1 [txep TpyT] Running Head: The Role of Emotional
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability
Najwa Mordhah
PhD student
Old Dominion University
Public Administration and Urban Policy
2012
5000 Powhatan Ave
23508 Norfolk, VA
Cell phone: 217-8196585
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 2
The theory and practice of government has been shaped by the classic debate
between Herman Finer and Carl Friedrich in the history of public administration since the
1940s (Jackson,2009). Finer (1941) believes accountability has two meanings; one of them
is “…X is accountable for Y to Z” (p.336) and another one means that accountability is
“…an inward personal sense of moral obligation” (p.336). Finer thinks those two meanings
of accountability could be applied separately and he goes on to support external
accountability. According to Mulgan (2002), after a half century, the concept of
accountability has been changed and it goes beyond its core meaning of external control, as
used by Finer. Now, the need to include Friedrich’s inner accountability is imperative.
External accountability has many facets and Weberian bureaucracy is not the only
type of theory to apply strong control and accountability, but there are also technical,
political and managerial accountabilities in many public agencies (Callahan, 2007; Romzek
& Dubnick, 1987; Eikenberry, 2007). These types of accountability, however, conflict with
each other, and lead to blurring boundaries of accountability instead of applying stronger
ones (Romzek & Dubnick, 1987). For example, the disaster that happened in January 28th
1986, when NASA’s shuttle Challenger exploded and seven innocent lives were stolen, was
because of conflicting accountabilities (Romzek & Dubnick, 1987). They add that many of
NASA’s problems are generated because of the existence of multiple accountability systems
(political, managerial, bureaucratical, professional) in the same agencies.
Moreover, these situations could lead to corruption in which dishonest public
officials exploit opportunities for putting self above public interest. Miao(2010) states that
corruption “…has many negative impacts upon a given society, such as wasting public
resources, corrupting public morality, sabotaging government procedures and policies,
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 3
distorting justice…”(p.1). Even in the United States where there is a strong legislative base,
with severe penalties for corrupt behavior, corruption nevertheless abounds (Graycar &
Villa, 2011). Graycar & Villa (2011) analyze data from 100 successfully prosecuted cases
from New York City to investigate corruption in service positions in NYC. They conclude
that in one-fifth of the cases, funds were stolen and about 66% of the corrupt acts were
violations of existing regulations, and about 33% were crimes of opportunity for private
gain. Most importantly, they found that 80% of the cases involved indicate governance
capacity loss which means that government is incapable of providing safety or ensuring
standards.
Here, as it is discussed previously, if the government is losing its capacity to control,
this type of accountability, which depends on standards and principles, is not appropriate
anymore. Linda Galindo (2010) turns our attention to an essential point when she asserts
that the major problem in business today is a serious lack of accountability and personal
responsibility. She adds that to overcome this obstacle, personal accountability has to be
created. Accountability studies usually give attention to normative issues, and take their
eyes away from the need for real accountability which emerges from internal and personal
behavior. Mulgan (2002) states that the extension of the core accountability (external
accountability) is “…readily intelligible”(p.555). This study, however, believes in the
importance of self accountability as a type of accountability that does not conflict with the
core accountability but it goes hand in hand to provide more discipline for public servants to
work efficiently and effectively. It could be arguable that self or internal accountability is
related to subjectivity unless it is a skill that can be learned and enhanced. So, this study
suggests emotional intelligence as a way to enhance self accountability. Emotional
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 4
intelligence, is a concept that is related to “…the ability to manage oneself, the ability to
control one's emotions, and the ability to motivate oneself” (Latif,2006, p.81).
This paper argues that if it is hard to apply external accountability in public
organizations due to the lack of clarity of the boundaries of accountabilities and
governance capacity, it is imperative to look for accountability that emerges from
internal principles not external. Therefore, this paper aims to address the role of
emotional intelligence in shaping self accountability.
What is Accountability?
Accountability in public administration usually implies hierarchical bureaucratic
accountability and applies strong control from top to bottom. As Madison and Hamilton
(1959) point out:
“If men were angels no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern
men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In
framing a government which is to be administrated by men over men, the great
difficulty lies in this: You must first enable the government to control the
governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself. A dependence on the
people is, no doubt, the primary control of the government; but experience has
tough mankind the necessity of auxiliary precaution” (p.337).
