Annals of Arid Zone 38(3&4): 399-414, 1999 The Relevance and Implications of Livestock-tree Interactions in Agroforestry Systems in Developing Countries C. Devendra* international Livestock Research institute, Nairobi, Kenya Abstract: Livestock-based agroforestry systems present important opportunities for increasing food production from farm animals. This is reflected in the widening gap between production and consumption, and the inability of domestic supplies to meet projected demand for foods of animal origin up to year 2020. Increasing productivity from animals thus necessitates assessment of all possible avenues of food production, including agroforestry systems. In South-east Asia alone, this concerns an estimated 210 million hectares under permanent tree crops and forests. The livestock-tree interactions include animal draught power for land cultivation and crop growth; effects of dung and urine on soil fertility and crop growth; use of crop residues and agro-industrial by-products; use of native vegetation on cost of weed control; effects of integrating livestock with trees, and that of the shade of trees on animal performance; and type of production systems on crop performance and environmental protection. Case studies are presented, data from which clearly demonstrate positive benefits, economic and ecological impacts. Areas for research include characterization of livestock-based agroforestry systems in target agro-ecological zones; compatibility between livestock and trees; appropriate choice of livestock species, production systems, and optimum age of trees for integration with livestock; effects of dung and urine and nutrient recycling on soil fertility and crop yields; efficient use of crop residues and agro-industrial by-products ill situ; and assessment of the nature, extent and implications of the interactions. Increased resource use and concerted research focus on livestock-based agroforestry systems can provide for demonstrable improved efficiency in the management of natural resources, sustainable production systems, and increased productivity from the land in the future. Key words: Livestock, trees, agroforestry systems, integration, interactions, nutrient recycling, impacts, interdisciplinary research, sustainable agriculture. In recent years, the search for efficiency in the management and use of natural resources has become a particularly challenging task because of the overwhelming disparity between available supplies and human requirements for foods of animal origin. Recent assessments of forecasts of ruminants and non-ruminant meat production and consumption to the *Corresponding Address: l30A Jalan Awan Jawa, 58200 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. year 2010 indicate a widening gap between production and consumption in most selected countries studied (Vercoe et al., 1997). With rare exceptions, the indications are that domestic production will be unable to meet the demand. More recently, projected demands of meat and milk production are expected to grow at rates of 2.8 and 3.2% annually up to year 2020 (Delgado et al., 1999), which will put enormous pressure on the management of the natural resources.
Transcript
Annals of Arid Zone 38(3&4): 399-414, 1999
The Relevance and Implications of Livestock-tree Interactions in AgroforestrySystems in Developing Countries
C. Devendra*international Livestock Research institute, Nairobi, Kenya
Abstract: Livestock-based agroforestry systems present important opportunities forincreasing food production from farm animals. This is reflected in the wideninggap between production and consumption, and the inability of domestic suppliesto meet projected demand for foods of animal origin up to year 2020. Increasingproductivity from animals thus necessitates assessment of all possible avenues offood production, including agroforestry systems. In South-east Asia alone, this concernsan estimated 210 million hectares under permanent tree crops and forests. Thelivestock-tree interactions include animal draught power for land cultivation andcrop growth; effects of dung and urine on soil fertility and crop growth; use ofcrop residues and agro-industrial by-products; use of native vegetation on cost ofweed control; effects of integrating livestock with trees, and that of the shadeof trees on animal performance; and type of production systems on crop performanceand environmental protection. Case studies are presented, data from which clearlydemonstrate positive benefits, economic and ecological impacts. Areas for researchinclude characterization of livestock-based agroforestry systems in target agro-ecologicalzones; compatibility between livestock and trees; appropriate choice of livestockspecies, production systems, and optimum age of trees for integration with livestock;effects of dung and urine and nutrient recycling on soil fertility and crop yields;efficient use of crop residues and agro-industrial by-products ill situ; and assessmentof the nature, extent and implications of the interactions. Increased resource useand concerted research focus on livestock-based agroforestry systems can providefor demonstrable improved efficiency in the management of natural resources, sustainableproduction systems, and increased productivity from the land in the future.
