simultaneously in an adaptational model across two different
contexts, with research in this area just beginning to emerge. Both the interpersonal and occupational
realms seemed to be appropriate choices in assessing the extended adaptational model since they were
common areas applicable to all participants and allowed them to choose their own personally salient units
of analysis (i.e., stressor examples). Providing the units for assessment likely increased the ecological
validity of the results and the applicability of the findings to real-life (rather than laboratory) situations.
The areas assessed also presented as valuable realms wherein emotional and coping processes take place
to shape SWB. The current investigation is unique in its assessment of mediation models across the two
contexts, with results revealing that certain coping strategies in dealing with conflict in relationships (i.e.,
social support, venting/self-blame, and alcohol/drug use) and work stress (i.e., social support,
venting/self-blame) partially mediated the relationship between emotional intelligence and well-being; in
other words, EI facilitates adaptive coping when dealing with interpersonal conflict and occupational
stress primarily through the use of these particular coping strategies. The mediation models further
revealed a direct effect for EI in predicting SWB, suggesting that developing emotional competencies
may directly contribute to SWB.
156
For the most part, findings indicated that when dealing with either type of stressor, EI was
consistently positively related to certain coping strategies (i.e., positively related with emotional
expression, support from others, emotional processing, active coping), and negatively related to other
strategies (i.e., venting/self-blame, denial, and alcohol/drug use). One of the differences which emerged
was with EI being positively related to religion when dealing with conflict situations but insignificant for
work stress. The results further provide unique contributions to this area of research by assessing well-
being as it relates to coping behaviour, rather than assuming the intrinsic adaptiveness (or lack of) of a
particular coping strategy which most studies in the area have tended towards. It revealed that certain
coping strategies considered to be adaptive in the literature were not necessarily adaptive when
considered in different contexts (i.e., emotional expression being adaptive when dealing with stress in
close interpersonal relationships but not significant with occupational stress, and active coping being
adaptive with occupational stress but not significant with stress in close interpersonal relationships).
The study further uniquely assessed the coping strategies through classification procedures and
identified three coping “types” common across contexts: Those who used few or minimal coping
strategies, those who primarily used adaptive strategies, and those who primarily used maladaptive forms
of coping. The results revealed that most participants (66%) did not cope adaptively with stress. EI was
able to differentiate the adaptive coping type from both the maladaptive and minimal coping types, with
the coping types also being differentiated with respect to both gender role and SWB, but not sex.
A further unique contribution of the present research to the field is in its assessment of gender as
it may possibly be the first or one of the earliest studies to examine gender differences (in terms of both
sex and/or gender role) in EI and coping strategies across contexts, with the differences being mostly
attributed to the socialization of gender role (agency/communion) rather than sex (male/female). It
appears that existing studies identifying gender differences in EI and coping may have confounded
biological and sociological aspects of gender. Results further indicated no significant gender differences
in terms of the transactional model of stress (via moderation models) suggesting that sex does not interact
with EI to influence coping strategy choice (i.e., social support, venting/self-blame, alcohol/drug use) or
157
well-being. Finally, while studies in psychology use student samples most often, with some studies
evaluating specific populations, this study increased the generalizability of the findings to the general
population. Given that most individuals, if not all, may relate to having close interpersonal and
occupational stressors in their lives, the results of the current investigation may be readily and practically
applied essentially by anyone in the general (North American) population to help increase their subjective
well-being.
Therapeutic Implications
Overall, these results have important implications for the therapeutic context and organizational
policy, as well as future research directions. With regards to therapeutic implications, assessing emotional
intelligence and coping behaviour may help guide therapeutic intervention. Therapists may help clients in
developing emotional and coping skills where needed to help increase their quality of life. For example,
for those with low emotional clarity or repair skills, therapy may help with understanding and modulating
negative affectivity to enable better choices in terms of responding to interpersonal conflict and work
stressors. This may be illustrated by an example directly from another study participant, “Ed”, a young
man who was 20-year-old and considered to be low in EI and SWB. In describing a stressful
interpersonal situation, he wrote,
I’ve started to have more feelings towards her [a really good friend for the past eight years], and I’m about 100 times way more sensitive towards times where I perceive that she is avoiding me or has ditched me. Last night [when] we were hanging out, she gets a phone call, [and] she was on the phone for like 30 minutes, continuously saying things like: “We're doing nothing” and “I’m tired”. I was getting really upset but I couldn't show it. I didn't want to show it. I love her to death but can't even show it due to fears of ruining the relationship. Ed recognized that he would like to express what is on his mind and that nothing would change if
he kept silent. A therapist may help him recognize why he is unable to express his thoughts/feelings to his
friend, for example, by helping him in labelling and understanding his feelings of inadequacy, upset, and
perhaps anger, in addition to his fears. Ed is aware that he is afraid that expressing himself may result in
relationship dissolution, but perhaps he is unaware of the roots of his fears which may stem from earlier
life experiences that made him feel unworthy of affection or perhaps showed him that expressing anger
158
may be explosive and result in relationship termination. Throughout the process, the therapist may help
Ed by exploring his attitude toward emotion (Elliot, Watson, Goldman & Greenberg, 2004), and attention
to emotional information. The therapist may also assist by helping Ed develop a better understanding of
the emotional processes involved, as well explore ways of using emotion as information to guide his
future interactions with his friend (Elliot et al., 2004; Mayer & Salovey, 1997). By modulating his
emotional responses, Ed may have access to the cognitive space needed to make better coping choices in
his encounters with his friend (as well as in his other relationships) which will lead to increased well-
being. The emotional knowledge individuals with high EI possess appears to allow them to more
rationally make decisions and actively cope with stressful situations.
Therapists may also wish to focus on the coping aspects alongside the development of emotional
skills. Bodenmann et al. (2002) examined the effectiveness of Coping Enhancement Training (CET), a
coping-focused prevention program based upon the transactional stress concepts of Lazarus and his
coworkers. In CET, personal coping skills are practiced over a six-hour period by means of theoretical,
diagnostic, and practical work. CET training focuses on three main components: a) the avoidance of
unnecessary stress, b) the expansion of one’s own hedonistic repertoire (pleasant activities) and, c) the
improvement of matching appraisals and situation-appropriate coping strategies. Results showed that
participants displayed better individual coping skills (e.g. active problem-solving and positive self-
verbalization) as well as less reliance on dysfunctional coping strategies (e.g. rumination and blaming
strategies) after two years. A limitation to their study is that it did not evaluate well-being as an outcome.
However, research contextualizing coping and assessing its adaptiveness, as in the present study, may
help inform therapeutic prevention programs, such as CET.
In drawing some parallels between the study results and the therapeutic context, it appears that
individuals with higher levels of emotional skills have learned or inherited some of the basic concepts and
principles implemented in process-experiential therapy (PET) (e.g., emotional expression) and cognitive-
behavioural therapies (CBT) (e.g., linking cognitive patterns of thoughts and emotions with behaviours,
positive self-talk). Given that many individuals present with interpersonal challenges when beginning
159
therapy, the client-therapist relationship would appear to be highly important in modelling and improving
social-emotional skills. Empathy is considered highly valuable in forming this relationship. One of the
functions of empathic listening by a therapist is affect regulation (Watson, 2007). Watson (2007) explains
that the foundational skills of emotional intelligence and competence (e.g., awareness, labelling,
modulation, and expression) are facilitated by therapists’ empathic listening and communication.
Empathic listening assists clients in becoming aware of and labelling their inner experience. In the
process of becoming aware of their emotional experiences, clients are modulating their emotions through
processing them in the pre-frontal cortex (Greenberg & Watson, 2006). This processing decreases
emotional intensity and provides a controlled way for clients to reflect on their experience. Emotions may
be further regulated as clients continue reflecting on their experience and find positive rather than self-
destructive ways of expressing it.
In a comparative study of PET and CBT, Watson and Geller (2005) found that the relationship
conditions (including empathy, acceptance, positive regard, and congruence) facilitated the development
and maintenance of a good working alliance across the two therapies. No significant differences in
relationship conditions emerged across the modalities, other than clients rating their PET therapists to be
higher in positive regard. The study also found that the relationship conditions were predictive of
outcome on measures of depression, dysfunctional attitudes, and self-esteem in both PET and CBT. It
was considered that the relationship conditions help with the development of specific tasks and
interventions which clients view as more fitting to their needs. Interestingly, the alliance was not found to
play a mediating role with respect to the improvement of clients’ interpersonal difficulties, which was
predicted by clients’ mid-treatment depression change scores (Watson & Geller, 2005).
In an earlier study, Greenberg and Watson (1998) found that both client-centred therapy and PET
were effective in treating depression with effect sizes comparable to those reported in studies
investigating CBT. However, PET produced a significantly greater improvement in clients' interpersonal
problems and self-esteem than CBT. A more recent study by Watson et al. (2003) comparing the
effectiveness of CBT and PET also showed clients' levels of depression, self-esteem, general symptom
160
distress, and dysfunctional attitudes significantly improved in both therapy groups. By the end of
treatment, clients in both groups used significantly lower levels of reactive and suppressive coping
strategies and higher reflective coping. However, PET was found to be more effective than CBT (and
other types of therapy) in treating clients’ sense of interpersonal difficulties (Watson et al., 2003).
Therefore, in addition to the therapeutic relationship, the specific tasks of PET may help to improve
clients' interpersonal functioning. For example, a therapist working with Ed may use two-chair and
empty-chair tasks, which would encourage him to express his feelings and needs, as well as request
changes of himself and his friend in appropriate, non-blaming ways. These techniques may help him
listen to his friend’s response and negotiate, responding both to his own needs and his friend’s needs
using a thoughtful rather than avoidant or reactive approach. Through PET, clients learn how to attain
successful conflict resolution and negotiation and are encouraged to apply these skills to their
relationships outside of the therapeutic context (Watson et al., 2003).
Therapeutically, the significance of emotional intelligence and in particular, the ability to pay
attention to emotional information, may also be likened to the practice of mindfulness meditation.
Mindfulness meditation has been shown to increase both psychological and physical well-being on a
long-term basis for those who practice regularly (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). As mindfulness meditation may be
learned, many therapists today are integrating mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) into their
practice, applying it more generally to clients from all populations. MBSR has been proven to benefit
more specific populations as well, such as those experiencing mental health disorders, caregiver distress,
grief, traumatic events, and chronic illness, and professionals in high-stress work environments (Kabat-
Zinn, 1990; Walach et al., 2007).
While mindfulness meditation may be taught as a sort of “skill” with awareness not being limited
to the emotional realm, emotionally intelligent people appear to be innately more aware of their own
emotions and the emotions of others, allowing them to guide rather than control their actions. Cultivating
awareness is essential for the practice of mindfulness meditation, which is “not so concerned with how
much thinking is going on as it is with how much room you are making for it to take place within the
161
field of your awareness from one moment to the next” (Kabat-Zinn, 1990, p. 69). In mindfulness
meditation, it is desirable for individuals to fully attend at each instance, “What matters is whether you
are aware of your thoughts and feelings during meditation and how you handle them” (Kabat-Zinn, 1990,
p. 69). It is considered that by fully attending in the moment to emotions and thoughts of any nature that
may come to mind, allowing them to run freely, and letting them go non-judgmentally, individuals will be
able to apply this practice to their daily experiences of painful emotions or stressful events and “let go” of
the negative emotions which may have deleterious effects on their health. In the process of awareness and
letting go, individuals are letting go of the negative thoughts and emotions which may prevent them from
coping more rationally and effectively. Given these therapeutic implications (with similar implications for
other therapeutic modalities not discussed), the assessment of emotional skills, coping strategies, and
well-being is considered to be valuable in guiding treatment focusing on intrapersonal and interpersonal
experiences, and serves as a way to establish the effectiveness of a therapeutic modality.
Organizational Implications
In terms of organizational implications, given the potential detrimental effects of workplace stress
on workers’ mental health reviewed and the results obtained, it would appear to beneficial for employers
to provide their employees with counselling, psycho-educational programming/seminars, and/or coaching
resources in helping them increase their quality of life. By providing preventative resources to employees,
such as counselling or psycho-educational seminars, these coping outlets will likely assist with
productivity and reduced leave due to stress and depression. Moreover, the use of leisurely work group
activities and work fitness teams may promote psychological and physical health as well as social support
networks for workers (Callan, 1993). Increased well-being is known to result in better job performance.
In contrast, burnout is known to lead to poor job performance and some employees who experience it
need to take a leave of absence from their work, at a substantial financial loss to the companies they work
for.
In addition to helping individuals develop stress-management skills through making counselling
services available to them, large organizations and small businesses are encouraged to put protective
162
structures and strategies in place to help with stress management, sick leave expenses, turnover rates, and
burnout prevention. As described by Lazarus’ transactional model of stress, personal and contextual
factors often interact to influence coping strategies, and in turn employees’ physical and psychological
health (Callan, 1993). Therefore, careful attention is needed with respect to external or environmental
demands and resources (e.g., supports). For instance, equality of pay and pay satisfaction are considered
to help improve well-being. In a study of 211 human service practitioners, Jenaro, Flores, and Arias
(2007) found that coping strategies alone did not preclude burnout but may assist in turnover prevention.
High job and salary satisfaction, along with active coping strategies played an important role in
promoting personal accomplishment. Low job and salary satisfaction and the use of passive or emotional
strategies predicted increased emotional exhaustion. Organizations also need to be mindful of demanding
schedules and compensate appropriately in an effort to reduce stress upon workers. Additional
opportunities for organizational improvements, include providing employees with professional
development opportunities and performance feedback and promoting mutually supportive (horizontal and
vertical) communication to enable workers to adopt a proactive work role (Parker, 1998). Further
organization-focused interventions to help reduce sick leave expenses and turnover include conflict-
solving strategies, team-building strategies, leadership styles (collaborative versus directive), and changes
in workload and shifts (Callan, 1993).
Theoretical Considerations and Future Directions
In terms of theoretical implications, the results provided some support for the adaptational model
contextualizing emotional intelligence within the coping process (see Figure 4). Within the context of the
model, evidence was provided showing that when individuals appraise interpersonal or occupational
situations as stressful, they may attempt to implement certain coping strategies which mediate the
relationship between EI and psychological well-being. The use of social support and lack of venting/self-
blame partly explains the strong direct relationship between EI and psychological well-being. However,
there is much variance in well-being unaccounted for by the strategies used for testing the model. It
would be interesting for future research to investigate the potential meditational effects of coping
163
strategies not considered in the present study, as well as more clearly operationalize the coping scales
(e.g., separate coping scales for venting and self-blame, separate scales for different types of humour,
etc.). In addition, with respect to organizational stress, an outcome measure involving the assessment of
burnout, productivity, turnover rates, etc. may be of further value to organizations.
The construct of emotional intelligence was noted earlier to be of controversy, as is its
operationalization. The current investigation used the self-report or trait approach to EI assessment, and it
would be interesting if an ability EI assessment approach would be able to replicate these results, as some
inconsistencies between these two assessment approaches have been indicated in other research studies
(Emmerling, Shanwal, and Mandal, 2008). It is also important to point out that trait EI is not limited to
attention, clarity, and repair skills, and that the TMMS is simply one measure of EI and did not tap all its
dimensions. Moreover, overall EI was considered to be comprised equally of emotional attention, clarity,
and repair skills; however, because attention was not quite as strongly related to well-being as clarity and
repair, it may have influenced the strength of some of the relationships found. Nonetheless, theoretically,
attention may be a necessary prerequisite for the development of the higher-level emotional skills of
clarity and repair, and considering it of equal value in the composition of EI may be appropriate, with
further research needed in this area.
Another theoretical consideration for future research includes the examination of gender
differences in terms of biological sex as well as socialized gender role. As suggested by Bornstein (1994,
1998) classification described earlier, there are other aspects to gender which were not evaluated in the
present study, in part because of a lack of validated assessment instruments. Researchers need to be
cautious about confounding the different aspects of gender which has resulting in sociological differences
being construed as biological in nature. Theoretically, the results suggest that males and females appear to
be innately more alike in terms of their coping styles, while the extent to which they have internalized
stereotypically feminine and masculine characteristics has a stronger influence on individual differences
in coping behaviour. Validated assessment instruments which evaluate the different aspects of gender are
required. Future research may wish to consider the influence and possible interactions of social economic
164
status, education, and cultural differences along with gender. For example, perhaps more well-educated
men have more feminine characteristics than less well-educated men, which may affect their emotional
competencies, coping styles, and well-being. The interplay between EI, gender, and coping may also be
different for men and women who are in the minority across occupational contexts which traditionally are
more predominantly female or male populated (e.g., construction workers, engineers, nurses, primary
school teachers).