Strong control could apply accountability in different ways. However, accountability
has tended to be financial in nature, as Martin & Frahm (2010) argue, that because of the
focus on financial accountability, the concept of accountability has been reduced to
secondary importance. After, the concept of accountability expands to include efficiency,
quality and effectiveness. In doing so, Bovens (2010) defines Accountability or, more
precisely, being accountable, “…is seen as a positive quality in organizations or officials”
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 5
(p.946) and “…as one of the core attributes of good governance “ (Emdadul Haq
,2010, p.26)”. Afifuddin & Siti-Nabiha (2010) state that accountability is “…a relationship
which involves the giving and demanding of reasons for conduct…” (p.1134) and this
relationship could be between individuals, groups, government, organizations, in direct or
indirect ways.
Roberts (1991) turns our attention to crucial points that ‘…different forms of
accountability produce diversity of senses of our-selves and our relation to others”(p. 385).
He claims that those differences are created by two forms of accountability which are:
hierarchical and socializing. Roberts portrays hierarchical forms of accountability as
disciplinary power gives an individual sense of self. Roberts (1991) suggests that beside
the individualism that hierarchical accountability produces, socializing forms of
accountability are other possibilities of accountability which can set up a more rationally
grounded agreement. These socializing forms of accountability also aim at confirming the
self and, at the same time, they openly admit the interdependence and mutual relations of
the self and the other. Briefly, while socializing forms of accountability rely on informal
relationships with wide communication, the hieratical form focuses on individualism and
formal relationships with others.
Back to Finer - Friderich debates in which administrators in public sectors have to stand
with whether moral accountability or outward accountability. Finer (1941), however, raises
the theoretical views of accountability theory and how it is mostly intertwined with role
theory. Frink & Klimosk (2004) state that while role theory is defined as “…a way to
describe how organizations, as ‘‘contrived socials systems’’ manage to inculcate or produce
reliable behavior on the part of their members…” ( p.4), accountability theory “…refers to
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 6
the building of self-actions–standards perceptions”(p.9). They add that accountability theory
focuses on decisions or behaviors related to moral or ethical issues. Role theory, however, is
also related to ethical in some ways but it focuses more on function and job performance.
So, in order to integrate role theory and accountability theory, accountability in an
organization is seen as “…having to report or explain oneself to others in the future” (p.9).
However, accountability in the last view is what governmental agencies suffer from
and struggle with. There is ambiguity in determining who is accountable to whom and for
what, due to network governance and complicity (Bogason ,2006; Throne ,2009) which
leads to the fact that the government is losing its capacity to control (Graycar & Villa,
2011). In addition there are many divisions of accountability in the same public agency
which contradict each other (Romzek & Dubnick, 1987). Hence, what we need is another
type of accountability which emerges from individuals internally as a way to enhance
accountability in public organizations. This directs us to the next question: What is self
accountability?
Self accountability:
It is known that accountability is the goal when in fact we are far away from
achieving emotional or moral intent. Yet on the other, accounting based upon essential
measurements could be imperfectly considered as having absolute results when, in fact, they
practically serve goals of some people very well and others only poorly (Sulaiman,
2001).Moreover, Passyn & Sujan (2006) state that the ability to act based upon performance
measurements is different from the aspiration to act inherently in self-accountability. They
add that individuals must feel responsible and motivated to act if action is about to occur
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 7
even though they might not feel they are capable of action. Frijda (1986) and Passyn and
Sujan (2006) believe that emotions motivate and drive behavior and actions.
Samuel & Stewart (2009) point to the importance of establishing sustainable
accountability. They add that most thinkers believe there is no sustainable accountability.
The researchers think those thinkers are far from reality because they are looking for
enforced accountability and they ignore accountability that comes from self beliefs or moral
and ethical persuasion.
Depending on an empirical study, Passyn & Sujan (2006) report that emotions lead to
facilitative effects that enhance self- accountability dimensions, such as guilt and regret.
They add that even though the perception of self-accountability motivates intentions, the
drive for implementation or achievement requires the additional impetus of an emotional
experience. An emotion requires a confluence of appraisal. They also examine the role of
high self-accountability emotions in enhancing compliance with fear appeals. They find that
relative to straight fear appeals or adding hope, which ascribes low accountability to the self,
action- facilitative coping, intentions, and behaviors are enhanced by adding guilt and
regret, all of which induce feelings of high self-accountability. Consequently, depending on
previous results, it has to be noticed that self- accountability is a mixture of fear, hope, guilt,
regret and frequent self evaluation.
From a psychological perspective, Coelho (2010) states that confession and
repentance are important to enhance self – accountability and also significant to rehabbing
behaviors, and they require different steps. He emphasizes the recognition that one has done
wrong or not according to their deepest values is the first step to enhance self-
accountability. The next step is deciding to change to obtain self- satisfaction as a response
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 8
to the expression or confession of the painful truths about the self. “…vital to this
confession is some expression of regret or remorse for what one has done or caused” (p.38).