In recent years, the search for efficiencyin the management and use of naturalresources has become a particularlychallenging task because of theoverwhelming disparity between availablesupplies and human requirements for foodsof animal origin. Recent assessments offorecasts of ruminants and non-ruminantmeat production and consumption to the*Corresponding Address: l30A Jalan Awan Jawa,58200 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
year 2010 indicate a widening gap betweenproduction and consumption in mostselected countries studied (Vercoe et al.,1997). With rare exceptions, the indicationsare that domestic production will be unableto meet the demand. More recently, projecteddemands of meat and milk production areexpected to grow at rates of 2.8 and 3.2%annually up to year 2020 (Delgado et al.,1999), which will put enormous pressureon the management of the natural resources.
400 DEVENDRA
The importance of ensuring continuingproductivity is seen in South-east Asia inthe light of the recent Asian economic crisisand the impact on livestock production. Smallfarms were especially hard hit, with increasedcost of production inputs and dislocatedmarketing systems. However, in Indonesia,one of the countries hard hit by the crisis,it is the agricultural sector that was ableto show a small, but positive economic growthduring difficult times in which animalproduction on small farms was especiallyvaluable.
In these circumstances, the importanceof maximizing productivity from the livestockresources through all available avenues offood production is therefore a compellingtask. These approaches must necessarilyensure, however, that increased productivityand improved livelihoods are consistent withthe sustainable use of the natural resourcesand environmental protection.
Agroforestry systems, including the roleof livestock within these, provide animportant research and developmentopportunity to increase the contribution oflivestock. In simple terms, agroforestrysystems refer to the use of trees in farmingsystems in which these are integrated withannual crops, livestock and fish. TheInternational Centre for Research onAgroforestry (ICRAF) defines agrcforestryas "a collective name for land use systemsand technologies where woody perennialsare deliberately used on the same landmanagement unit as agricultural crops and/oranimals, either in some form of spatialarrangement or temporal sequence. Inagroforestry systems, there are both
ecological and economic interactionsbetween components".
This paper focuses on the relevance andimplications of livestock-tree interactions,highlighting the nature and extent of these,as well as major examples that demonstrateecological and economic benefits, in thedeveloping countries.
Types of Livestock-tree Interactions
The following types of livestock-treeinteractions are common:
• Beneficial effects of shade and availablefeeds on livestock performance
• Draught animal power for land preparationand crop growth
• Dung and urine on soil fertility andcrop growth and reduced use of purchasedfertilizers
• Use of crop residues, agro-industrial by-products (AIEP), and non-conventionalfeed resources (NCFR) from trees insitu
• Use of native vegetation and the effectson cost of weed control, crop managementand crop growth
• Type of animal production systems(grazing, semi-intensive and stall- feedingor zero grazing) on the yield of tree crops,increased income and environmentalintegrity
The interactions can be positive ornegative, depending on the type of livestockand trees, age of trees, and managementsystems. Among ruminants, cattle and sheepare well suited to integration with tree cropssuch as coconuts and oil palm. Sheep aremore suited for integration with rubber where
LIVESTOCK-TREE INTERACTIONS IN AGROFORESTRY 401
light transmission is less. Goats are moreselective in their feeding habits because theyare browsers (Devendra, 1999), and aretherefore only more suited when both browseand forages are available in agroforestrysystems. In Queensland, Australia, goatscaused 75% mortality in a stand of Sesbaniasesban trees by ringbarking the stems 10to 15 cm above ground level (Kochapakdee,1991). However, sheep, cattle and buffaloescan all damage trees, especially the barkof rubber. Cattle are unsuited to rubberplantations as they can disturb the latexcollecting cups. To ensure compatibilitybetween livestock and trees, appropriatechoice of species, control of grazing, andalso the optimum age of trees when thecanopy is out of reach of the animal, areimportant considerations.