Finally, there are a number of ethical considerations to keep in mind as researchers develop
knowledge and theories about emotional intelligence. For example, is it right for companies to hire
individuals based on their levels of EI? What would the implications be for people if they knew that they
were not emotionally intelligent? Does the emotionally intelligent person do whatever it takes to succeed
(e.g., in an organizational climate or interpersonal relationships), regardless of who they may injure along
the way? Is emotional intelligence always positive in achieving well-being, or might there be situations in
which it may reduce well-being (e.g., empathy may prevent a business decision involving property
acquisitions which would result in people being homeless but lead to greater financial distress for the
empathic individual)?
Limitations
There are a number of limitations with the current study. Coping was limited in its assessment
with only ten coping strategies examined. There are many more ways of coping, as well as coping outlets
(e.g., listening to music, relaxation exercises, going for a drive), which were not investigated and may be
linked with EI and well-being. The brief COPE also did not provide a number of the anticipated coping
strategy scales found in the original study when it was subjected to principal components analysis in the
present research. Because responses were analyzed in two specific contexts – interpersonal and
occupational, results are limited to these contexts. It is also important to point out that the nature of the
stressors within these contexts were unspecified, and may be considered for further specification in future
research. For instance, would individuals cope differently with occupational stress related to workload in
contrast to career development or organizational climate? Similarly, would individuals cope differently
165
with stress in close interpersonal relationships related to their spouses than they would with their siblings
or friends? Another consideration may be the development of an objective way to determine the level of
stress inherent in a particular job (e.g., nursing, police, sales clerk, etc.).
The operationalization of SWB may also be considered a limitation since it was a composite
measure based equally on several well-being scales, including depression, anxiety, stress, negative affect,
positive affect, general life satisfaction, social life satisfaction, career life satisfaction, and home life
satisfaction. Although a composite measure of SWB is considered advantageous in its robustness, it is
unclear to what extent the results represent the unique variances of the specific components or the
common shared variance. Without further statistical procedures, it is unknown whether the results with
respect to the subjective well-being score reflect the variance specific to depression, anxiety, social life
satisfaction, and so on, or the shared variance among these individuals measures.
There is also the limitation inherent in all self-report measures. Although self-report measures
have the advantage of obtaining direct information in a fast, convenient way from the person being
evaluated, they have the disadvantage that the respondents may lack the ability or awareness needed to
properly evaluate themselves, carelessly rush through the protocols, or fake good or bad. Faking in this
study, however, was unlikely to have occurred because of a lack of motivation given the anonymity of the
participants (Schutte & Malouff, 1999). In addressing the limitations of self-reports, future studies would
benefit from using a daily process approach (e.g., journaling, day-to-day monitoring), observer-rated and
physiological measures, where possible.
Moreover, since recruitment and participation were web-based, the sample included only
individuals who had access to the internet. The majority of the sample (over 97%) was North American,
with most participants being Canadian and native-English speakers, rendering the results limited in their
cross-cultural generalizability. While the recognition of emotions in facial expressions is considered to be
largely universal, cross-cultural differences have been found with respect to the levels of control exerted
over different emotions as well as the interpretation of emotional intensity. In terms of emotional control,
for instance, one study found Russians to most tightly control the display of their emotions, closely
166
followed by the Japanese and South Koreans, with Americans displaying the least control over their facial
expressions. Sex differences within these cultures were also discovered (Matsumoto, 2006). Minor, yet
significant, cultural differences in aspects of emotional intelligence have also been found in a study
comparing Norwegians with Americans (Hystad, et al., 2010). Coping styles vary across cultures as well.
Terms such as individualistic and collectivistic are often used to describe the general orientation of other
cultures, and can be extended to describe individuals’ coping styles in these cultures. For example, many
East Asian cultures are collectivistic, emphasizing interdependence on others. The orientation of the
North American and European countries by contrast is individualistic, emphasizing independence and
reliance on oneself.
It should be noted that the current sample was disproportionately comprised of women, and
gender differences should therefore be viewed tentatively. It may be interesting to attempt replication of
the findings by running separate mediation models for males and females. However, splitting the current
sample on sex to run separate mediation models may unintentionally split the sample on an extraneous
variable, such as income. Further research into gender differences may control for potential confounding
variables by collecting separate samples of males and females.
Furthermore, this study used path analyses to examine whether emotional intelligence predicted
the coping behaviours involved in increased subjective well-being. It is possible that the temporal order
of these relationships differ from the suggested model. Although trait EI is considered to develop in early
childhood, emotional skills may be developed through life experiences and there is no way of knowing if
the coping behaviours reported by participants in the present study preceded the skills involved in
emotional processing and regulation. In addition, participants were asked to recall stressful events which
occurred within a year, and the accuracy of their memories may have been affected. Prospective,
longitudinal studies are required to further investigate these limitations.
167
Conclusion
The current study examined the role of emotional intelligence, gender, and coping strategies in
the management of perceived interpersonal and occupational stress on well-being. In general, the current
investigation provided evidence to support the idea that people with high emotional intelligence seem to
possess skills that allow them to cope effectively with stress in close relationships as well as the
workplace. Although some unanticipated findings were recognized and discussed, (for example, in the
relationships of certain coping strategies to EI and gender role), overall, the results (N = 300) supported
each of the four hypotheses and helped to clarify the relationships among the variables. Firstly, EI was
related to the use of distinct coping strategies when dealing with interpersonal and occupational stress.
Secondly, differences in coping behaviour (i.e., coping strategies and coping types) emerged across
coping contexts, as did differences in their relationships to EI and well-being; similarities emerged as
well. It was also found that most participants (66%) did not cope adaptively with stress. Thirdly, certain
coping strategies were found to mediate the relationship between EI and subjective well-being, and a
difference was noted in the mediators between the two context-dependent models, with support from
others and venting/self-blame being common mediators to both models, and alcohol/drug use being an
additional mediator only when dealing with stress in close interpersonal relationships. Fourthly, gender
differences were found in relation to EI and the coping strategies people used in each context and were
more so related to gender role than being male or female; however, moderation models revealed that
gender did not interact with EI to affect coping responses or subjective well-being.
Taken together, the findings of the current research support an extended adaptational model
incorporating emotional intelligence in the transactional model of stress and coping. The results are
considered to be applicable to the general (North American) population. Overall, this study provides
insight into the adaptation processes which occur in two important areas of our lives: close interpersonal
relationships and the workplace. Results indicated that the emotional skills comprising emotional
intelligence are vital to promoting a substantial proportion of our subjective well-being, both directly as
well as indirectly through the implementation of specific coping strategies when faced with these types of
168
stressors. These findings have significant implications for therapists, organizations, and theory
development, as well as directions for future research.
169
Footnotes
1 In other conceptualizations of emotions, emotions are regarded as complex sets of meanings,
meanings-in-action, action potentials (i.e. driving one’s goals), motivational units, and as composed of
desires, beliefs, feelings and values (see Oatley, 2004). Similar to Lazarus’ perspective on emotions,
Damasio’s (2004) perspective is grounded in evolutionary theory. According to Damasio (2004),
emotions are “bioregulatory reactions that aim at promoting, directly or indirectly, the sort of
physiological states that secure not just survival but survival regulated into the range that we, conscious
and thinking creatures, identify with well-being (p. 50).”
2 According to Kennedy-Moore and Watson (1999), emotion has four components: (1) arousal;
(2) experience; (3) reflection; and (4) expression. Arousal is the physiological response which begins with
an initial prereflective reaction to a precipitating stimulus. For instance, an individual with a high distress
threshold may not react much to a love letter she finds in her husband’s coat pocket written by another
woman, particularly if it reduces her sense of guilt about her own affair. Experience is the
phenomenological, felt sense, which begins with the conscious perception of response. Emotional
experience provides individuals with information about themselves and their environment, as they
interact and adapt to it. All forms of emotional experience, from crude affects to focused emotions to
highly elaborated feeling, carry subjective meaning. Reflection involves thoughts pertaining to emotion.
These thoughts involve monitoring experience, expression, and arousal; making sense of them; and
evaluating them. Reflection is represented by the cognitive-evaluative steps. Expression is the observable
behaviour component of emotion, which occurs either automatically in response to arousal or more
deliberately, after cognitive processing.
3 Clearly, emotion is a complex phenomenon which has been conceptualized in different ways by
different theorists. Common to these conceptualizations is the understanding that emotion involves
physiological, affective, and cognitive processes which are involved in assisting individuals to adapt to
their environments. The investigation of EI may assist us in further understanding the coping process
170
since it essentially can be conceptualized as being at the junction of both emotional and cognitive
processes.
4 It should be noted that in the relevant section, principal components analysis was also attempted
by deleting outlier values at the item-level and results were similar to the factor structures presented.
5 With large samples, minor deviations from normality may be flagged as statistically significant,
even though small deviations from a normal distribution will not affect the results of a t test or ANOVA.
Normality tests have little power to tell whether or not a small sample of data comes from a Gaussian
distribution and almost always pass a normality test.
6 In addition, I did perform factor analyses on my data using both parametric (using pearson
correlations) and nonparametric (using polychoric correlations) procedures. Essentially, the factor
structures were the same using either procedure (aside from very slight differences in the inter-item
correlations which did not affect the resulting factor structures).
7 Applying the alternate nonparametric method for FA, the dimensionality of the 35 items
retained from the coping questionnaire was investigated by performing FA on the matrix of inter-item
polychoric correlations using various extraction and rotation methods. The final solution used a principal
components extraction method7. Standard FA procedures produce enhanced results if the data are truly
continuous and multivariate normal because they are based on Pearson correlations. However, item-level
data (e.g., consisting of dichotomous items or items based on Likert scales) often to not meet these
criteria (Bernstein & Teng, 1989). In considering these limitations, some experts recommend conducting
FA procedures on the matrix of Spearman’s correlations (a non-parametric method based on distribution-
free assumptions) rather than on the matrix of Pearson correlations (Panter, Swygert, Dahlstrom, &
Tanaka, 1997, p. 570-571). However, in the current research, the results were similar and because of its
flexibility with data analysis, parametric methods were used.
171
8 It should be noted that both maximum likelihood and principle axis factoring revealed similar
solutions, but principal components extraction method produced a clearer factor solution (and with higher
communalities values and total variance explained).
9 Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) and Hair et al. (1995) indicated that a ratio of 10 cases per factor was
acceptable. Although at least three variables are generally needed per dimension to define a construct,
Bollen (1989) has suggested that two indicators are sufficient for this purpose. In addition, the two items
that load on to each of the following three factors are the same as those used in the Brief COPE.
10 Applying the alternate nonparametric method for FA, the dimensionality of the 35 items
retained from the coping questionnaire was investigated by performing FA on the matrix of inter-item
polychoric correlations using various extraction and rotation methods. The final solution used a principal
components extraction method10. Standard FA procedures produce enhanced results if the data are truly
continuous and multivariate normal because they are based on Pearson correlations. However, item-level
data (e.g., consisting of dichotomous items or items based on Likert scales) often to not meet these
criteria (Bernstein & Teng, 1989). In considering these limitations, some experts recommend conducting
FA procedures on the matrix of Spearman’s correlations (a non-parametric method based on distribution-
free assumptions) rather than on the matrix of Pearson correlations (Panter, Swygert, Dahlstrom, &
Tanaka, 1997, p. 570-571). However, in the current research, the results were similar and because of its
flexibility with data analysis, parametric methods were used.
11 It should be noted that both maximum likelihood and principle axis factoring revealed similar
solutions, but principal components extraction method produced a clearer factor solution (and with higher
communalities values and total variance explained).
12 It is important to note that the ten factor solution adopted possessed eigenvalues over .99.
Although generally factors with eigenvalues over 1.0 are interpreted, as with all mechanical rules, this
method can lead to arbitrary decisions; for instance, it doesn’t make much sense to regard a factor with an
eigenvalue of 1.01 as ‘major’ and one with an eigenvalue of .99 as ‘trivial’. Lastly, in various simulation
172
studies with PCA and EFA, this method has demonstrated tendency to substantially overestimate the
number of factors, and, in some cases, even underestimate them (Ledesma & Valero-Mora, 2007;
Tabachnick & Fiddell, 1996; Zwick & Velicer,1986).
13 Other studies have also included only the eight masculinity and eight femininity items.
14 When an indicator variable has a low communality, the factor model is not working well for
that indicator and possibly it should be removed from the model. Low communalities across the set of
variables indicate the variables are little related to each other. However, communalities must be
interpreted in relation to the interpretability of the factors. A communality of .75 seems high but is
meaningless unless the factor on which the variable is loaded is interpretable, though it usually will be. A
communality of .25 seems low but may be meaningful if the item is contributing to a well-defined factor.
That is, what is critical is not the communality coefficient per se, but rather the extent to which the item
plays a role in the interpretation of the factor, though often this role is greater when communality is high.
15 Although multiple imputation assumes multivariate normality, Schafer and colleagues suggest
that it can work for a variety of different distribution types (Bernaards, Belin, & Schafer, 2007; Graham
& Schafer, 1999; Schafer, 1997; Schafer & Olsen, 1998). It has been pointed out by many that normality
is often the exception rather than the rule (Enders, 2010; Micceri, 1989). Empirical studies further reveal
that normality violations may not pose a serious threat to the accuracy of multiple imputation parameter
estimates (Demirtas, Freels & Yucel, 2008; Graham & Schafer, 1999; Rubin & Schenker, 1986; Schafer,
1997). Research shows that the magnitude of the bias appears to depend on the sample size and missing
data rate (Enders, 2010). Demirtas et al. (2008) found that the parameter estimates and standard errors
from a bivariate data analysis were quite distorted with a sample size of N = 40, but relatively accurate
with a sample size of N = 400. Other simulation studies have reported accurate estimates and confidence
intervals with sample sizes as low as N = 100 (Graham & Schafer, 1999; Schafer, 1997). As mentioned
above, the percentage of missing data plays a role, as well. Enders (2010) indicated that while it is
173
difficult to determine rules of them about the percentage of missing data, Demirtas et al. (2008) reported
accurate parameter estimates with missingness rates as high as 25%.
Enders (2010) noted that applying normalizing transformations at the imputation phase is a
possible way to mitigate the impact of normality violations. However, there are objections to this
approach, including the lack of software programs that estimate skewness and kurtosis with missing data
when deciding the choice of transformation. After all, it is recommended that researchers experiment with
different transformations until a transformation is found which best normalizes the data (e.g., Tabachnick
& Fidell). Enders (2010) also noted that data transformations are problematic because they can alter the
covariate structure of the data. These issues require clarification through further research and have
prompted some methodologists to raise strong concerns about the appropriate use of transformations in
the context of multiple imputation (Demirtas et al., 2008).
16 There is also evidence that suggests MI to be appropriate even for data which are not missing at
random (NMAR), where data is missing for a specific reason (i.e., which may signal a biased survey
question, survey, or sample) (Enders, 2010).
17 As of yet, no explicit pooling rules for pooling F-tests in regression or ANOVA have been
defined for multiple imputation; averaging F-values is not justified because this will incorporate the extra
uncertainty due to the missing data in the analysis (J. R. van Ginkel, personal communication, March 21,
2011). Therefore, minimum and maximum F values are reported.
18 Multiple imputation procedures are conducted separately for some analyses because they
involve different variables. As a result, descriptive statistics may vary insignificantly depending on the
model (see Xia, 2009).
19 Including too many variables in the imputation process is unlikely to produce much bias, so a
liberal approach to variable selection is suggested as a good strategy (Cole, 2008; Enders, 2010; Graham,
2009; Schlomer, Bauman & Card, 2010).
174
20 Given that Spearman’s coefficients provided similar results (without changes in the
significance of any relationships, and any differences mostly occurring within .02 decimal points),
Pearson’s correlations are shown.
21 Bonferroni correction was applied separately for EI and the EI subscales because these
independent variables were imputed using different imputation models.
22 Given that Spearman’s coefficients provided similar results (without changes in the
significance of any relationships, and any differences mostly occurring within .02 decimal points),
Pearson’s correlations are shown.