Briefly, self accountability might be considered as a distinguishable type of
accountability and it could be defined as self - monitoring emerging from strong motives
and characterized as frequent self- blaming and evaluating for any mistake whether small or
big. In addition it requires strong conscientiousness, experience and emotional motives.
These motives could be religious, ethical or spiritual.
Spirituality, however, can be seen “…as a form of intelligence because it predicts
functioning and adaptation and offers capabilities that enable people to solve problems and
attain goals” (Hosseini et al., 2010,p.179). Hossieini et al. (2010) add that psychologists’
conception of spirituality is extended by the conceiving spirituality as a sort of intelligence
which allows spirituality to be associated with rational processes and goal achievement.
They emphasize that type of intelligence which is related to spirituality could be emotional
intelligence. Emotional intelligence enables us “… to judge in which situation we are
involved and then to behave appropriately within it” (p.179).
The Marshmallow Test, which is discussed in Goleman’s book (1995), supports this
conception. The Marshmallow study divided children into four groups depending on
whether they were exposed to the rewards (marshmallow) or not, and whether or not the
children were advised how to distract themselves. The study finds that only those children
who were exposed to the rewards resisted them without having been advised on how to
distract themselves. This experiment leads us to conclude that “…there is perhaps no
psychological skill more fundamental than resisting impulse. It is the root of all emotional
self-control” (Goleman, 1995, p.81). It should be noted that Goleman discusses this
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 9
experimental test in his book to prove his assumption that emotional intelligence is the way
to apply self control, which is a facet of self accountability.
It is generally accepted that ethics and values are open to debate; what I consider as
values or ethics, others may not. So, the researcher thinks about a different concept, which
could be generalizeable. This idea opens a door to think about emotional intelligence and
whether it has a role in shaping self accountability, as it is suggested from previous
discussion. This is the next step that needs to be investigated.
Emotional intelligence:
The idea of the importance of emotional intelligence in shaping effective managers
is not new (Salovey and Mayer, 1990; Goleman, 1995). Salovey and Mayer (1993) define
emotional intelligence as “…the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express
emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the
ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions
to promote emotional and intellectual growth” (p. 47). Also emotional intelligence is
articulated as “… the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate
among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking” (Latif,2006,p.82).
Hurley et al. (2010) state that since emotional intelligence means the cooperative
relationship between emotion and intelligence, it could be viewed as an ability that enhances
the relationship between emotion and cognition. Emotional intelligence is also considered as
a group of many factors of one’s social and cognitive aspects and the linkage within the
explanation of emotion (Hassan et al. ,2009). Moon & Hur (2011) clarify that the current
conceptualization of emotional intelligence originated with Thorndike’s (1920) study, and it
has been gaining greater recognition and acceptance since Goleman published Emotional
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 10
Intelligence in 1995 and then his model in 1998. Furthermore, according to Goleman, 20%
of one’s accomplishments could be attributed to IQ while the rest are determined by
emotional intelligence.
The Goleman model (1998) views emotional intelligence as a form of various
competencies and skills that contribute to successful managerial performance (Bar-
on.2010). These abilities can be grouped into five core areas: self-awareness, self-regulation,
self motivation, social awareness and social skills. Self-awareness is the first component of
emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995; 1998). It includes a deep understanding of one's
advantages, disadvantages, strengths, weaknesses, motives, emotions and needs. It is
assumed that individuals who have high self-awareness are aware of how their feelings
affect them, their job performance and others and will have high self-confidence. Self
regulation is the second component in the Goleman Model. Self control, trustworthiness and
conscientiousness are some facets of self regulation. While self control means managing
spontaneous feelings and distressing emotions well, trustworthiness is influenced by
maintaining standards of honesty and integrity. Furthermore, conscientiousness represents
taking responsibility for personal action. More importantly, Goleman assumes that
individuals with this competence would meet commitments and, more importantly,
implement self accountability for meeting their objectives. Also Goelman emphasizes the
importance of motivation to succeed so he raises self motivation as the third competent. He
assumes that individuals behave according to their desire to achieve goals and to succeed, so
they demonstrate commitment and initiative. Goleman draws attention to social awareness
as a way to understand others by sensing others feeling and perspectives in order to develop
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 11
others. Finally, in order to direct people towards predetermined and desired situations, he
advocates social skills such as communication, leadership, and influence.
As it is stated before, self accountability is an internal feeling that enables
individuals to judge their selves according to the level of consciousness, awareness of their
selves and the strength of the motives to adjust their actions. Based on Goleman’s
definitions, it is apparent that emotional intelligence could have a role in shaping self
accountability. Explicitly, self awareness could be defined as knowing one’s internal states
and self-consciousness as awareness of inner thoughts (Cole & Rozell, 2011,p.94,95).