Agroforestry systems, on account of thereduced temperature and shade, provideameliorative environments compared toopen sunlight (Ovalle and Avendano, 1988;Marai and Habeeb, 1998), and are conducivefor good animal performance. Theperformance becomes more significant forexotic livestock ·in tropical climates. Daly(1984) reported a 0.9% reduced calvingrate for every 0.1 °C increase above 30.0°Cin the rectal-temperature of cows. Calvingrate depressions in British breeds andBrahman crossbreds were 10% and ]0 to25%, respectively. Stressed cows also gavebirth to lighter calves. Milk productiondifferences are also apparent, with Davisonet at. (1988) reporting increased mean yieldsof 2 kg per cow compared to animals withoutshade, concurrent with a reduced rectaltemperature of 39.4°C compared with40.0°C for animals in open sunlight. InLatin America, decreased lamb mortality
and better protection of sheared sheep(Peneloza and Harve, 1984) have beenrecorded as benefits of grazing under Pinus.
Of the three main tree crops (coconuts,oil palm and rubber), coconuts offer aparticularly unique opportunity forintegration with cattle or goats or sheep,with attendant economic benefits, mainlybecause of the constant light and long lifeof the crop of approximately 70 years.The available native vegetation, togetherwith other introduced grasses, can then begrazed on a semi-permanent basis. Table1 presents a summary of the responsesby cattle. The variation in animal productionwas directly related to type of feed biomassavailable, soil fertility, fertilizer strategyand light transmission.
Draught animal power is a good exampleof the interaction between livestock and trees.Ploughing, harrowing, cultivation andhaulage are key elements and are reflectedthroughout Asia. In South-east Asia forexample, in coconut and oil palm plantations,draught animal power from buffaloes andcattle is used for various farm operations,such as tillage and haulage by small farmerswho cannot afford more expensive tractorpower and costs of maintenance.
The relevance and implications oflivestock-tree interactions, especially thebenefits, are highlighted in the results oflong-term case studies in Asia andelsewhere. These benefits relate to improvedsoil fertility, increased income anddevelopment of potentially importantsustainable systems. Aside from theseexamples, other examples of the integrationof trees and especially small ruminants,with complementary advantages, include
402 DEVENDRA
Table 1. Cattle production from grazing experiments under coconut (Shelton, 1991; Stur et a/., 1994)
Philippines (>2000 mm iJ) Improved 170-315 0.43--0.47 1-2
Country
Indonesia (l700 mm i J)
Pasture
Improved
Light Livetransmi- weightssion gain (kg(%) ha-J ii)
79 288-505
n.a.
Avg.dailycrain (kcrhaoJ dO!')
0.22-0.29
Stockingrate(cattlehaOI
)
2.7-6.3
Reference
Rika et al .•1981
Moog et al.1993
Solomon Island (2900mm yoJ)
Thailand (l600 mm i J)
Vanuatu (>1500 mm ii)
Western Samoa (2900mm ii)
Improved
ImprovedNatural
Improved
Natural
ImprovedNatural
ImprovedNaturalImprovedImproved
Natural
ImprovedNatural
ImprovedNaturalImprovedNaturalImproved
n.a.
n.a.n.a.
n.a.60
6062
62n.a.n.a.n.a.
n.a.
n.a.50
5070-8470-8470-8470-84
130-158
137-3065]
91-146
235-345
227-348219-332
206-3094494-142175
250-285
550148
225-306127273-396401-466421-744
0.14-0.36
0.20-0.370.14
0.20-0.250.27-0.40
0.27-0.400.26-0.40
0.23-0.350.12
0.16-0.260.32
0.26
0.500.22
0.33-0.470.[4
0.30-0.430.27-0.320.29-0.51
]-3
]-3
1
1-21.5-3.5
1.5-3.51.5-3.5
1.5-3.51.01.0-2.51.5
2.6-3.0
3.01.8
1.8-2.22.52.54.04.0
Deocareza andDiesta. 1991
Deocareza andDiesta. 1991
Watson andWhiteman, 1981
Smith andWhiteman, 1985
Manidol. ]984
Macfarlane andShelton, ]986Evans et al ..1992
Reynolds, 1981
Robinson, 1981
goats or sheep under cashewnut, cocoa,citrus, mangoes, jackfruit, kapok, tamarind,or teak in many parts of South and South-eastAsia and Africa. In parts of sub-tropicalSouth China and also in Vietnam, a variation
to ruminant-tree crop interactions is thepresence of ponds under coconuts or fruittrees which further enable the integrationof fish, vegetable, pigs and ducks. Thisdiversification and effective use of the
LIVESTOCK-TREE INTERACTIONS IN AGROFORESTRY 403
available niltural resources presents the mostimportant means to sustain livelihoods ofsmall farmers, as well as maximize farmproductivity.