23 Given that Spearman’s coefficients provided similar results (without changes in the
significance of any relationships, and any differences mostly occurring within .02 decimal points),
Pearson’s correlations are shown.
24 Because of the exploratory nature of the study, a more liberal family wise error rate of .10 was
used. It should be noted, however, that in this particular section findings were also significant at the more
conservative level of .05, with the exception of findings for emotional expression.
25 Because of concerns with regards to normality of the coping strategy distributions,
nonparametric methods (using Wilcoxon tests), although not reported here, revealed similar results with
respect to the significant relationships found.
26 These effect sizes represent the averaged effect sizes across each of the ten imputed datasets.
Listwise effect sizes were sometimes slightly larger (by up to .03).
27 The fraction of missing information is an estimate of the ratio of missing information to
"complete" information, based on the relative increase in variance due to non-response, which in turn is a
(modified) ratio of the between-imputation and average within-imputation variance of the regression
coefficient.
28 The relative efficiency is a comparison of this estimate to a (theoretical) estimate computed
using an infinite number of imputations. The relative efficiency is determined by the fraction of missing
175
information and the number of imputations used to obtain the pooled result; when the fraction of missing
information is large, a greater number of imputations are necessary to bring the relative efficiency closer
to 1 and the pooled estimate closer to the idealized estimate.
29 MI is not a supported procedure for cluster analysis in SPSS v. 19.0. Listwise deletion was
applied for the original cluster analyses providing a total of 262 cases for relationship and 269 cases for
work stress contexts. Multiple imputation procedure was then applied to increase power.
30 One of the biggest problems with cluster analysis is identifying the optimum number of
clusters. As the fusion process continues, increasingly dissimilar clusters must be fused, and the
classification tends to become increasingly artificial. Clusters are interpreted solely in terms of the
variables included in them and should contain at least four elements in order to be meaningful.
31 In the original dataset, similar results were obtained; however, work coping style accounted for
approximately 19.7% of the variance of the dependent variable, overall EI.
32 Games-Howell was selected because this method takes unequal group sizes into account, as
well as violations of homogeneity of variance (which occurs more often with unequal group sizes).
Additionally, this method has been shown to perform well when groups are homogenous (Dunnett, 1980).
Similar results were obtained, however, using approaches that assume homogeneity of variances (e.g.,
Tukey).
33 Distributions are based on the imputation most closely reflecting pooled mean values.
34 In the original dataset, similar results were obtained; however, work coping style accounted for
approximately 24.9% of the variance of the dependent variable, overall EI.
35 Distributions are based on the imputation most closely reflecting pooled mean values.
36 In the original dataset, similar results were obtained; however, work coping style accounted for
approximately 12.1% of the variance of the dependent variable, SWB.
37 Distributions are based on the imputation most closely reflecting pooled mean values.
176
38 In the original dataset, similar results were obtained; however, work coping style accounted for
approximately 9% of the variance of the dependent variable, SWB.
39 Distributions are based on the imputation most closely reflecting pooled mean values.
40 A sensitivity analysis was conducted using both listwise deletion and multiple imputation. A
decision was made to present the final mediation results using listwise deletion, given that both methods
produced similar results (Hayes, Slater, and Snyder, 2008).
41 A sensitivity analysis was conducted using both listwise deletion and multiple imputation. A
decision was made to present the final mediation results using listwise deletion, given that both methods
produced similar results (Hayes, Slater, and Snyder, 2008).
42 Because of the exploratory nature of the study, a more liberal family wise error rate of .10 was
used. It should be noted, however, that in this particular section findings were also significant at the more
conservative level of .05.
43 Because of the exploratory nature of the study, a more liberal family wise error rate of .10 was
used. It should be noted, however, that in this particular section findings were also significant at the more
conservative level of .05.
44 In the original dataset, similar results were obtained; however, work coping style accounted for
approximately 7.5% of the variance of the dependent variable, Agency.
45 In the original dataset, similar results were obtained; however, work coping style accounted for
approximately 3.1% of the variance of the dependent variable, communion.
46 In the original dataset, similar results were obtained; however, work coping style accounted for
approximately 3.8% of the variance of the dependent variable, Agency.
47 In the original dataset, similar results were obtained; however, work coping style accounted for
approximately 7.2% of the variance of the dependent variable, communion.
48 Henry Murray proposed the concept of “press,” or forces provided by situations or events in the
environment. These forces may help or hinder individuals in reaching their goals.
177
References
Abelson, R. P. (1963). Computer simulation of “hot cognitions.” In S. Tomkins & S. Mednick (Eds.),
Computer Simulation of Personality (pp. 34-75). New York: Wiley.
Abraham, R. (2005). Emotional intelligence in the workplace: A review and synthesis (pp 255-270). In R.
Schulze and Roberts, R.D. (Eds.) Emotional Intelligence: An International Handbook. Toronto:
Hogrefe.
Abraham, R. (2000). The role of job control as a moderator of emotional dissonance and emotional
intelligence – outcome relationships. The Journal of Psychology, 134, 169-184. doi:
10.1080/00223980009600860
Abraham, C., Zvi, E., Josman (2006). The relationship among emotional intelligence, task performance,
and organizational citizenship behaviours. Human Performance, 19, 403-419. doi:
10.1207/s15327043hup1904_5
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple Regression: Testing and. interpreting interactions. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
American Institute of Stress (2007). Stress in the Workplace. Retrieved from: http://www.stress.org
Anger-Elfenbein, H. & Ambady, N. (2002). Predicting workplace outcomes from the ability to eavesdrop
on feelings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 963-971. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.5.963
Antonucci, T.C., Kahn, R.L., & Akiyama, H. (1989). Psychosocial factors and the response to cancer
symptoms. In R. Yancik, & J.W. Yates (Eds.), Cancer in the elderly: Approaches to early
detection and treatment (pp. 40-52). New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Arnold, A. M. & Kronmal, R. A. (2003). Multiple imputation of baseline data in the cardiovascular health
study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 157, 74-84. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwf156
178
Ashkanasy, N. M., Ashton-James, C. E., & Jordan, P. J. (2004). Performance impacts of appraisal and
coping with stress in workplace settings: The role of affect and emotional intelligence. In P. L.
Perrewe & Ganster, D. C. (Eds.). Research in Occupational Stress and Well-Being: Emotional
and Physiological Processes and Positive Intervention Strategies, vol. 3, pp. 1-43. Oxford, UK:
JAI Press/Elsevier.
Austin, E. J. (2004). An investigation of the relationship between trait emotional intelligence and
emotional task performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1855-1864.
Barhem, B., Younies, H., Muhamad, R. (2009). Religiosity and work stress coping behavior of Muslim
employees. Education, Business and Society: Contemporary Middle Eastern Issues, 2, 123-137.
Blood pressure rising? It is job stress: study. The Globe and Mail. Toronto, ON: Aug 16,
2006. pg. C.2
Bar-On, R. (1997). The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): A Test of Emotional Intelligence. Toronto,
Canada: Multi-Health Systems, Inc.
Baron, R.A., (1984). Reducing organizational conflict: An incompatible response approach. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 69, 272-279.
Bar-On, R. (2000), Emotional and social intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Quotient inventory. In
R. Bar-On and J.D.A. Parker (Eds), The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence (pp. 363-88), San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bar-On, R. and Parker, J.D.A. (Eds.) (2000). The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence, San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bates, T. (1999, July). Domain-specific information-processing speed model of emotional intelligence (IQ
e). Paper presented at the 9th Biennial Meeting of the International Society for the Study of
Individual Differences, Vancouver, Canada.
179
Barrett, L. F., & Gross, J. J. (2001). Emotion representation and regulation: A process model of emotional
intelligence. In T. Mayne & G. Bonnano (Eds.), Emotion: Current Issues and Future Directions
(pp. 286-310). New York: Guilford.
Beehr, T. & Newman, J. (1978). Job stress, employee health, and organizational effectiveness: A facet
analysis model, and literature review. Personnel Psychology, 31, 665-699. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-
6570.1978.tb02118.x
Belle, D. (Ed.) (1982). Lives in stress: Women and depression. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 42, 155-162.
Ben-Ze’ev, A. (2000). The Subtlety of Emotions. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Bernaards, C. A., Belin, T. R., & L., S. J. (2007). Robustness of a multivariate normal approximation for
imputation of incomplete binary data. Statistics in Medicine, 1368-1382. doi: 10.1002/sim.2619
Blazina, C. & Watkins, C. E. (1996). Masculine gender role conflict: Effects of college men’s
psychological well-being, chemical substance usage, and attitudes toward help-seeking. Journal
of Counseling Psychology, 43, 46 1-466. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.43.4.461
Bodenmann, G., Perrez, M., Cina, A., & Widmer, K. (2002). The effectiveness of a coping-focused
prevention approach: A two-year longitudinal study. Swiss Journal of Psychology. 61, 195-202.
Retrieved from: http://resolver.scholarsportal.info.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/resolve/14210185
/v61i0004/195_teoacpa
Bornstein, K. (1998). My Gender Workbook: How to Become a Real Man, a Real Woman, the Real You,
or Something Else Entirely. New York: Routledge.
Bornstein, K. (1994). Gender Outlaw: On Men, Women, and the Rest of Us. New York: Routledge.
Bradburn, N. M., Rips, L. J., & Shevell, S. K. (1987). Answering autobiographical questions:
The impact of memory and inference on surveys. Science, 236, 157-161. Retrieved from:
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/1698381
180
Brody, N. (2004). What cognitive intelligence is and what emotional intelligence is not. Psychological
Inquiry, 15, 234-238. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/
stable/20447233
Busseri, M. A., Sadava, S. W., & DeCourville, N. (2007). A hybrid model for research on subjective
well-being: Examining common and component-specific sources of variance in life satisfaction,
positive affect and negative affect. Social Indicators Research, 83, 413-445. doi:
10.1007/s11205-006-9028-8
Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge.
Butler, L. D., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1994). Gender differences in responses to depressed mood in a
college sample. Sex Roles, 30, 33 1-346. doi: 10.1007/BF01420597
Byrne, P. R., Geraci, M., & Uhde, T. W. (1987). Life events obtained via interview: the effect of time of
recall on data obtained in controls and patients with panic disorder. Journal of Affective
Disorders. 12, 57-62. doi: 10.1016/0165-0327(87)90061-9
Callan, V. J. (1993). Individual and organizational strategies for coping with organizational change. Work
& Stress, 7, 63-75. doi: 10.1080/02678379308257050
Campbell, T., Gillaspy, J. A., Thompson, B. (1997). The factor structure of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory
(BSRI): Confirmatory analysis of long and short forms. Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 57, 118-124. doi: 10.1177/0013164497057001008
Cannon, W. (1932). The Wisdom of the Body. London, UK: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner.
Carmeli, A., & Josman, Z. (2006). The relationship among emotional intelligence, task performance, and
organisational citizenship behaviours. Human Performance, 19(4), 403-419. doi:
10.1207/s15327043hup1904_5
Cartwright, S., Cooper, C.L. (1996). Managing Mergers, Acquisitions and Strategic Alliances:
Integrating People and Cultures. Oxford: Butterworth-Heineman.
181
Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol is too long: Consider the Brief
COPE. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 92-100. 10.1207/s15327558ijbm0401_6
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1994). Situational coping and coping dispositions in a stressful
transaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 184-195. doi: 10.1037/0022-
3514.66.1.184
Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically
based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267-283. doi:
10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267
CBC News. Tuesday, October 17, 2006. http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2006/10/17/job-stress.html
Choi, N. (2004). A psychometric examination of the personal attributes questionnaire. The Journal of
Social Psychology, 144, 348-352. doi: 10.1007/BF00287587
Chung, M.C., Farmer, S., Grant, K., Newton, R., Payne, S., Perry, M., Saunders, J., Smith, C., & Stone, N.
(2002). Self-esteem, personality and post traumatic stress symptoms following the dissolution of a
dating relationship. Stress and Health, 18, 83-90. doi: 10.1002/smi.929
Ciarrocchi, J., Forgas, J., Mayer, J. (2001). Emotional Intelligence in Everyday Life: A Scientific Inquiry.
Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
Ciarrochi, Deane, and Andersen (2002). Emotional intelligence moderates the relationship between stress
and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 197-209. doi: 10.1016/S0191-
8869(01)00012-5
Cloninger, S. C. (1996). Personality: Description, Dynamics, and Development. New York: W. H.
Freeman and Company.
Conway, M. (2000). On sex role and representations of emotional experience: Masculinity, Femininity,
and Emotional Awareness. Sex Roles, 43, 687-698. doi: 10.1023/A:1007156608823
182
Copper, R.K. (1997). Applying Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace. Training & Development, 51
(12), 31-38. Retrieved from: http://search.proquest.com.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/docview/
227008818?accountid=14771
Corcoran, K. & Fisher, J. (1987). Measures for Clinical Practice: A Sourcebook. New York:
The Free Press.
Coyne, J. C., Thompson, R. & Palmer, S.C. (2002). Marital quality, coping with conflict, marital
complaints, and affection in couples with a depressed wife. Journal of Family Psychology, 16,
26-37. doi: 10.1037/0893-3200.16.1.26
Crowne, D. P. & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 24, 349-354. doi: 10.1037/h0047358
Damasio, A. (2004). Looking for Spinoza. London: Vintage.
Darwin, C. R. (1873). The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. New York: Appleton.
Davidson, R. J. & Ekman, P. (1994). Afterword: What are the minimal cognitive prerequisites for
emotion? In P. Ekman & R. J. Davidson (Eds.), The Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Questions
(pp. 232-234). New York: Oxford University Press.
Davidson, R. J., Jackson, D. C, & Kalin, N. H. (2000). Emotion, plasticity, context and regulation:
perspectives from affective neuroscience. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 890-909. doi:
10.1037/0033-2909.126.6.890
Davies, M. Stankov, L. & Roberts, R. D. (1998). Emotional Intelligence: In search of an elusive
construct. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 989-1015. doi: 10.1037/0022
3514.75.4.989
Day, A.L. & Carroll, S.A. (2004). Using an ability-based measure of emotional intelligence to predict
individual performance, group performance, and group citizenship behaviours. Personality and
Individual Differences, 36, 1443-1458. doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00240-X
183
Day, A. L. & Kelloway, E.K. (2004). Emotional intelligence in the workplace: Rhetoric and reality. In G.
Geher (Ed.), Measuring Emotional Intelligence: Common Ground and Controversy (pp. 219-
241). New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Demirtas, H., Freels, S.A., Yucel, R.M. (2008). The Plausibility of Multivariate Normality Assumption
When Multiply Imputing Non-Gaussian Continuous Outcomes: A Simulation Assessment.
Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation, 78, 69-84. doi: 10.1080/10629360600903866
Dewe, P., Cox, T. & Ferguson, E. (1993): Individual strategies for coping with stress at work: A review,
Work & Stress, 7, 5-15. doi: 10.1080/02678379308257046
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. 1985. The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of
Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Dulewicz V. & Higgs, M. J. (2002). Emotional Intelligence and the Development of Managers &
Leaders. In M. Pearn (Ed.) Individual Differences and Development in Organizations: A
Handbook in the Psychology of Management in Organizations. Chichester: Wiley.
Durkheim, E. (1951). Suicide. Translated by J. Spaulding and G. Simpson. Glencoe: Free Press.
Duxbury, L. & Higgins, C. (2005). Report Four: Who Is at Risk? Predictors of Work-Life Conflict. Public
Health Agency of Canada. © Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, represented by the
Minister of Health URL: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/work-travail/report4/index.html
Elliott R, Watson J Goldman, R, Greenberg L. (2004). Learning Emotion-Focused Therapy. Washington,
D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Emmerling, R. J., Shanwal, V. K., & Mandal, M. K. (Eds.). (2008). Emotional Intelligence: Theoretical
and Cultural Perspectives. New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers Inc.
Enders, C. K. (2010). Applied Missing Data Analysis. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Endler, N.S., Speer, R.L., Johnson, J.M. & Flett, G. (2000). Controllability, coping, efficacy, and
distress, European Journal of Personality, 14, 245-264. doi: 10.1002/1099-
0984(200005/06)14:3<245::AID PER375>3.0.CO;2-G
184
Engelberg, E. & Sjoberg, L. (2005). Emotional intelligence and inter-personal skills. In R. Schulze and
Roberts, R.D. (Eds.) Emotional Intelligence: An International Handbook (pp. 289-303). Toronto:
Hogrefe.