Overview of Research on Tree Cropsand Ruminants
Agroforestry systems potentially involvethe management and use of the naturalresources (crops, animals, land and water)in which these sub-systems and theirsynergistic interactions have a significantpositive and greater total effect than thesum of their individual effects (Edwardset al., 1988). The management and use ofthe natural resources in a mutually reinforcingmanner, enables ecological and economicsustainability. The greatest challenge is toidentify improved and integratedmanagement of natural resources withincreased productivity in which whole farmsystems are driven by market-oriented access.
Between ruminants integrated with annualand perennial crops, more research has beenundertaken in the latter system. Severalcountries in South-east Asia (Devendra etaI., 1997) have been active in this regard,notably Indonesia, Malaysia and thePhilippines. Attention is drawn to recentpublications on small ruminants in tree crops(Iniquez and Sanchez, 1991; Sivaraj et al.,1993; Mullen and Shelton, 1995); and thereviews of research over the past 20 yearson integrated tree crop systems by Chenet at. (1996) and Reynolds (1993) for cattlein coconut plantations. More recently, acritical assessment of crop-animal systemsand research priorities in South-east Asia,led to the conclusion that the integrationof animals with tree crops was a priorityresearch project (Devendra et aI., 1997).
The main areas in which research hasbeen undertaken include:
• Characterisation of environmentalconditions within plantations
• Measurements of forage, ahd availabilityof crop residues and agro-industrial by-products (AIBP) and quality, as well asseasonality of production
• Evaluation and selection of grasses andlegumes for environmental adaptationand increased herbage production
• Measurements of animal performanceunder different nutritional and manage-ment regimes
• Measurements of soil compaction andtree damage resulting from theintroduction of ruminants
• Measurements of tree crop yields inintegrated systems
• Management of animals under tree crops
• Analyses of the economic benefits ofintegrated systems.
The first three areas are the most studied.In contrast, long term animal productiondata for the different ruminant species arelimited, like the data on the effects of grazingmanagement, and socio-economic analyses.Yet, these analyses are essential for presentinga convincing case for the wider adoptionof the systems. The overall conclusion is
. tljat, much more concerted interdisciplinaryreSeitch is required in developingmethodologies for the process of integratingruminant species with tree crops, as wellas studies on the nature (positive andnegative), extent and impact of crop andanimal interactions on environmentalindicators.
404 DEVENDRA
Table 2. The effect of mixed cattle and goat grazing 0/1 the yield of fresh fruit bunches in oil palmcultivation in Malaysia (Devendra, 1991)
Year
]980198]
]982
1983Mean
+ C = Cattle, ++ C+G
Grazed area(Yield of fresh fruit
bunches ha-I {J, MT)
30.55 (C)+
17.69 (C)25.12 (C+G)++23.45 (C+G)24.20
Cattle + Goats.
Non-grazed area(Yield of fresh fruit
bunches ha-I yoJ. MT)
21.6]15.8722.97]8.29
20.29
Difference(Fresh fruit bunches/
haol{I. MT)
9.941.822.155.]6
3.51
Case Studies
The following case studies demonstrategood examples of the benefits and impactof livestock-tree interactions in agroforestrysystems. In all cases without exception, thebenefits were associated with economic andecological impacts.
Tree crops-ruminants system (Malaysia,Philippines and Pacific Islands)
The integration of tree cropping andruminants is a production system that hasnot been adequately exploited, given theconsiderable benefits of such integration. Thepotential for this system is reflected in thepresence of an estimated area of about 2 I0million hectares in South-east Asia(Alexandratos, 1995) under forests andwoodlands, a high proportion of whichinvolves tree crops like coconuts, oil palmand rubber. The study involved the effectof grazing with cattle and goats with oilpalIn, compared to no grazing resulted inincreased yields of between 2.2 to 5.2 MTfresh fruit bunches ha-I il• Considering thetotal land area under oil palm and the salevalue of fresh fruit bunches per tonne, theeconomic advantage is substantial (Table 2).
Increased 30% yield in oil palm plant-ations have also been reported by Chen
et al. (1993) due to grazing. These authorshave also reported 20 to 40% reducedweeding costs for cattle under oil palm,comparable to a savings of 16 to 35% usinggrazing sheep reported by Chee and Faiz(199 I). Also in Malaysia, utilizing buffaloesto transport oil palm fruit bunches fromthe field to collecting centres increased thefarmers' income by as much as 30% (Liangand Rahman, 1985).
In the Philippines, introduction ofimproved grasses or grass-legume pasturesand cattle into coconut plantations resultedin total incomes ranging from US$ 608-809,compared to US$ 5 10 from coconuts alone(Deocareza and Diesta, 1993).By comparison,the integration of goats and sheep withcoconuts over three years increased theincome of farmers by between US$ 127-229 (PCARRD, 1994).
Coconut plantations provide animportant opportunity to integrate cattle.Reynolds (1988) has calculated that beefcattle production was an important sourceof secondary income in Western Samoa.Based on data of live weight gain andcopra production, the contribution of beefto increased gross income increased from21 to 4 I% for a farm with cattle on natural
LIVESTOCK-TREE INTERACTIONS IN AGROFORESTRY 405
Table 3. Cost and return analysis of SALT in Davo del Sur, Philippines between 1991-1993 US$ (La 'het a/., 1997) qUi on
Returns on investments (%) 20.8 60.4 34 8+ Maize, citrus, black pepper and miscellaneous crops, ++ = Live animals, goat meat and ~oat mil~,+++ = New bIrths, replacements and goat dung. ~
ComponentsCash Income
. Crop +Goats ++Value added items +++
Total returnsMaterialsNon-cash items
Total costs
1991 1992 1993
pastures, and from 42 to 71 % with cattleon improved pastures. The farms withoutcattle suffered a reduction in gross farmincome by 70%. Stur et al. (1994) haverecently reviewed the available informationon cattle production under coconuts, citingseveral examples in the Pacific islands, andconcluded that the level of production insuch systems with adapted forages iscomparable to that obtained in open systems.
In southern India, Das (1991) has reportedfrom an evaluation of various coconut-basedfarming systems, that it is more profitableto integrate a number of subsidiary cropsand animals than to grow coconuts as amonocrop. In this same zone, studies byChinnusamy et al. (1994) between 1988-1993on a.one-hectare model farm integrating crops(gram and fodder), silvopasture (trees andgrass) and goat-rearing indicated that soilphysical and chemical characteristics wereall improved, along with the socio-economicconditions of the farmer. In Sri Lanka, theintegration under coconuts of a mixed pasturebased on Brachiaria miliformislPuerariaphaseoloides and the multipurpose trees
Gliricidia sepiul1l and Leucaenaleucocephala resulted in increases of 17%and 11%, respectively, in nut and coprayields (Liyanage de Silva et al., 1993). Thenutrients returned from 73 kg of fresh manureand the application of 30 litres urine/palmiyear reduced the cost of fertilizing thecoconuts by 69%. The system producedsufficient forage to maintain growth andmilk yields in the Jersey crossbred animals.