Evenson, B. (2002, September 24). Marital angst can be harder on heart than marathon: study. National
Post. p. A2.
Fichman, M., & Cummings, J. M. (2003). Multiple imputation for missing data: Making the most of what
you know. Paper posted at Research Showcase in Organizational Research Methods. Pittsburg,
PA: Carnegie Mellon University.
Fiore, J., Becker, J., Coppel, D. B. (1983). Social network interactions: A buffer or a stress. American
Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 423-439. Retrieved from: http://pao.chadwyck.com/PDF/
1334542041809.pdf
Fitness, J. & Curtis, M. (2005). Emotional intelligence and the trait meta-mood scale: Relationships with
empathy, attributional complexity, self-control, and responses to interpersonal conflict. E-Journal
of Applied Psychology, 1, 50-62.
Folkman, S. & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). Coping as a mediator of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 54, 466-475. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.3.466
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample.
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219-239. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2136617.
Fox, K. E., Tett, R. P., & Palmer, P. C. (2003). Is Emotional Intelligence a Valid Predictor of Job
Performance? Paper presented at the 18th Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology
conference, Orlando, FL.
Friedman, M. & Rosenman, R. (1974). Type A Behaviour and Your Heart. New York: Knopf.
Frijda, N. H. (1994). Emotional are functional, most of the time. In Ekman, P. & RJ. R. Davidson, The
Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Questions. New York: Oxford University Press.
185
Frijda, N. H. (1986). The Emotions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Frone, M. (1999). Work stress and alcohol use. Alcohol Research & Health, 23, 284-291.
Frydenberg, E. & Lewis, R. (1994). Coping with Different Concerns: Consistency and Variation in
Coping Strategies Used by Adolescents. Australian Psychologist, 29, 45–48.
doi: 10.1080/00050069408257320
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, L. (2005). Emotional Intelligence and Occupational Stress. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Swinburne University of Technology.
Gianakos, I. (2000). Gender roles and coping with work stress. Sex Roles, 11/12, 1059-1079.
doi: 10.1023/A:1007092718727
Gilligan, C. (1993). In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
Giese-Davis, J., Koopman, C., Butler, L. D., Classen, C., Cordova, M., Fobair, P., Benson, J., & Spiegel,
D. (2002). Change in emotion regulation strategy for women with metastatic breast cancer
following supportive-expressive group therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,
70(4), 916-925.
Gilligan, C. (1993). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development (2nd ed.).
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Gohm, C. L. (2004). Moving forward with emotional intelligence. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 222-227.
http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/20447231
Gohm, C. L. & Clore, G. L. (2002). Affect as information: an individual-difference approach. In L. F.
Barrett & P. Salovey. The Wisdom in Feeling: Psychological Processes in Emotional
Intelligence. New York: The Guilford Press.
186
Gohm, C. L., Corser, G. C., Dalsky, D. J. (2005). Emotional intelligence under stress: Useful,
unnecessary, or irrelevant? Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 1017–1028. doi:
10.1016/j.paid.2005.03.018
Goldberger, L, & Breznitz, S (Eds.), (1993). The Handbook of Stress. Free Press, New York.
Goleman, D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why it can Matter More than IQ. Toronto: Bantam Books.
Graham, J. W. (2009). Missing data analysis: Making it work in the real world. Annual Review of
Psychology. 60, 549-576. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085530
Graham, J. W., Cumsille, P. E., & Elek-Fisk, E., (2003). Methods for handling missing data. In I. B.
Weiner, Schinka, J. A., & Velicer, W. F. Handbook of Psychology: Research Methods in
Psychology (Volume 2). Toronto: John Wiley and Sons Inc. pp. 87-115.
Graham, J. W., and Schafer, J. L. 1999. On the performance of multiple imputation for multivariate data
with small sample size. Statistical Strategies for Small Sample Research, R. Hoyle (ed.).
Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications Ltd., pp. 1-29.
Gray, J. (1992). Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus. New York: Harper Collins.
Gonzalez-Morales, M. G., Peiro, J. M., Rodriguez, I., and Greenglass, E. R. (2006). Coping and distress
in organizations: The role of gender in work stress. International Journal of Stress Management,
13, 228-248. doi: 10.1037/1072-5245.13.2.22
Greenberg, L. S. & Safran, J. D. (1987). Emotion in Psychotherapy: Affect, Cognition, and the Process of
Change. New York: The Guilford Press.
Haas, L. (1995). Structural Dimensions of the Work-Family Interface. In G. Bowen and J. Pittman (Eds.),
The Work-Family Interface, Families in Focus Series. National Council on Family Relations,
Minneapolis, MN, pp. 113-121.
Harrington, D. (2009). Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Toronto: Oxford University Press.
187
Hayes, A. F., Slater, M.D., Snyder, L. B. (Eds.). (2008). The Sage Sourcebook of Advanced Data
Analysis Methods for Communication Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Herrnstein, R. J. & Murray, C. (1994). The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life.
New York: Free Press.
Holahan, C. J., & Moos, R. H. (1987). Risk, resistance, and psychological distress: A longitudinal
analysis with adults and children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 3-13.
Holmes, T. & Rahe, R. (1967). Holmes-Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Journal of
Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213-218.
Horton, N.J. & Lipsitz, S.R. (2001). Multiple imputation in practice: Comparison of software packages
for regression models with missing variables. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 55,
244–254.
House, J.S., Landis, K.R., & Umberson, D. (1988). Social relationships and health. Science, 241, 540-
545. doi: 10.2307/2685809.
Humphrey, J. H. (2005). Women and Stress Research. New York: Novinka Books.
Hystad, S. W., Eid, J., Tapia, M., Hansen, A.L., Matthews, M.D. (2010). An exploratory study of
differences in emotional intelligence in U.S. and Norwegian undergraduate students.
Psychological Reports, 107, 891-8. doi: 10.2466/04.09.17.PR0.107.6.891-898
Ice, G. H. & James, G. D. (2007). Conducting a field study of stress: general principles. In G. H. Ice &
James, G. D. (Eds). Measuring Stress in Humans: A Practical Guide for the Field. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Isen, A.M. (2004) Some perspectives on positive feelings and emotions. In A. S. R., Manstead, Frijda, N.,
& Fischer, A. (Eds.). Feelings and Emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Jenaro, C., Flores, N. & Arias, B. (2007). Burnout and Coping in Human Service Practitioners.
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 38, 80–87. doi: 10.1037/0735-7028.38.1.80
188
Jordan, J. V. (Ed.). (1997). Women’s Growth in Diversity. New York: The Guilford Press.
Jordan, P.J., Ashkansay, N.M. & Hartel, C.E.J. (2002) Emotional intelligence as a moderator of
emotional and behavioural reactions to job insecurity. Academy of Management Review, 27(3),
361-372. doi: 10.5465/AMR.2002.7389905
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face
Stress, Pain, and Illness. New York, NY: Bantam Dell.
Kahn, J. H. (2006). Factor analysis in counseling psychology research, training, and practice:
Principles, advances, and applications. The Counseling Psychologist, 34, 684-718. doi:
10.1177/0011000006286347
Kennedy-Moore, E. and Watson, J. C. (1999). Expressing Emotion: Myths, Realities and Therapeutic
Strategies. New York: The Guildford Press.
Kihlstrom, J.F. & Cantor, N. (2000). Social intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed). Handbook of intelligence
(pp. 359-379). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1-11.
Krahe, B. (1992). Personality and Social Psychology: Towards a synthesis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Publications.
Kübler-Ross, E. (1969) On Death and Dying. Routledge, ISBN 0415040159.
LaFrance, M., & Banaji, M. (1992). Toward a reconsideration of the gender-emotion relationship. In M.S.
Clark (Ed.), Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 14, 178-201.
Lane, R. D., Quinlan, D. M., Schwartz, G. E., Walker, P. A., Zeitlin, S. B., (1990). The levels of
emotional awareness scale: A cognitive-developmental measure of emotion. Journal of
Personality Assessment, 55, 124-134. doi: 10.1080/00223891.1990.9674052
Lane, R. D., Sechrest, L., & Riedel, R. (1998). Sociodemographic correlates of alexithymia.
Comprehensive Psychiatry, 39, 377-385.
189
Lawler-Row, K. A. (2010). Forgiveness as a mediator of the religiosity—health relationship.
Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 2, 1-16. doi: 10.1037/a0017584
Lazarus, R. S. (2006). Stress and Emotion: A New Synthesis. New York: Springer.
Lazarus, R. S. (1999). Stress and Emotion: A New Synthesis. New York: Springer.
Lazarus, R. S. (1993). From psychological stress to the emotions: a history of changing outlooks. Annual
Review of Psychology, 44, 1-21. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.000245
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and Adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lazarus, R. S. (1984). Puzzles in the study of daily hassles. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 7, 375-389.
doi: 10.1007/BF00845271
Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological Stress and the Coping Process. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lazarus, R. S., DeLongis, A., Folkman, S., & Gruen, R. (1985). Stress and adaptational outcomes: The
problem of confounded measures. American Psychologist, 40, 770-779. doi: 10.1037/0003-
066X.40.7.770
Lazarus, R.S. & Folkman, S. (1991). The Concept of Coping. In A. Monat & Lazarus, R. S. (Eds.) (1991)
Stress and Coping: An Anthology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Lazarus, R. S. & Lazarus, B. N. (1994). Passion and Reason: Making Sense of Our Emotions. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Leana, C . R. & Feldman, D. C. (1990). Individual responses to job loss: empirical findings from two
field studies, Human Relations, 11, 1155-1181. doi: 10.1177/001872679004301107
Ledesma, R. D. & Valero-Mora, P. (2007). Determining the number of factors to Retain in EFA: An
easy-to-use computer program for carrying out Parallel Analysis. Practical Assessment, Research
& Evaluation, 12, 1-11. Retrieved from: http://pareonline.net/pdf/v12n2.pdf
Lee, S. J., Lee, H. K. (1997). The research on the validation of the trait meta-mood scale: The domain
exploration of emotional intelligence. Korean Journal of Social and Personality Psychology, 11,
95-116.
190
Lips, H. M. (1997). Sex and Gender: An Introduction (3rd ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
Little, B. R. (1983). Personal projects: A rationale and method for investigation. Environment and
Behaviour, 15, 273-309.
Little, B. R. (2001). Personality psychology: Havings, doings and beings in context. In S. Davis & J.
Halonen (Eds.). The different faces of psychology in the twenty-first century. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.
Little, B., R. (1983). Personal projects: A rationale and method for investigation. Environment and
Behaviour, 15, 273-309.
Lohr, J. M. & Nix, J. (1982). Relationship of assertiveness and the short form of the Bem Sex-Role
Inventory: A replication. Psychological Reports, 50, 114.
Lopes, P. N., Brackett, M. A., Nezlek, J. B., Schutz, A., Sellin, I., & Salovey, P. (2004). Emotional
intelligence and social interaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1018-1034.
Lopes, P. N., Salovey, P., & Straus, R. (2003). Emotional intelligence, personality and the perceived
quality of social relationships. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 641-658.
Mackenzie, C. S., Wiprzycka, U., Hasher, L., & Goldstein, D. (2008). Seeing the glass half full:
Optimistic expressive writing improves mental health among chronically stressed caregivers.
British Journal of Health Psychology, 13, 73-76. doi: 10.1348/135910707X251153
Lyne, K., & Roger, D. (2000). A psychometric re-assessment of the COPE questionnaire. Personality and
Individual Differences, 29, 321-335. doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00196-8
Mackenzie, C. S., Wiprzycka, U., Hasher, L., & Goldstein, D. (2007). Does expressive writing reduce
stress and improve health for family caregivers of older adults? The Gerontologist, 47, 296-306.
Maldonado Feliciano, L. E. (2005). Coping, Social Support, Biculturalism, and Religious Coping as
Moderators of the Relationship Between Occupational Stress and Depressive Affect Among
Hispanic Psychologists. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Maryland, Maryland.
191
Malouff, J. & Schutte, N. (1998) EI scale scores predict counsellor performance. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Cited in A. L. Day
& Kelloway, E.K. (2004). Emotional intelligence in the workplace: Rhetoric and reality. In G.
Geher (Ed). Measuring Emotional Intelligence: Common Ground & Controversy. New York:
Nova Science Publishers, Inc. pp. 219-241.
Manstead, A.S.R., Frijda, N., & Fischer, A. (Eds.). (2004). Feelings and Emotions: The Amsterdam
Symposium. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mantler, J., Matejicek, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2005). Coping With Employment Uncertainty:
A Comparison of Employed and Unemployed Workers. Journal of Occupational Health
Psychology, 10, 200–209. doi: 10.1037/1076-8998.10.3.200
Martin, H. J. & Ramanaiah, N. V. (1988). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Bem sex-role inventory.
Psychological Reports, 62, 343-350.
Martin, R. A., Berry, G. E., Dobranski, T. & Horne, M (1996). Emotional perception threshold:
individual differences in emotional sensitivity. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 290-305.
Martin, R. A., Puhlik-Doris, P., Larsen, G., Gray, J., & Weir, K. (2003). Individual differences in uses of
humor and their relation to psychological well-being: Development of the humor styles
questionnaire. Journal of Research in Personality, 37(1), 48-75. doi: 10.1016/S0092-
6566(02)00534-2
Martins, A., Ramalho, N., & Morin, E. (2010). A comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship
between emotional intelligence and health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 554-564.
doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.029
Matsumoto, D. (2006). Culture and nonverbal behaviour. In V. L. Manusov & M. L. Patterson (Eds.). The
SAGE Handbook of Nonverbal Communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
192
Matthews, G., Emo, A., Funke, G., Roberts, R., Zeidner, M., Costa, P., Schulze, R. (2006). Emotional
Intelligence, personality and task-induced stress. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied.
12, 96 – 107. doi: 10.1037/1076-898X.12.2.96
Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., & Roberts, R. D. (2002). Emotional Intelligence: Science and myth.
Cambridge, MA: MIT.
Matthews, G., & Zeidner, M. (2000). Emotional intelligence, adaptation to stressful encounters and health
outcomes. In R. Bar-On & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of emotional intelligence (pp. 459-
489). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
May, K. (2004, November 9). Health costs linked to overwork, stress: Canadians struggling to cope,
study finds. Edmonton Journal. p. A10
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R. & Salovey, P. (2000). Emotional Intelligence meets traditional standards for
an intelligence. Intelligence, 27, 267-298.
Mayer, J. D. & Cobb, C. D. (2000). Educational policy on emotional intelligence: Does it make sense?
Educational Psychology Review, 12, 163-183.
Mayer, J. D. & Mitchell, D. C. (1998). Intelligence as a subsystem of personality: From Spearman’s g to
contemporary models of hot processing. In W. Tomic & J. Kingma (Eds.), Advances in Cognition
and Educational Practice, 5, pp. 43-75. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Mayer, J. D. & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence. Intelligence, 17, 433-442.
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: Theory, findings, and
implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 197-215.
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., Caruso, D. R., & Sitarenios, G. (2003). Measuring emotional intelligence with
the MSCEIT V2.0. Emotion, 3, 97-105.
Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2002). Test Manual for the Mayer, Salovey, Causo Emotional
Intelligence Test. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
193
Meaney, M. (1995, September 23). Deadly stress: It’s not that there’s more stress in our lives, but we’re
not coping well. It’s making us sick. The Gazette. p. B6.
Menaghan, G., & Merves, S. (1984). Coping with occupational problems: the limits of individual efforts,
Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 25, 406-423. doi: 2307/2136379
Mental Health Works (2004). Stress linked to mental distress and physical illness: Statistics Canada.
Mental Health Works News Review. http://www.mentalhealthworks.ca/facts/why_it_matters.asp.
Mental Health Works (2005). Working women over 40 more likely to report high stress, EAP finds.
Mental Health Works News Review. http://www.mentalhealthworks.ca/facts/why_it_matters.asp.
Micceri, T. (1989). The unicorn, the normal curve, and other improbable creatures. Psychological
Bulletin, 105, 156-166.
Monat, A. & Lazarus, R. S. (Eds). (1991). Stress and Coping: An Anthology. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Moskowitz, J. T. (2001). Emotion and coping. In T. J. Mayne & Bonanno, G. A., (Eds.) Emotions:
Current Issues and Future Directions. New York: The Guilford Press.