Sloping agriculture land technology
The concept of sloping agriculture landtechnology (SALT) has been successfullydeveloped in the Philippines on account ofthe presence of about 30 million hectaresof uplands, of which 80% are consideredslopelands. These land areas are relativelymore steep and include slopes up to 18°.SALT is essentially a type of crop-animalsystem integrating the management and useof natural resources, and involving theintegration of leguminous hedgerows toreduce soil erosion, improve soil fertilityand nutrients for the crops (maize and blackpepper) grown between the hedgerows, andprovision of precious fodder for goats in
406 DEVENDRA
Table 4. Average economic performance per year, per acre and per person of the farm activities ofthe three MLDC farms - 1985-1992 (long et al .. 1994)
Item Half acre One acre Two acreRs./year Rs./acre Rs./year Rs./ acre Rs./year Rs./acre
a zero grazing system. Among the foragestested, Calliandro spp., Leucaenadiversifolia, Gliricidia sepium, Erythrinapoepiggina, and Fleminga macrophylla havebeen particularly promising. Implicit in thissystem is the objective of generating regularand adequate income.
Laquihon et al. (1997) have analyzedthe benefits of the system betw.een1991-1993, and concluded that the meanannual income was US$ 1354 per 0.5 ha(Table 3). The mean internal rate of returnwas 38.7%. The mean annual income was14 times higher than the mean annual incomeof US$ 120 per 0.5 ha in the Philippines(Villar, 1998).
The SALT model has now led to othervariants: SALT 2 (simple agro-livestocktechnology ), SALT 3 (sustainable agroforestland technology), SALT 4 (small agrofruitlivelihood technology), and SUPER SALT(sloping agricultural land technology). Thistechnology has been extended for useelsewhere in the region such as in India,Sri Lanka and Laos, and also into partsof Africa.
Crop-animal systems (Sri Lanka)
In the upland areas of the mid-countryin Sri Lanka, crop production involves treecrops (coconuts and fruits), root crops andherbs in stratified layers. Animals areintegrated into about 20% of these farms,mainly cattle for dairying, goat and poultryproduction.
Economic performance for the ,period1985 to 1992 for three sizes of farmer-managed farms (0.5, 10 and 2 acres) showedthat dairying contributed to most of the totalgross profits of 31, 63 and 69% for thethree types of farms, respectively. Amongthe animals, dairy cattle and goats gave thegreatest income returns (Table 4). Animalsalso significantly contributed to theimprovement of soil fertility through, manureand biogas production to replace domesticfuel needs (long et al., 1994).
Alley farming and livestock production(Nigeria)
In many parts of Africa, uncertain weatherconditions, especially low rainfall and othercalamities, impose much risk to farmingsystems. Strategies to overcome this risk
LIVESTOCK-TREE INTERACTIONS IN AGROFORESTRY 407
Table 5. Present value gross margins from three alternative farming systems in Southwest Nigeria (Nairaha-J i') over a 9-year period (Reynolds and JaMar, 1994)
Cropping onlyCropping allowing for soil nutrient loss
Crops and livestockCrops and livestock with terminal treeclearing costsUS $ = 25 Naira in 1998.
Traditionalfarming16,32516,17616,17616,074
Alley farmingwith fallow
16,32416,20418,79418,489
. Continuousalley farming
21,25521,07023,74923.444
are therefore essential, and one option thatmost farmers resort to is keeping livestock.This, however, accentuates the situation iffeeds are inadequate. Alley farming systemsthat use food or forage crops between hedgesof multipurpose trees such as Leucaena andGliricidia for mulch and/or forage providesan alternative, and has been successfullydeveloped, especially in Nigeria. It is atechnology that improves soil fertility,improves crop yields and animal feedshortages, as well as provide fuel for thehousehold.
A recent review of the role of alleyfarming in African livestock production(Reynolds and Jabbar, 1994), gave thefollowing highlights:
• Maize grain, the most important singlCfood crop in Africa, gave linear responseyields according to the level of Leucaenaor Gliricidia applied, and up to 40%increases were recorded when all thetree prunnings were returned as mulch.
• Supplementation with Leucaena orGliricidia increased the productivity (kgweaned/dam/year) of both West AfricanDjallonke sheep and West African Dwarfgoats.