Neter, J., Kutner, M.H., Nachtsheim, C.J., & Wasserman, W. (1996). Applied Linear Statistical Models
(4th Ed.). Chicago: Irwin.
Nikolaou, I & Tsaousis, I. (2002). Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace: Exploring its effects on
Occupational Stress and Organisational Commitment. International Journal of Organizational
Analysis. Special Issue on Emotional Intelligence, 10, 327-342. Retrieved from:
http://test.imp.lodz.pl/upload/oficyna/artykuly/pdf/full/Ogi8-02-05.pdf
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Parker, L. E. & Larson, J. (1994). Ruminative coping with depressed mood
following loss. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 92-105. doi: 10.1037/0022-
3514.67.1.92
Oatley, K. (2004). Emotional intelligence and the intelligence of emotions. Psychological Inquiry, 15,
216-238.
194
O’Connor, R. M. & Little, I. S. (2003). Revisiting the predictive validity of emotional intelligence: self-
report versus ability-based measures. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 1893-1902.
O’Neil, J. (2003, February 1). Men flee, women call their friends when under stress. The Ottawa Citizen.
p. E5.
Ones, D. S. & Viswesvaran, C. (1998). The effects of social desirability and faking on personality and
integrity assessment for personnel selection. Human Performance, 11, 245-271.
Parasuraman, S., & Cleek, M. A. (1984). Coping behaviour and managers affective reactions to role
stressors, Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 24, 179-183. doi: 10.1016/0001-8791(84)90005-8
Park, C. L., Edmondson, D., Fenster, J. R., & Blank, T. O. (2008). Positive and Negative Health Behavior
Changes in Cancer Survivors: A Stress and Coping Perspective. Journal of Health Psychology,
13, 1198-1206. doi: 10.1177/1359105308095978
Parker, S. K. (1998). Enhancing role breadth self-efficacy: The roles of job enrichment and other
organizational interventions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 835–852. doi: 10.1037/0021-
9010.83.6.835
Parker, J. D., Taylor, G. J. & Bagby, R. M. (2001). The relationship between emotional intelligence and
alexithymia. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 107-115.
Parkes, K. R. (1990). Coping, negative affectivity and the work environment: Addictive and interactive
predictors of mental health. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 399-409.
Paulhus, D.L. (1998). Interpersonal and intrapsychic adaptiveness and trait self-enhancement: A mixed
blessing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1197-1208. doi: 10.1037/0022-
3514.74.5.1197
Paulhus, D. L. (1991). Measurement and control of response bias. In J.P. Robinson, P.R. Shaver & L.S.
Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of Personality and Social-Psychological Attitudes. (pp 17-59). San
Diego, CA: Academic Press.
195
Paulhus, D. L. (1984). Two-component models of social desirable responding. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 46, 598-609.
Paulhus, D.L. & Reid, D. (1991). Enhancement and denial in socially desirable responding. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 307-317. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.60.2.307
Payne, W. L. (1986). A Study of Emotion: Developing EI; Self-Integration; Relating to Fear, Pain and
Desire. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Union for Experimenting Colleges and
Universities. Dissertation Abstracts International.
Pearlin, L.I. & Schooler, C. (1978). The structure of coping. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19,
2-21.
Pennebaker, J. (Ed). (1995). Emotion, Disclosure & Health. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
Pennebaker, J. (1997). Opening up: The Healing Power of Expressing Emotions – revised. New York:
The Guilford Press.
Petrides, K. V. & Furnham, A. (2003). Trait emotional intelligence: Behavioural validation in two studies
of emotion recognition and reactivity to mood induction. European Journal of Personality, 17,
39-57. doi: 10.1002/per.466
Petrides, K. V. & Furnham, A. (2000a). On the dimensional structure of emotional intelligence.
Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 313-320.
Petrides, K. V. & Furnham, A. (2000b). Gender differences in measured and self-estimated trait
emotional intelligence. Sex Roles, 42, 449-461.
Pienaar, J., Rothmann, S., Van De Vijver, F. J. R. (2006). Occupational stress, personality traits, coping
strategies, and suicide ideation in the South African police service. Criminal Justice and
Behavior, 33, 1-19. doi: 10.1177/0093854806288708
Planalp, S. & Fitness, J. (1999). Thinking/feeling about social and personal relationships. Journal of
Social and Personal Relationships, 16, 731-750. doi: 10.1177/0265407599166004
196
Quayhagen, M. P. & Quayhagen, M. (1982). Coping with Conflict: Measurement of Age-Related
Patterns. Research on Aging, 4, 364-377. doi: 10.1177/0164027582004003006
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general
population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401.
Rider, E. A. (2000). Our Voices: Psychology of Women. Scarborough, ON: Wadsworth.
Rincover, A. Feb 4, 1995. Social factors are variables in heart disease. The Windsor Star. Pg. F7
Rivera Cruz, B. V. (2004). Across contexts comparison of emotional intelligence competencies: A
discovery of gender differences. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Case Western Reserve
University.
Roberts, R. D., Zeidner, M. & Matthews, G. (2001). Does emotional intelligence meet traditional
standards for an intelligence? Some new data and conclusions. Emotion, 1, 196-231.
Rosch, P. J. (1984). The Health Effects of Job Stress. Business & Health Magazine. 1, 5-8.
Roskies, E., (1991). Stress management: A new approach to treatment. In A. Monat & Lazarus, R. S.
Stress and Coping: An Anthology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Roth, P.L., Switzer, F.S. III, & Switzer, D. (1999). Missing data in multi-item scales: A Monte Carlo
Analysis of missing data techniques. Organizational Research Methods, 2, 211-232. doi:
10.1177/109442819923001
Rowe, J. & Kahn, R. (1997). Successful Aging. New York: Pantheon Books.
Rubin, D. B., & Schenker, N. (1986). Multiple imputation for interval estimation from simple random
samples with ignorable nonresponse. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 81, 366-
374. Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/stable/2289225
Russo, M. S. (2000). Introduction to Stoic Ethics. Molloy College, Department of Philosophy.
http://www.molloy.edu/academic/philosophy/sophia/Seneca/stoicism_txt.htm.
197
Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. (2000). Interpersonal flourishing: A positive health agenda for the new
millennium. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 30-44. doi:
10.1207/S15327957PSPR0401_4
Saklofske, D. H., Austin, E. J., & Minski, P. S. (2003). Factor structure and validity of a trait emotional
intelligence measure. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 707-721. doi: 10.1016/S0191-
8869(02)00056-9
Salovey, P., Bedell, B.T., Detweiler, J.B., & Mayer, J.D. (1999). Coping intelligently: Emotional
intelligence and the coping process. In C.R. Snyder (Ed.), Coping: The psychology of what works
(pp. 141-164). New York: Oxford University Press.
Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional Intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9,
185-211.
Salovey, P., Mayer, J.D., & Caruso, D. (2002). The positive psychology of emotional intelligence. In
C.R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (Eds.), The Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 159-171). New
York: Oxford University Press.
Salovey, P., Mayer, J. D., Goldman, S. L., Turvey, C. & Palfai, T. P. (1995). Emotional attention, clarity,
and repair: exploring emotional intelligence using the trait meta mood scale. In J. W. Pennebaker
(Ed). Emotion, Disclosure & Health. Washington: American Psychological Association.
Salovey, P., Stroud, L. R., Woolery, A. & Epel, E. S. (2002). Perceived emotional intelligence, stress
reactivity and symptom reports: Further explorations using the trait meta-mood scale.
Psychology& Health, 17, pp. 611-627.
Schafer, J.L. (1997) Analysis of Incomplete Multivariate Data. Chapman & Hall, London.
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W., (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological
Methods, 7(2), 147–177. Retrieved from: http://resolver.scholarsportal.info.myaccess.library.
utoronto.ca/resolve/1082989x/v07i0002/147_md
198
Schafer, J. L., & Olsen, M. K. (1998). Multiple imputation for multivariate missing-data problems: A data
analyst’s perspective. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 33(4), 545-571. doi:
10.1207/s15327906mbr3304_5
Schlomer, G. L., Bauman, S., & Card, N.A. (2010). Best practices for missing data management in
counselling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 57, 1-10. doi: 10.1037/a0018082
Schutte, N.S., & Malouff, J.M. (1999). Measuring emotional intelligence and related constructs.
Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press.
Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Bobik, C., Coston, T. D., Greeson, C., Jedlicka, C. Rhodes, E. & Wendorf,
G. (2001). Emotional intelligence and interpersonal relations. The Journal of Social Psychology,
141, 523-536. doi: 10.1080/00224540109600569
Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M. Hall, L. E., Haggerty, D. J., Cooper, J. T., Golden, C. J., & Dornheim, L
(1998). Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. Personality and
Individual Differences, 25, 167-177.
Schwartz, J. E., Neale, J., Marco, C., Shiffman, S. S., & Stone, A. A. (1999). Does trait coping exist? A
momentary assessment approach to the evaluation of traits. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 77, 360-369. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.77.2.360
Seeman, T. E., Berkman, L. F., Blazer, D., & Rowe, J. W. (1994). Social ties and support and
neuronendocrine function: The MacArthur studies of successful aging. Annals of Behavioral
Medicine, 16, 95-106.
Seligman, M.E.P. (1975). Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death. San Francisco: W.H.
Freeman.
Selye, H. (1991). History and the Present Status of the Stress Concept. In A. Monat & R. S. Lazarus
(Eds.) (1991) Stress and Coping: An Anthology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Seraganian, P. (Ed). (1993). Exercise Psychology: The Influence of Physical Exercise on Psychological
Processes. New York: John Wiley.
199
Shete, S., Beasley T. M., Etzel, C. J., Fernández, J,R., Chen, J., Allison, D.B., Amos, C.I. (2004). Effect
of winsorization on power and type 1 error of variance components and related methods of QTL
detection. Behavior Genetics, 34, 153-9. doi: 10.1023/B:BEGE.0000013729.26354.da
Shields, S. A. (1995). The role of emotion beliefs and values in gender development. In N. Eisenberg
(Ed.), Review of Personality and Social Psychology. (vol. 15, pp. 212-232). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Shinn, M., Rosario, M., Morch, H., & Chestnut, D., E., (1984). Coping with job stress and burnout in the
human services. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 864-876.
Skoe, E. E. A., Cumberland, A., Eisenberg, N., Hansen, K. & Peny, J. (2002). The influences of sex and
gender-role identity on moral cognition and prosocial personality traits. Sex Roles, 46, 295-309.
doi: 10.1023/A:1020224512888
Slaski, M., & Cartwright, S. (2002). Health, performance and emotional intelligence: An exploratory
study of retail managers. Stress & Health, 18, 63-68. doi: 10.1002/smi.926
Snyder, C. R. (Ed.). (1999). Coping: The psychology of what works. New York: Oxford University Press.
Solomon, R. C. (1976). The Passions. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press.
Spector, P. E., & O’Connell, B. J. (1994). The contribution of personality traits, negative affectivity,
locus of control and Type A to the subsequent perceptions of job stressors and job strains.
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 67, 1-11. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-
8325.1994.tb00545.x
Spence, J.T., & Helmreich, R.L. (1978). Masculinity and femininity: Their psychological dimensions,
correlates, and antecedents. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R. L., & Stapp, J. (1975). Ratings of self and peers on sex role attributes and
their relations to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and femininity. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 29-39. doi: 10.1037/h0076857
200
Stanton, A. L., Danoff-Burg, S., Cameron, C. L., Bishop, M., Collins, C. A. (2000). Emotionally
expressive coping predicts psychological and physical adjustment to breast cancer. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 875-882. doi: 10.1037//0022-006X.68.5.875
Statistics Canada (2006). Stress and depression in the employed population. Health Reports, 17(4).
http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/061017/d061017a.htm.
Swinkels, A. & Guiliano, T. A. (1995). The measurement and conceptualization of mood awareness:
Monitoring and labeling one’s mood states. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 934-
949. doi: 10.1177/0146167295219008
Sy, T., Tram, S. & O’Hara, L. (2006). Relation of employee and manager emotional intelligence to job
satisfaction and performance. Journal of Vocational Behaviour. 461 – 473. doi:
10.1016/j.jvb.2005.10.003
Tabachnick, B. G. & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using Multivariate Statistics (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Tamres, L. K., Janicki, D., & Helgeson, V. S. (2002). Sex differences in coping behaviour: A meta-
analytic review and an examination of relative coping. Personality and Social Psychology
Review, 6, 2-30. doi: 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0601_1
Tannen, D. (1990). You Just Don’t Understand. New York: Knopf.
Taylor, G. J., Parker, J. D. A., & Bagby, R. M. (1999). Emotional intelligence and the emotional brain:
points of convergence and implications for psychoanalysis. Journal of the American Academy of
Psychoanalysis, 27, 339-354.
Taylor, G. J., Ryan, D. P., & Bagby, R. M. (1985). Toward the development of a new self-report
alexithymia scale. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 44, 191-199.
Toneguzzi, M. (2004, October 26). On-job stress increases heart risk: Spouse, co-workers can ease
danger. The Gazette. Montreal: Quebec. P. A18
201
Twenge, J. M. (1997). Changes in masculine and feminine traits over time: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles,
36, 305-325. doi: 10.1007/BF02766650
Uchino, B. N., Cacioppo, J. T., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (1996). The relationship between social support
and physiological processes: A review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and
implications for health. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 488-531. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.119.3.488
Van Rooy, D. L. & Viswesvaran, C. (2004). Emotional intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation of
predictive validity and nomological net. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65, 71-95. doi:
10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00076-9
Viswesvaran, C., & Ones, D. S. (1999). Meta-analyses of fakability estimates: Implications for
personality measurement. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 59, 197-210. doi:
10.1177/00131649921969802
Vitaliano, P. P., Maiuro, R. D., Russo, J., Katon, W., DeWolfe, D., & Hall, G., (1990). Coping Profiles
Associated With Psychiatric, Physical Health, Work, and Family Problems. Health Psychology,
9, 348-376. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.9.3.348
Wahler, R. G. (1980). The insular mother: Her problems in parent-child treatment. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 13, 207-219. doi: 10.1901
Walach, H., Nord, E., Zier, C., Dietz-Waschkowski, B., Kersig, S. & Schupbach, H. (2007). Mindfulness-
Based Stress Reduction as a Method for Personnel Development: A Pilot Evaluation.
International Journal of Stress Management, 14(2), 188–198. doi: 10.1037/1072-5245.14.2.188
Watson, D., Clark, L. A. & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of
positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
54, 1063-1070.
202
Watson, J. C., Gordon, L. B., Stermac, L., Kalogerakos, F., & Steckley, P. (2003). Comparing the
Effectiveness of Process-Experiential With Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapy in the Treatment
of Depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 773-781. doi: 10.1037/0022-
006X.71.4.773
Werner, E. E. (1999). Risk and protective factors in the lives of children with high-incidence disabilities.
In R. Gallimore, L. P. Bernheimer, D. L. MacMillan, D. L. Speece, & S. Vaughn (Eds.),
Developmental perspectives on children with high-incidence disabilities (pp. 15-31). Mahwah,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Wester, S. R., Vogel, D. L., Pressly, P. K., & Heesacker, M. (2002). Sex differences in emotion: A
critical review of the literature and implications for counseling psychology. The Counselling
Psychologist, 30, 630-652. doi: 10.1177/00100002030004008
Wilson, M., Joffe, R., & Wilkerson, B. (2002). The unheralded business crisis in Canada: Depression at
work. Toronto: Global Business and Economic Roundtable on Addiction and Mental Health, p. 4,
18. Retrieved from http://www.mentalhealthroundtable.ca/aug_round_pdfs/
Roundtable%20report_Jul20.pdf
Wong, C. & Law, K.S. (2002). The effects of leader and follower EI on performance and attitude: An
exploratory study. The Leadership Quarterly, 13, 243-274. doi: 10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00099-1
Xia, N. (2009). Family Factors and Student Outcomes. Published Doctoral Dissertation. Santa Monica,
CA: RAND Corporation.
Yucel, R. M., and Zaslavsky, A. (2004). Practical Suggestions on Rounding in Multiple Imputation. In
JSM Proceedings, Survey Research Methods Section. Toronto, ON: American Statistical
Association. 4679-4683. Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35,
151-175.
203
Zeidner, M. (2005). Emotional intelligence and coping with occupational stress. In A. Antoniou and C.
Cooper (Eds.). Research companion to organizational health psychology. New horizons in
management. (pp. 218-239). Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Zeidner, M. & Endler, N. (Eds.). (1996). Handbook of coping: Theory, Research, Applications. New
York: John Wiley.
Zeidner, M., Matthews, G., & Roberts, R. (2004). Emotional intelligence in the workplace: a critical
review, Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53, 371-399. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-
0597.2004.00176.x
Zeidner, M. Roberts, R. & Matthews, G. (2004). The emotional intelligence bandwagon: Too fast to live,
too young to die? Psychological Inquiry, 15, 239-248.
Zeidner, M., Roberts, R., & Matthews, G. (2002). Can emotional intelligence be schooled? A critical
review. Educational Psychologist, 37, 215-231. doi: 10.1207/S15326985EP3704_2
Zeidner, M., Matthews, G., & Roberts, R. D. (2001). Slow down, you move too fast: Emotional
intelligence remains an “elusive” intelligence. Emotion, 1, 265-275.
Zeidner, M. & Saklofske D. (1996). Adaptive and maladaptive coping. In M. Zeidner & N.S. Endler
(Eds), Handbook of Coping: Theory, Research, Applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp.
505-531.
Zomer, L. (2003). Coping … With Wisdom: An Analysis of Gender, Emotional Intelligence and Coping
Styles. Unpublished master’s independent research project. University of Western Ontario,
London.
Zomer, L. (2001). Passion, Reason and Action: Exploring Emotional Intelligence, Personal Projects and
Well-Being. Unpublished master’s thesis. Carleton University, Ottawa.
204
Appendix A: Consents and Recruitment
205
University of Toronto Recruitment Email Dear Students, My name is Limor Zomer and I am a Ph.D. student in Counselling Psychology at the University of Toronto working under the supervision of Dr. Jeanne Watson, Professor, OISE/UT. I am conducting an internet-based study on the emotional processes involved in coping with conflict in relationships and dealing with work stress. In appreciation of your participation, an anonymous donation of $5.00 will be made to your choice of six charities for each participant completing this survey. The charities are: (1) Sick Kids Hospital (2) Canadian Cancer Society (3) The Arthritis Society (4) Heart & Stroke Foundation (5) Canadian Women’s Foundation (6) The United Way. All you need to do is answer a survey that will take you about 30 minutes to complete. The survey may also help you reflect on how you deal with the stresses in your life. The survey does not require your name and so you will remain anonymous. To have more information about the study, and become a participant, please click on the following link: https://www.surveymonkey.com/s.aspx?sm=z8SxZclm9_2fFI7EGP_2f8JAHA_3d_3d Please contact L. Zomer, M.A., M.Ed., Ph.D. candidate, for further information at:
206
Facebook Recruitment Email Friends, I'm running a survey study over the Internet that investigates the emotional processes involved in coping with conflict in relationships and dealing with work stress. First, I would REALLY appreciate it if you would participate in the research yourself. In appreciation of your participation, I will make an anonymous donation of $5.00 to your choice of six charities for each participant completing this survey. The charities are: (1) Sick Kids Hospital; (2) Canadian Cancer Society; (3) The Arthritis Society; (4) Heart & Stroke Foundation; (5) Canadian Women’s Foundation; and (6) The United Way. All you need to do is answer a survey that will take you about 30 minutes to complete. The survey may also be helpful in reflecting on how you deal with the stresses in your life. And, have NO worries … I will not know it is your responses since the survey does not require your name, and so you will remain anonymous. Second, I would appreciate it if you forward, or otherwise try to recruit one or two more (or a few more) people that you know who might like to participate in an experiment of this kind and tell them they can tell others of the experiment. The website address for the experiment is: https://www.surveymonkey.com/s.aspx?sm=z8SxZclm9_2fFI7EGP_2f8JAHA_3d_3d If you have any comments or questions post them here or contact me at: [email protected] Thanks for your participation. Limor Zomer
207
Information and Consent Thank you for your interest in participating in this study! My name is Limor Zomer and I am a Ph.D. student in Counselling Psychology at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto (OISE/UT) working under the supervision of Dr. Jeanne Watson, Associate Professor, OISE/UT. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine the emotional processes involved in coping with conflict in relationships and work stress. It is our hope that the results of this study will contribute to the understanding of the factors involved in coping to help inform and guide psychological practice, and increase well-being. Task Requirements: Anyone between the ages of 18 to 65 is invited to take part in this study. You also need to (1) be fluent in English and (2) have been working part-time or full-time within the past year. You will be asked to respond to general background questions and other questionnaires that require you to rate your thoughts, behaviors, and feelings. The survey will take approximately 30 minutes to complete. Right to Withdraw: Your participation is completely voluntary and you may refuse to participate. If you decide to participate, you may withdraw from the study at any time, without negative consequences. You may also decline to answer any question or to complete any parts of the procedures/tasks by pressing the appropriate buttons on the bottom of your screen. Because of the nature of the computer software, your responses can only be submitted when you reach the final screen of the questionnaire protocol and click the button to submit your responses. Benefits/Risks: In appreciation of your participation, an anonymous donation of $5.00 will be made to your choice of six charities for each participant completing this survey. The charities are: (1) Sick Kids Hospital; (2) Canadian Cancer Society; (3) The Arthritis Society; (4) Heart & Stroke Foundation; (5) Canadian Women’s Foundation; and (6) The United Way. As a result of participating, it may help you reflect on your emotions, and how you deal with interpersonal and workplace stress. However, there are no direct benefits or risks for participating in this study. Should you experience increased levels of distress from your reflections on the stressful events, you are strongly encouraged to seek follow-up evaluation and therapeutic services and/or speak with your family doctor about your concerns. In Canada, you may wish to contact Family Service Canada (www.familyservicecanada.org) or Catholic Family Services (Toll free: 1-877-282-8932; Toronto: 416-222-0048) for information regarding therapeutic services. You will need to find a location near you, and services are provided to clients on a sliding scale. Anonymity/Confidentiality: There is no identifying information requested, thus all information collected from you will remain anonymous. There is some degree of risk involved with recruiting over the Internet in terms of privacy and confidentiality such as the viewing or tracking of online activity by another party. However, every possible precaution has been taken to eliminate this risk and ensure privacy and confidentiality. All survey responses on this website are secure, using SSL encryption to ensure unwanted access by other Internet users. After completing the survey, responses are downloaded automatically to a fire-walled, secure, continuously-monitored location and no online records will be kept. In addition to the above precautions, some additional steps you could take include, completing the survey in a private place and erasing the history and temporary Internet files on the browser (these actions can usually be found under the “Tools” then “Options” menu of your browser).
208
Access to Information and Publication of Results: Data collected from your participation will only be used for this research study and no one, except my supervisor and myself, will have access to the data records. Data will be stored in a locked cabinet at OISE/UT for approximately 7 years at which point they will be destroyed. It is my intent to publish or make public presentations based on the compiled information collected in this research study. Contact Information for Research Personnel: Please feel free to contact my supervisor, Dr. Watson, or myself if you have any questions or concerns about the study, or if you would like information about the final results. Limor Zomer, M.A., M.Ed., Ph.D. (Cand.) Email: [email protected] Address: AECP, OISE/UT, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, ON, M5S 1V6 Jeanne Watson, Ph.D., C. Psych., Professor Email: [email protected] Phone: 416-978-0705 Address: AECP, OISE/UT, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, ON, M5S 1V6 In addition, should you have any additional questions about your rights as participants, you may contact the Ethics Review Office at [email protected] or 416-946-3273. Consent: Below you will be prompted to indicate if you consent to participating in this study by clicking on “I Consent.” Clicking “I Consent” will also indicate that you have read and understood the conditions under which you will participate in this study and that you agree that you are 1) over the age of 18, 2) fluent in English and; 3) working part-time or full-time within the past 12 months. Submission of the completed survey will be indication that you consent for your data to be used in this study. Please print this information and consent page for future reference. Thank you very much for your time!
209
Examples of Motivational Phrases
Good work! You have completed about a quarter of the survey so far. You are getting there!
You are half way through! Way to go!
You are almost there, just a few questions left.
Final Page Great work!!! You have reached the end of the survey! In appreciation of your participation in this survey, $5.00 will be donated to your choice of charities. Which of the following charities would you like to donate to? (1) Sick Kids Hospital (2) Canadian Cancer Society (3) The Arthritis Society (4) Heart & Stroke Foundation (5) Canadian Women’s Foundation (6) The United Way Please click on submit button below to complete the survey and submit your responses. Once you have clicked on submit you will automatically be directed to the SurveyMonkey homepage, which you can then close. Thank you very much for your participation! Questions and Comments: If you have any questions or comments about this research, or should you wish to have the results of this research, please feel free to contact L. Zomer, the principal investigator (email: [email protected]), or Dr. J. Watson (phone: 416-978-0705; email: [email protected]). In addition, should you have any additional questions about your rights as participants, you may contact the Ethics Review Office at [email protected] or 416-946-3273. Should you experience increased levels of distress from your reflections on the stressful events, you are strongly encouraged to seek follow-up evaluation and therapeutic services and/or speak with your family doctor about your concerns. In Canada, you may wish to contact Family Service Canada (www.familyservicecanada.org) or Catholic Family Services (Toll free: 1-877-282-8932; Toronto: 416-222-0048) for information regarding therapeutic services. You will need to find a location near you, and services are provided to clients on a sliding scale.
210
Appendix B: Multiple Mediation
Table B-1: Mediation on Relationship Data Across Five Imputations (m = 6 to 10)
Table B-2: Mediation on Occupational Data Across Five Imputations (m = 6 to 10)
211
Table B-1 Mediation on Relationship Data Across Five Imputations (m = 6 to 10) M = 6 IV to Mediators (a paths) Coeff se t p RelF1EmE .1994 .0259 7.6852 .0000 RelF2Oth .1100 .0324 3.3995 .0008 RelF3EmP .2531 .0262 9.6724 .0000 RelF4VentSB -.1007 .0264 -3.8076 .0002 RelF5Act .0994 .0272 3.6522 .0003 RelF6Acc .0475 .0275 1.7288 .0849 RelF7Den -.0748 .0230 -3.2494 .0013 RelF8Alc -.0908 .0274 -3.3079 .0011 RelF9Rel .1140 .0301 3.7831 .0002 RelF10Hu -.0482 .0313 -1.5397 .1247 Direct Effects of Mediators on DV (b paths) Coeff se t p RelF1EmE .0220 .0496 .4448 .6568 RelF2Oth .0936 .0377 2.4858 .0135 RelF3EmP .0106 .0494 .2145 .8303 RelF4VentSB -.2916 .0454 -6.4310 .0000 RelF5Act .0089 .0433 .2062 .8368 RelF6Acc -.0717 .0398 -1.8043 .0722 RelF7Den -.0479 .0510 -.9387 .3486 RelF8Alc -.1133 .0406 -2.7908 .0056 RelF9Rel .0221 .0374 .5905 .5554 RelF10Hu .0619 .0367 1.6861 .0929 Total Effect of IV on DV (c path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2848 .0200 14.2379 .0000 Direct Effect of IV on DV (c-prime path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2272 .0230 9.8715 .0000 Model Summary for DV Model R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p .5301 .5122 29.5394 11.0000 288.0000 .0000 ****************************************************************** NORMAL THEORY TESTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Effect se Z p TOTAL .0576 .0167 3.4466 .0006 RelF1EmE .0044 .0097 .4525 .6509 RelF2Oth .0103 .0051 2.0323 .0421 RelF3EmP .0027 .0123 .2185 .8270 RelF4VentSB .0294 .0089 3.2962 .0010 RelF5Act .0009 .0042 .2097 .8339
212