• Leucaena forage supplementation gaveincreased milk production in early
lactation, especially in the dry seasonwhen the basal roughage diet is of poorquality.
"Economic analysis of livestockproduction showed that continuous alleyfarming was more profitable than alleyfarming with fallow, or conventionalno-tree farming, even when the cost ofclearing trees at the end of their usefullife is included (Table 5).
Studies in Africa and Latin America
Outside of the Asian region, limitedstudies have been undertaken on theintegration of ruminants with trees in Africaand Latin America. Data on the implicationsof livestock-tree interactions is thereforelimited. Nevertheless, grazing cattle undercoconuts and cashew is common along thecoastal areas of Tanzania and Kenya, asalso in parts of West Africa where thereare permanent tree crops such as oil palmand rubber. In all these situations, ruminantsare variously grazed with a view of utilizingto advantage the available native vegetation,mainly grasses and browse plants.
In humid Central America, there are twogood examples of livestock-based agro-forestry systems. In Costa Rica, Somarribaand Lega (1991) have described a systeminvolving Pinus caribaea for pulp and
410 DEVENDRA
Table 7. Benefits of some technological options in crop-animal systems and demonstrable sustainableagriclltlme in Asia (Devendra, 1996)
fertilizer use. The economic and ecologicalbenefits of such tree crop-animal interactions,in terms of hard data are limited, but beneficialevidence is apparent, supported also by thepractice of such systems, especially by smallfarmers.
Beneficial Impacts
Table 7 presents a summary of the positiveand beneficial impacts resulting from theapplication of the available technologies-.There are both socio-economic and environ-mental benefits, but more importantly, thesetogether contribute to the development ofsustainable agriculture. ' .
Areas for Research
The foregoing review and discussion oflivestock-based agroforestry systems ingeneral, and livestock-tree interactions inparticular, clearly suggest that research on
holistic systems is generally weak. Associatedwith this is sparse information onlivestock-tree interactions. The opportunitiesfor research to redress this situation offerexciting possibilities for integrated naturalresource management. The follo/wingresearch areas inter alia merit attention:
• Detailed characterization and systemsanalysis of individual environments thatfavor livestock-based agroforestrysystems, e.g., in uplands.
• Assessment of the nature and extentof livestock -tree-soil interactions, bothnegative and positive, effects of
. integrating animals on trees and of treeson animal performance, economic andenvironmental impacts.
• The effects of dung and urine on soilfertility, savings in the use of inorganic
LIVESTOCK-TREE INTERACTIONS IN AGROFORESTRY 411
fertilizers, and effects on crop yields,as well as nutrient recycling.
• The efficient use of available feedresources (grasses, crop residues, AIBPand NCFR) in the development of morecontrolled and zero grazing systems.
.' Development of sustainable livestock-based agroforestry systems.
• Socio-economic impact on povertyalleviation and food security.
An essential prerequisite for the researchis the need for a strong systems approachthat \5 interdisciplinary and has a holisticfocus. Such approaches should be needs-based in order to ensure that the contributionscan benefit whole farm systems.
Conclusions
Livestock-tree-crop interactions inagroforestry systems are potentially veryirriportant, but have not been adequatelydeveloped. The nature of livestock-treeinteractions are variable, and the extent,especially of the more positive effects,economic and environmental impacts, areinadequately understood. The systemsinvolve mainly cattle, goats and sheep, butalso buffaloes integrated in a variety ofperennial tree cops. Most of the researchhas been undertaken in South-east Asia withdemonstration of successful benefits; however,much more information is necessary aboutthe impacts of the interactions. Elsewhere inSouth China and Vietnam, the ruminant-treecrops model is further extended to includeponds and the integration of fish, vegetables,pigs and ducks. Limited case studies indicatethat with increased resource use and morefocused research, integrated livestock-tree-crops systems provide an important
opportunity to develop and demonstrateefficiency in the management of naturalresources and sustainable agroforestrysystems.
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