RelF6Acc -.0034 .0027 -1.2606 .2075 RelF7Den .0036 .0039 .9177 .3588 RelF8Alc .0103 .0048 2.1579 .0309 RelF9Rel .0025 .0042 .5942 .5524 RelF10Hu -.0030 .0026 -1.1477 .2511 ***************************************************************** BOOTSTRAP RESULTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Data boot Bias SE TOTAL .0576 .0584 .0008 .0173 RelF1EmE .0044 .0048 .0005 .0089 RelF2Oth .0103 .0102 -.0001 .0056 RelF3EmP .0027 .0018 -.0008 .0141 RelF4VentSB .0294 .0299 .0005 .0087 RelF5Act .0009 .0011 .0003 .0043 RelF6Acc -.0034 -.0033 .0002 .0029 RelF7Den .0036 .0035 .0000 .0043 RelF8Alc .0103 .0106 .0003 .0052 RelF9Rel .0025 .0026 .0001 .0044 RelF10Hu -.0030 -.0029 .0000 .0028 Bias Corrected and Accelerated Confidence Intervals Lower Upper TOTAL .0232 .0931 RelF1EmE -.0116 .0231 RelF2Oth .0021 .0254 RelF3EmP -.0258 .0312 RelF4VentSB .0132 .0476 RelF5Act -.0079 .0097 RelF6Acc -.0124 .0001 RelF7Den -.0034 .0145 RelF8Alc .0029 .0224 RelF9Rel -.0056 .0116 RelF10Hu -.0130 .0002 ***************************************************************** m = 7 IV to Mediators (a paths) Coeff se t p RelF1EmE .2096 .0264 7.9552 .0000 RelF2Oth .1183 .0325 3.6457 .0003 RelF3EmP .2672 .0261 10.2512 .0000 RelF4VentSB -.0833 .0260 -3.2042 .0015 RelF5Act .1112 .0273 4.0792 .0001 RelF6Acc .0615 .0272 2.2565 .0248 RelF7Den -.0687 .0231 -2.9745 .0032 RelF8Alc -.0749 .0276 -2.7119 .0071 RelF9Rel .1319 .0304 4.3357 .0000 RelF10Hu -.0320 .0307 -1.0440 .2973 Direct Effects of Mediators on DV (b paths)
213
Coeff se t p RelF1EmE .0474 .0495 .9579 .3389 RelF2Oth .0812 .0382 2.1234 .0346 RelF3EmP .0209 .0501 .4183 .6760 RelF4VentSB -.3378 .0459 -7.3599 .0000 RelF5Act .0207 .0443 .4677 .6404 RelF6Acc -.0485 .0402 -1.2068 .2285 RelF7Den -.0863 .0506 -1.7056 .0892 RelF8Alc -.1154 .0410 -2.8150 .0052 RelF9Rel .0011 .0377 .0303 .9758 RelF10Hu .0194 .0370 .5227 .6016 Total Effect of IV on DV (c path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2808 .0206 13.6173 .0000 Direct Effect of IV on DV (c-prime path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2141 .0231 9.2593 .0000 Model Summary for DV Model R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p .5348 .5170 30.0948 11.0000 288.0000 .0000 ****************************************************************** NORMAL THEORY TESTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Effect se Z p TOTAL .0667 .0173 3.8576 .0001 RelF1EmE .0099 .0103 .9688 .3326 RelF2Oth .0096 .0052 1.8614 .0627 RelF3EmP .0056 .0131 .4259 .6702 RelF4VentSB .0281 .0095 2.9507 .0032 RelF5Act .0023 .0049 .4733 .6360 RelF6Acc -.0030 .0028 -1.0801 .2801 RelF7Den .0059 .0039 1.5012 .1333 RelF8Alc .0087 .0044 1.9723 .0486 RelF9Rel .0002 .0049 .0309 .9753 RelF10Hu -.0006 .0013 -.4746 .6351 ***************************************************************** BOOTSTRAP RESULTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Data boot Bias SE TOTAL .0667 .0671 .0004 .0181 RelF1EmE .0099 .0104 .0004 .0102 RelF2Oth .0096 .0093 -.0003 .0057 RelF3EmP .0056 .0049 -.0007 .0152 RelF4VentSB .0281 .0285 .0003 .0096 RelF5Act .0023 .0023 .0000 .0048 RelF6Acc -.0030 -.0027 .0003 .0030
214
RelF7Den .0059 .0062 .0003 .0043 RelF8Alc .0087 .0087 .0000 .0048 RelF9Rel .0002 .0003 .0001 .0048 RelF10Hu -.0006 -.0007 -.0001 .0017 Bias Corrected and Accelerated Confidence Intervals Lower Upper TOTAL .0338 .1046 RelF1EmE -.0110 .0303 RelF2Oth .0014 .0260 RelF3EmP -.0244 .0354 RelF4VentSB .0116 .0498 RelF5Act -.0068 .0125 RelF6Acc -.0109 .0012 RelF7Den -.0003 .0175 RelF8Alc .0019 .0216 RelF9Rel -.0105 .0092 RelF10Hu -.0060 .0016 ***************************************************************** m = 8 IV to Mediators (a paths) Coeff se t p RelF1EmE .1868 .0272 6.8784 .0000 RelF2Oth .0741 .0329 2.2527 .0250 RelF3EmP .2378 .0266 8.9258 .0000 RelF4VentSB -.0903 .0260 -3.4753 .0006 RelF5Act .0968 .0272 3.5539 .0004 RelF6Acc .0505 .0267 1.8919 .0595 RelF7Den -.0720 .0228 -3.1530 .0018 RelF8Alc -.0810 .0275 -2.9451 .0035 RelF9Rel .1239 .0299 4.1478 .0000 RelF10Hu -.0346 .0306 -1.1330 .2581 Direct Effects of Mediators on DV (b paths) Coeff se t p RelF1EmE .0014 .0480 .0282 .9775 RelF2Oth .0681 .0363 1.8759 .0617 RelF3EmP .0269 .0477 .5629 .5739 RelF4VentSB -.2968 .0442 -6.7110 .0000 RelF5Act .0476 .0427 1.1153 .2656 RelF6Acc -.0773 .0399 -1.9354 .0539 RelF7Den -.0758 .0492 -1.5415 .1243 RelF8Alc -.0954 .0395 -2.4166 .0163 RelF9Rel .0402 .0366 1.0994 .2725 RelF10Hu .0831 .0359 2.3136 .0214 Total Effect of IV on DV (c path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2843 .0197 14.4372 .0000 Direct Effect of IV on DV (c-prime path) Coeff se t p
215
EI_TOT_W .2298 .0218 10.5299 .0000 Model Summary for DV Model R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p .5399 .5224 30.7278 11.0000 288.0000 .0000 ****************************************************************** NORMAL THEORY TESTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Effect se Z p TOTAL .0545 .0155 3.5095 .0004 RelF1EmE .0003 .0088 .0287 .9771 RelF2Oth .0050 .0035 1.4585 .1447 RelF3EmP .0064 .0112 .5724 .5671 RelF4VentSB .0268 .0086 3.1022 .0019 RelF5Act .0046 .0043 1.0826 .2790 RelF6Acc -.0039 .0029 -1.3664 .1718 RelF7Den .0055 .0039 1.4063 .1596 RelF8Alc .0077 .0041 1.8903 .0587 RelF9Rel .0050 .0046 1.0815 .2795 RelF10Hu -.0029 .0028 -1.0226 .3065 ***************************************************************** BOOTSTRAP RESULTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Data boot Bias SE TOTAL .0545 .0553 .0008 .0169 RelF1EmE .0003 .0009 .0006 .0084 RelF2Oth .0050 .0049 -.0002 .0039 RelF3EmP .0064 .0065 .0001 .0123 RelF4VentSB .0268 .0269 .0001 .0088 RelF5Act .0046 .0045 -.0001 .0045 RelF6Acc -.0039 -.0038 .0001 .0032 RelF7Den .0055 .0058 .0003 .0045 RelF8Alc .0077 .0078 .0001 .0042 RelF9Rel .0050 .0046 -.0004 .0046 RelF10Hu -.0029 -.0029 .0000 .0030 Bias Corrected and Accelerated Confidence Intervals Lower Upper TOTAL .0199 .0869 RelF1EmE -.0163 .0163 RelF2Oth -.0001 .0156 RelF3EmP -.0192 .0308 RelF4VentSB .0113 .0466 RelF5Act -.0031 .0152 RelF6Acc -.0142 .0000 RelF7Den -.0010 .0167 RelF8Alc .0019 .0194 RelF9Rel -.0029 .0158 RelF10Hu -.0113 .0013
216
***************************************************************** M =9 IV to Mediators (a paths) Coeff se t p RelF1EmE .2109 .0265 7.9557 .0000 RelF2Oth .1031 .0329 3.1368 .0019 RelF3EmP .2419 .0263 9.2023 .0000 RelF4VentSB -.0945 .0264 -3.5770 .0004 RelF5Act .1011 .0273 3.7003 .0003 RelF6Acc .0439 .0269 1.6351 .1031 RelF7Den -.0794 .0232 -3.4231 .0007 RelF8Alc -.0783 .0277 -2.8295 .0050 RelF9Rel .1179 .0299 3.9475 .0001 RelF10Hu -.0325 .0309 -1.0522 .2936 Direct Effects of Mediators on DV (b paths) Coeff se t p RelF1EmE .0781 .0491 1.5905 .1128 RelF2Oth .0723 .0370 1.9564 .0514 RelF3EmP -.0247 .0499 -.4939 .6217 RelF4VentSB -.3289 .0446 -7.3753 .0000 RelF5Act .0597 .0440 1.3575 .1757 RelF6Acc -.0972 .0408 -2.3809 .0179 RelF7Den -.0805 .0499 -1.6143 .1076 RelF8Alc -.0684 .0405 -1.6879 .0925 RelF9Rel .0255 .0375 .6805 .4967 RelF10Hu .0618 .0367 1.6827 .0935 Total Effect of IV on DV (c path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2852 .0203 14.0249 .0000 Direct Effect of IV on DV (c-prime path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2217 .0226 9.8130 .0000 Model Summary for DV Model R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p .5386 .5210 30.5628 11.0000 288.0000 .0000 ****************************************************************** NORMAL THEORY TESTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Effect se Z p TOTAL .0636 .0165 3.8527 .0001 RelF1EmE .0165 .0104 1.5880 .1123 RelF2Oth .0075 .0044 1.6832 .0923 RelF3EmP -.0060 .0119 -.5025 .6153 RelF4VentSB .0311 .0096 3.2342 .0012
217
RelF5Act .0060 .0047 1.2959 .1950 RelF6Acc -.0043 .0031 -1.3575 .1746 RelF7Den .0064 .0043 1.4830 .1381 RelF8Alc .0054 .0036 1.4703 .1415 RelF9Rel .0030 .0044 .6829 .4946 RelF10Hu -.0020 .0022 -.8979 .3692 ***************************************************************** BOOTSTRAP RESULTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Data boot Bias SE TOTAL .0636 .0627 -.0008 .0174 RelF1EmE .0165 .0163 -.0001 .0102 RelF2Oth .0075 .0072 -.0002 .0047 RelF3EmP -.0060 -.0064 -.0004 .0130 RelF4VentSB .0311 .0308 -.0003 .0093 RelF5Act .0060 .0062 .0001 .0049 RelF6Acc -.0043 -.0042 .0001 .0034 RelF7Den .0064 .0066 .0002 .0052 RelF8Alc .0054 .0055 .0001 .0041 RelF9Rel .0030 .0027 -.0003 .0044 RelF10Hu -.0020 -.0020 .0001 .0024 Bias Corrected and Accelerated Confidence Intervals Lower Upper TOTAL .0318 .1009 RelF1EmE -.0018 .0385 RelF2Oth .0001 .0200 RelF3EmP -.0329 .0188 RelF4VentSB .0140 .0513 RelF5Act -.0012 .0196 RelF6Acc -.0138 .0000 RelF7Den -.0026 .0182 RelF8Alc -.0002 .0176 RelF9Rel -.0048 .0129 RelF10Hu -.0091 .0010 ***************************************************************** M = 10 IV to Mediators (a paths) Coeff se t p RelF1EmE .2142 .0266 8.0622 .0000 RelF2Oth .1094 .0318 3.4353 .0007 RelF3EmP .2450 .0263 9.3199 .0000 RelF4VentSB -.0963 .0258 -3.7391 .0002 RelF5Act .1050 .0273 3.8499 .0001 RelF6Acc .0447 .0264 1.6940 .0913 RelF7Den -.0707 .0232 -3.0414 .0026 RelF8Alc -.0685 .0276 -2.4800 .0137 RelF9Rel .1145 .0302 3.7904 .0002
218
RelF10Hu -.0286 .0301 -.9510 .3424 Direct Effects of Mediators on DV (b paths) Coeff se t p RelF1EmE .0425 .0508 .8363 .4037 RelF2Oth .0904 .0393 2.3005 .0221 RelF3EmP -.0216 .0505 -.4288 .6684 RelF4VentSB -.2845 .0459 -6.1916 .0000 RelF5Act -.0156 .0439 -.3556 .7224 RelF6Acc -.0688 .0421 -1.6337 .1034 RelF7Den -.0424 .0503 -.8423 .4003 RelF8Alc -.0741 .0404 -1.8334 .0678 RelF9Rel -.0105 .0385 -.2728 .7852 RelF10Hu .0210 .0383 .5482 .5840 Total Effect of IV on DV (c path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2947 .0200 14.7694 .0000 Direct Effect of IV on DV (c-prime path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2521 .0231 10.9334 .0000 Model Summary for DV Model R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p .5264 .5083 29.1020 11.0000 288.0000 .0000 ****************************************************************** NORMAL THEORY TESTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Effect se Z p TOTAL .0426 .0161 2.6562 .0079 RelF1EmE .0091 .0107 .8474 .3968 RelF2Oth .0099 .0051 1.9372 .0527 RelF3EmP -.0053 .0122 -.4364 .6625 RelF4VentSB .0274 .0085 3.2206 .0013 RelF5Act -.0016 .0045 -.3608 .7183 RelF6Acc -.0031 .0026 -1.1883 .2347 RelF7Den .0030 .0036 .8261 .4087 RelF8Alc .0051 .0034 1.4931 .1354 RelF9Rel -.0012 .0043 -.2772 .7816 RelF10Hu -.0006 .0012 -.4819 .6299 ***************************************************************** BOOTSTRAP RESULTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Data boot Bias SE TOTAL .0426 .0438 .0011 .0172 RelF1EmE .0091 .0097 .0006 .0095 RelF2Oth .0099 .0096 -.0003 .0051 RelF3EmP -.0053 -.0048 .0005 .0131
219
RelF4VentSB .0274 .0277 .0003 .0086 RelF5Act -.0016 -.0018 -.0001 .0045 RelF6Acc -.0031 -.0030 .0001 .0030 RelF7Den .0030 .0032 .0002 .0042 RelF8Alc .0051 .0053 .0002 .0037 RelF9Rel -.0012 -.0014 -.0002 .0041 RelF10Hu -.0006 -.0007 -.0001 .0017 Bias Corrected and Accelerated Confidence Intervals Lower Upper TOTAL .0099 .0756 RelF1EmE -.0084 .0295 RelF2Oth .0021 .0226 RelF3EmP -.0322 .0204 RelF4VentSB .0126 .0474 RelF5Act -.0114 .0076 RelF6Acc -.0121 .0011 RelF7Den -.0038 .0130 RelF8Alc .0004 .0160 RelF9Rel -.0104 .0064 RelF10Hu -.0068 .0016 ***************************************************************** Note. RelF1EmE = Emotional Expression; RelF2Oth = Support from others; RelF3EmP = Emotional Processing; RelF4VentSB = Venting/Self-Blame; RelF5Act = Active Coping; RelF6Acc = Acceptance; RelF7Den = Denial; RelF8Alc = Alcohol/Drug Use; RelF9Rel = Religion; RelF10Hu = Humour Table B-2 Mediation on Occupational Data Across Five Imputations (m = 6 to 10) M = 6 IV to Mediators (a paths) Coeff se t p WF1EmExp .1561 .0292 5.3479 .0000 WF2OthSu .1282 .0310 4.1374 .0000 WF3EmPro .2327 .0258 9.0276 .0000 WF4VentSB -.1117 .0255 -4.3779 .0000 WF5Activ .1631 .0268 6.0818 .0000 WF6Accep .0454 .0265 1.7145 .0875 WF7Denia -.0935 .0225 -4.1579 .0000 WF8AlcAV -.1361 .0264 -5.1629 .0000 WF9Relig .0696 .0293 2.3712 .0184 WF10Humo .0508 .0349 1.4553 .1466 Direct Effects of Mediators on DV (b paths) Coeff se t p WF1EmExp -.0082 .0477 -.1727 .8630 WF2OthSu .1821 .0375 4.8584 .0000 WF3EmPro -.0527 .0495 -1.0641 .2882 WF4VentSB -.3117 .0462 -6.7457 .0000 WF5Activ .0385 .0405 .9529 .3415 WF6Accep -.0909 .0416 -2.1877 .0295
220
WF7Denia -.0457 .0474 -.9638 .3360 WF8AlcAV -.0169 .0397 -.4247 .6713 WF9Relig -.0003 .0379 -.0091 .9927 WF10Humo .0274 .0299 .9188 .3590 Total Effect of IV on DV (c path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2825 .0191 14.8234 .0000 Direct Effect of IV on DV (c-prime path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2278 .0228 9.9970 .0000 Model Summary for DV Model R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p .5557 .5387 32.7443 11.0000 288.0000 .0000 ****************************************************************** NORMAL THEORY TESTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Effect se Z p TOTAL .0547 .0174 3.1409 .0017 WF1EmExp -.0013 .0073 -.1759 .8604 WF2OthSu .0233 .0073 3.1777 .0015 WF3EmPro -.0123 .0114 -1.0766 .2817 WF4VentS .0348 .0094 3.6969 .0002 WF5Activ .0063 .0066 .9588 .3377 WF6Accep -.0041 .0030 -1.3605 .1737 WF7Denia .0043 .0045 .9558 .3392 WF8AlcAV .0023 .0053 .4313 .6663 WF9Relig .0000 .0026 -.0093 .9926 WF10Humo .0014 .0018 .7877 .4308 ***************************************************************** BOOTSTRAP RESULTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Data boot Bias SE TOTAL .0547 .0559 .0012 .0175 WF1EmExp -.0013 -.0013 .0000 .0078 WF2OthSu .0233 .0235 .0001 .0075 WF3EmPro -.0123 -.0119 .0004 .0128 WF4VentSB .0348 .0350 .0002 .0098 WF5Activ .0063 .0066 .0003 .0065 WF6Accep -.0041 -.0039 .0002 .0031 WF7Denia .0043 .0041 -.0002 .0047 WF8AlcAV .0023 .0024 .0001 .0055 WF9Relig .0000 .0000 .0000 .0030 WF10Humo .0014 .0014 .0000 .0020 Bias Corrected and Accelerated Confidence Intervals Lower Upper
221
TOTAL .0208 .0879 WF1EmExp -.0185 .0129 WF2OthSu .0108 .0396 WF3EmPro -.0372 .0137 WF4VentSB .0192 .0601 WF5Activ -.0060 .0196 WF6Accep -.0123 .0001 WF7Denia -.0045 .0150 WF8AlcAV -.0075 .0135 WF9Relig -.0078 .0052 WF10Humo -.0011 .0077 ***************************************************************** M = 7 IV to Mediators (a paths) Coeff se t p WF1EmExp .2002 .0280 7.1588 .0000 WF2OthSu .1379 .0307 4.4915 .0000 WF3EmPro .2450 .0256 9.5562 .0000 WF4VentSB -.1011 .0257 -3.9272 .0001 WF5Activ .1593 .0268 5.9425 .0000 WF6Accep .0669 .0258 2.5939 .0100 WF7Denia -.0800 .0232 -3.4489 .0006 WF8AlcAV -.1220 .0263 -4.6329 .0000 WF9Relig .0989 .0292 3.3858 .0008 WF10Humo .0428 .0354 1.2094 .2275 Direct Effects of Mediators on DV (b paths) Coeff se t p WF1EmExp -.0198 .0477 -.4145 .6788 WF2OthSu .2029 .0373 5.4356 .0000 WF3EmPro .0000 .0489 .0006 .9995 WF4VentSB -.3495 .0452 -7.7387 .0000 WF5Activ .0203 .0407 .4993 .6180 WF6Accep -.1036 .0426 -2.4337 .0156 WF7Denia -.0291 .0458 -.6341 .5265 WF8AlcAV -.0105 .0401 -.2619 .7936 WF9Relig -.0079 .0371 -.2126 .8318 WF10Humo .0289 .0298 .9696 .3331 Total Effect of IV on DV (c path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2909 .0194 15.0096 .0000 Direct Effect of IV on DV (c-prime path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2312 .0228 10.1210 .0000 Model Summary for DV Model R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p .5751 .5588 35.4332 11.0000 288.0000 .0000 ******************************************************************
222
NORMAL THEORY TESTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Effect se Z p TOTAL .0597 .0178 3.3478 .0008 WF1EmExp -.0040 .0094 -.4216 .6733 WF2OthSu .0280 .0080 3.4921 .0005 WF3EmPro .0000 .0118 .0006 .9995 WF4VentSB .0353 .0100 3.5201 .0004 WF5Activ .0032 .0064 .5069 .6123 WF6Accep -.0069 .0039 -1.7939 .0728 WF7Denia .0023 .0037 .6351 .5254 WF8AlcAV .0013 .0048 .2664 .7899 WF9Relig -.0008 .0036 -.2162 .8288 WF10Humo .0012 .0016 .7656 .4439 ***************************************************************** BOOTSTRAP RESULTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Data boot Bias SE TOTAL .0597 .0613 .0015 .0177 WF1EmExp -.0040 -.0033 .0006 .0097 WF2OthSu .0280 .0279 .0000 .0082 WF3EmPro .0000 -.0001 -.0001 .0130 WF4VentSB .0353 .0355 .0002 .0104 WF5Activ .0032 .0037 .0005 .0068 WF6Accep -.0069 -.0068 .0001 .0039 WF7Denia .0023 .0023 -.0001 .0040 WF8AlcAV .0013 .0014 .0001 .0048 WF9Relig -.0008 -.0007 .0001 .0040 WF10Humo .0012 .0013 .0001 .0021 Bias Corrected and Accelerated Confidence Intervals Lower Upper TOTAL .0230 .0953 WF1EmExp -.0265 .0130 WF2OthSu .0138 .0457 WF3EmPro -.0235 .0303 WF4VentSB .0159 .0561 WF5Activ -.0086 .0194 WF6Accep -.0171 -.0012 WF7Denia -.0049 .0110 WF8AlcAV -.0083 .0116 WF9Relig -.0097 .0067 WF10Humo -.0009 .0089 ***************************************************************** M = 8 IV to Mediators (a paths)
223
Coeff se t p WF1EmExp .1960 .0281 6.9788 .0000 WF2OthSu .1090 .0309 3.5270 .0005 WF3EmPro .2326 .0255 9.1276 .0000 WF4VentSB -.1020 .0265 -3.8514 .0001 WF5Activ .1645 .0270 6.0879 .0000 WF6Accep .0589 .0266 2.2118 .0277 WF7Denia -.0923 .0229 -4.0240 .0001 WF8AlcAV -.1157 .0263 -4.3909 .0000 WF9Relig .0684 .0301 2.2716 .0238 WF10Humo .0354 .0365 .9716 .3320 Direct Effects of Mediators on DV (b paths) Coeff se t p WF1EmExp -.0353 .0503 -.7007 .4841 WF2OthSu .1837 .0387 4.7471 .0000 WF3EmPro -.0013 .0523 -.0257 .9795 WF4VentSB -.3520 .0458 -7.6829 .0000 WF5Activ .0409 .0420 .9746 .3306 WF6Accep -.0873 .0427 -2.0463 .0416 WF7Denia -.0735 .0490 -1.5001 .1347 WF8AlcAV .0349 .0417 .8362 .4038 WF9Relig .0004 .0380 .0118 .9906 WF10Humo .0259 .0301 .8597 .3906 Total Effect of IV on DV (c path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2919 .0201 14.5099 .0000 Direct Effect of IV on DV (c-prime path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2380 .0236 10.0690 .0000 Model Summary for DV Model R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p .5578 .5409 33.0238 11.0000 288.0000 .0000 ****************************************************************** NORMAL THEORY TESTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Effect se Z p TOTAL .0540 .0182 2.9602 .0031 WF1EmExp -.0069 .0097 -.7102 .4776 WF2OthSu .0200 .0070 2.8529 .0043 WF3EmPro -.0003 .0119 -.0261 .9791 WF4VentSB .0359 .0104 3.4604 .0005 WF5Activ .0067 .0069 .9802 .3270 WF6Accep -.0051 .0034 -1.5184 .1289 WF7Denia .0068 .0047 1.4292 .1529 WF8AlcAV -.0040 .0048 -.8364 .4029 WF9Relig .0000 .0026 .0120 .9904 WF10Humo .0009 .0014 .6511 .5150
224
***************************************************************** BOOTSTRAP RESULTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Data boot Bias SE TOTAL .0540 .0548 .0008 .0167 WF1EmExp -.0069 -.0071 -.0002 .0104 WF2OthSu .0200 .0201 .0001 .0076 WF3EmPro -.0003 .0003 .0006 .0143 WF4VentSB .0359 .0359 .0000 .0102 WF5Activ .0067 .0067 -.0001 .0070 WF6Accep -.0051 -.0049 .0003 .0034 WF7Denia .0068 .0069 .0001 .0053 WF8AlcAV -.0040 -.0040 .0000 .0049 WF9Relig .0000 -.0001 -.0001 .0030 WF10Humo .0009 .0010 .0000 .0020 Bias Corrected and Accelerated Confidence Intervals Lower Upper TOTAL .0200 .0882 WF1EmExp -.0298 .0117 WF2OthSu .0078 .0385 WF3EmPro -.0283 .0292 WF4VentSB .0172 .0563 WF5Activ -.0056 .0235 WF6Accep -.0140 -.0003 WF7Denia -.0012 .0194 WF8AlcAV -.0146 .0046 WF9Relig -.0068 .0057 WF10Humo -.0011 .0086 ***************************************************************** M = 9 IV to Mediators (a paths) Coeff se t p WF1EmExp .1882 .0281 6.6906 .0000 WF2OthSu .1391 .0304 4.5724 .0000 WF3EmPro .2328 .0261 8.9347 .0000 WF4VentSB -.0936 .0266 -3.5222 .0005 WF5Activ .1748 .0266 6.5648 .0000 WF6Accep .0768 .0263 2.9233 .0037 WF7Denia -.0992 .0228 -4.3543 .0000 WF8AlcAV -.1222 .0261 -4.6774 .0000 WF9Relig .0709 .0293 2.4210 .0161 WF10Humo .0231 .0358 .6454 .5191 Direct Effects of Mediators on DV (b paths) Coeff se t p WF1EmExp -.0294 .0499 -.5882 .5569 WF2OthSu .2002 .0394 5.0824 .0000 WF3EmPro -.0259 .0512 -.5065 .6129
225
WF4VentSB -.3624 .0460 -7.8782 .0000 WF5Activ .0028 .0426 .0668 .9468 WF6Accep -.0993 .0432 -2.2995 .0222 WF7Denia -.0552 .0488 -1.1308 .2591 WF8AlcAV -.0117 .0412 -.2849 .7759 WF9Relig -.0137 .0385 -.3558 .7222 WF10Humo .0110 .0305 .3607 .7186 Total Effect of IV on DV (c path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2884 .0204 14.1528 .0000 Direct Effect of IV on DV (c-prime path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2391 .0234 10.2195 .0000 Model Summary for DV Model R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p .5641 .5475 33.8821 11.0000 288.0000 .0000 ****************************************************************** NORMAL THEORY TESTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Effect se Z p TOTAL .0493 .0184 2.6809 .0073 WF1EmExp -.0055 .0093 -.5969 .5506 WF2OthSu .0279 .0081 3.4308 .0006 WF3EmPro -.0060 .0117 -.5153 .6064 WF4VentSB .0339 .0105 3.2299 .0012 WF5Activ .0005 .0073 .0680 .9457 WF6Accep -.0076 .0042 -1.8294 .0673 WF7Denia .0055 .0049 1.1139 .2653 WF8AlcAV .0014 .0050 .2898 .7720 WF9Relig -.0010 .0027 -.3586 .7199 WF10Humo .0003 .0008 .3195 .7493 ***************************************************************** BOOTSTRAP RESULTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths) Data boot Bias SE TOTAL .0493 .0494 .0001 .0177 WF1EmExp -.0055 -.0057 -.0001 .0095 WF2OthSu .0279 .0276 -.0002 .0086 WF3EmPro -.0060 -.0059 .0001 .0120 WF4VentSB .0339 .0343 .0004 .0111 WF5Activ .0005 .0006 .0001 .0074 WF6Accep -.0076 -.0072 .0004 .0041 WF7Denia .0055 .0051 -.0004 .0054 WF8AlcAV .0014 .0012 -.0002 .0050 WF9Relig -.0010 -.0009 .0001 .0032 WF10Humo .0003 .0003 .0000 .0015 Bias Corrected and Accelerated Confidence Intervals
226
Lower Upper TOTAL .0151 .0849 WF1EmExp -.0264 .0121 WF2OthSu .0139 .0496 WF3EmPro -.0305 .0174 WF4VentSB .0145 .0602 WF5Activ -.0133 .0162 WF6Accep -.0191 -.0020 WF7Denia -.0036 .0187 WF8AlcAV -.0083 .0120 WF9Relig -.0098 .0044 WF10Humo -.0013 .0064 ***************************************************************** M = 10 IV to Mediators (a paths) Coeff se t p WF1EmExp .1862 .0285 6.5339 .0000 WF2OthSu .1284 .0305 4.2118 .0000 WF3EmPro .2379 .0255 9.3229 .0000 WF4VentSB -.1118 .0257 -4.3504 .0000 WF5Activ .1714 .0265 6.4697 .0000 WF6Accep .0839 .0259 3.2452 .0013 WF7Denia -.0944 .0225 -4.2018 .0000 WF8AlcAV -.1149 .0258 -4.4451 .0000 WF9Relig .0746 .0289 2.5803 .0103 WF10Humo .0287 .0356 .8064 .4207 Direct Effects of Mediators on DV (b paths) Coeff se t p WF1EmExp -.0212 .0503 -.4218 .6735 WF2OthSu .2146 .0399 5.3775 .0000 WF3EmPro -.0241 .0534 -.4508 .6525 WF4VentSB -.3754 .0483 -7.7712 .0000 WF5Activ .0233 .0432 .5392 .5902 WF6Accep -.0876 .0437 -2.0064 .0457 WF7Denia -.0608 .0500 -1.2164 .2248 WF8AlcAV -.0133 .0429 -.3112 .7559 WF9Relig -.0064 .0394 -.1616 .8717 WF10Humo .0311 .0313 .9951 .3205 Total Effect of IV on DV (c path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2930 .0207 14.1645 .0000 Direct Effect of IV on DV (c-prime path) Coeff se t p EI_TOT_W .2289 .0240 9.5232 .0000 Model Summary for DV Model R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p .5634 .5468 33.7898 11.0000 288.0000 .0000 ******************************************************************
227
NORMAL THEORY TESTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths)
Effect se Z p TOTAL .0642 .0190 3.3840 .0007 WF1EmExp -.0039 .0092 -.4288 .6680 WF2OthSu .0276 .0082 3.3428 .0008 WF3EmPro -.0057 .0125 -.4588 .6464 WF4VentSB .0420 .0110 3.8178 .0001 WF5Activ .0040 .0073 .5474 .5841 WF6Accep -.0074 .0043 -1.7306 .0835 WF7Denia .0057 .0048 1.1889 .2345 WF8AlcAV .0015 .0048 .3162 .7518 WF9Relig -.0005 .0029 -.1643 .8695 WF10Humo .0009 .0014 .6318 .5275 ***************************************************************** BOOTSTRAP RESULTS FOR INDIRECT EFFECTS Indirect Effects of IV on DV through Proposed Mediators (ab paths)
Data boot Bias SE TOTAL .0642 .0644 .0002 .0177 WF1EmExp -.0039 -.0041 -.0001 .0093 WF2OthSu .0276 .0277 .0001 .0084 WF3EmPro -.0057 -.0057 .0000 .0138 WF4VentSB .0420 .0423 .0003 .0110 WF5Activ .0040 .0038 -.0002 .0073 WF6Accep -.0074 -.0074 -.0001 .0042 WF7Denia .0057 .0054 -.0003 .0054 WF8AlcAV .0015 .0018 .0003 .0051 WF9Relig -.0005 -.0004 .0000 .0038 WF10Humo .0009 .0010 .0001 .0020 Bias Corrected and Accelerated Confidence Intervals
Lower Upper TOTAL .0298 .0974 WF1EmExp -.0240 .0144 WF2OthSu .0136 .0456 WF3EmPro -.0331 .0187 WF4VentSB .0227 .0660 WF5Activ -.0101 .0188 WF6Accep -.0177 -.0010 WF7Denia -.0037 .0184 WF8AlcAV -.0093 .0114 WF9Relig -.0109 .0061 WF10Humo -.0011 .0082 ***************************************************************** Note. WF1EmExp = Emotional Expression; WF2OthSu = Support from others; WF3EmPro = Emotional Processing; WF4VentSB = Venting/Self-Blame; WF5Activ = Active Coping; WF6Accep = Acceptance; WF7Denia = Denial; WF8AlcAV = Alcohol/Drug Use; WF9Relig = Religion; WF10Humo = Humour
228
Appendix C: Copyright Acknowledgements
229
Date:
Tue, 24 Jan 2012 16:56:44 -0000 [24/01/12 11:56:44 EDT]
From: "Peccia Galletto, Charlotte (ELS-PAR)" <[email protected]> To: [email protected]
Subject: RE: Obtain Permission Dear Miss Limor Zomer, We hereby grant you permission to reproduce the material detailed below at no charge in your thesis, in print and on the University of Toronto web site subject to the following conditions: 1. If any part of the material to be used (for example, figures) has appeared in our publication with credit or
acknowledgement to another source, permission must also be sought from that source. If such permission is not obtained then that material may not be included in your publication/copies.
2. Suitable acknowledgment to the source must be made, either as a footnote or in a reference list at the end
of your publication, as follows:
“This figure was published in Publication title, Vol number, Author(s), Title of article, Page Nos, Copyright Elsevier (or appropriate Society name) (Year).”
3. Your thesis may be submitted to your institution in either print or electronic form. 4. Reproduction of this material is confined to the purpose for which permission is hereby given. 5. This permission is granted for non-exclusive world rights only. Permission excludes use in an electronic
form other than as specified above. Should you have a specific electronic project in mind please reapply for permission.
6. This includes permission for UMI and for the National Library of Canada to supply single copies, on
demand, of the complete thesis. Should your thesis be published commercially, please reapply for permission.
Yours sincerely, Charlotte Peccia-Galletto Global Rights Department Elsevier +33 (0)1 71 16 53 14 (phone) -----Original Message----- From: [email protected] [mailto:[email protected]] Sent: 21 January 2012 22:15 To: Rights and Permissions (ELS) Subject: Obtain Permission This Email was sent from the Elsevier Corporate Web Site and is related to Obtain Permission form: ---------------------------------------------------------------- Product: Customer Support Component: Obtain Permission Web server: http://www.elsevier.com
230
Client: Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 5.1) AppleWebKit/535.7 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/16.0.912.75 Safari/535.7 Invoked from: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/obtainpermissionform.cws_home?isSubmitted=yes&navigateXmlFileName=/store/p65idstarget/act/framework_support/obtainpermission.xml Request From: Miss Limor Zomer University of Toronto Email Address: [email protected] Type Of Publication: Journal Journal Details: Title: Intelligence ISSN: 0160-2896 Volume: 27 Issue: 4 Year: 2000 Pages From: 267 Pages To: 298 Author: Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R. & Salovey, P. Article Title: Emotional Intelligence Meets Traditional Standards for an Intelligence Type Of Content: Figures(s) Quantity of Material Figures: Only one figure - Figure 1. Are you the author: Yes Author at institute: Yes Format of the requested material be used: Print_Electronic Will you be translating the material? No Languages to which the material is going to be translated : Information about your proposed use: thesis Reuse in a thesis/dissertation: My dissertation will be available via the University of Toronto Libraries in digital formats, for reference, study and/or copy for scholarly purposes. I will also be granting Library and Archives Canada and ProQuest/UMI a non-exclusive license to reproduce, loan, distribute, or sell single copies of my dissertation by any means and in any form or format. These rights will in no way restrict republication of the material in any other form by you or by others authorized by you. I would like permission to allow inclusion of Figure 1 from the source noted above, "Emotional Intelligence Meets Traditional Standards for an Intelligence". Please confirm that these arrangements meet with your approval. For further info regarding this automatic email, please contact: WEB APPLICATIONS TEAM ( [email protected] ) Elsevier Masson SAS, 62 rue Camille Desmoulins, 92130 Issy les Moulineaux, France, RCS Nanterre 542 037 031
231