Moreover, self-regulation which includes self-monitoring refers to an internal ability to
adjust the behavior to external and situational factors (Cole &Rozell,2011) and to decrease
negative affect intensity (Velasco et al., 2006), and self motivation which indicates the
importance of motives to encourages individuals. Notably, there are many factors that seem
to be shared between self accountability and emotional intelligence such as: self monitoring-
internal feeling, consciousness, motives and awareness. Therefore, self accountability seems
to be correlated with emotional intelligence and this correlation has to be proven
statistically.
Goleman tries to prove that emotional intelligence is correlated with high
performance in education and organization to enhance managerial skills. Interestingly,
some scholars go beyond Goleman’s claim and argue that stress management, the ability to
cope with stress, is a component of emotional intelligence (Ramesan, 2009; WU, 2009).
Moreover, while some scholars see emotional intelligence as being an important aspect of
organizational management though incorporating capabilities such as self-motivation,
leadership and developing others (Hurley et al. ,2010), many scholars use the concept of
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 12
emotional intelligence to test its relationships with different factors. These studies will be
discussed in greater length in the next section.
Previous studies:
There are numerous amounts of studies that deal or examine emotional intelligence
in many ways and with diversity of topics. This discussion, however, is limited to studies
that might be related to the subject under study-self accountability. Adeoye & Torubelli
(2011) seek to explain the effects of emotional intelligence and human relationship
management on the organizational commitment of Nigerian civil servants. A qualitative
approach was applied with Simple of 300 participants from Ministries of Education, Local
government affairs, Civil service commission, Agriculture and Governors office of Bayelsa
and Oyo States. To accomplish the purpose of the study, three scales are used : Emotional
intelligence scales (EIS), Human relationship management scale (HRMS) and
Organizational commitment questionnaire (OCQ) were used to collect data from the
participants. The results indicate that when taken together, both independent variables were
effective in predicting organizational commitment.
Moon & Hur (2011) go on to support the results of previous study. Their study
examines how emotional intelligence (EI) affects emotional exhaustion resulting from
emotional labor, and how emotional exhaustion influences an individual’s job performance
in terms of organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Data from 295 retail sales
employees in South Korea are collected. Emotional exhaustion was found to be negatively
related to job performance in terms of organizational commitment and job satisfaction and
this result leads to confirm in the relationship between job performance (commitment and
satisfaction) and emotional intelligence (appraisals of emotions, optimism, and social skills).
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 13
However, they emphasize that emotional intelligence alone does not directly influence job
performance, because job performance is affected by intervening effects of the dynamics of
emotional interactions between individuals in the organization.
The researcher thinks previous results provide indicators to support the idea that
there are relationships between emotional intelligence and self accountability. One of them
is the relationship between emotional intelligence and commitment which has been proven
that it could be a good indicator to suggest relationships between emotional intelligence and
self accountability. Explicitly, since commitment refers to “… an employee’s feeling of
obligation to remain with the organization” (Adeoye & Torubelli, 2011, p.215) and self
accountability is an inner feeling of obligation that motivate the employee to do his duties
effectively, Emotional intelligence could be an predictor of self accountability too.
Additionally, Yaghoubi et al. (2011) examine the relationship of organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB) with emotional intelligence (El) of the followers. Organizational
citizenship behavior is defined in their study as “… voluntary and spontaneous behaviors
that extend beyond employees' normal job duties” (p.119). They add that organizational
citizenship behaviors describe actions in which employees are able to go beyond their set
role requirements. 114 respondents participated in this study to confirm the relation that
emotional intelligence was significantly correlated to conscientiousness, civic virtue, and
altruism of followers.
Hence, conscientiousness means the desire to do what is right; this behavior could
also encourage individuals to be accountable for their duties to themselves. Moreover,
Yaghoubi et al. (2011) define the variable conscientiousness as “…a particular individual is
organized, accountable and hardworking” (p.120). From a transformational view, if
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 14
emotional intelligence is correlated with conscientiousness (as it is assumed in Goleman
model (1998)) , and conscientiousness is related to self accountability, then emotional
intelligence would be correlated with self accountability.
Since self accountability deals with psychological views due to its relation to inner
and personality, so, the researcher thinks investigating psychological studies will open a
window of knowledge about emotional intelligence and self accountability. Mojgan et al.
(2010) examine Fathers' emotional intelligence and their response towards their Children's
Behaviors. They find that Pearson's correlation indicated that fathers with high El displayed
more positive responses to children's behavior while fathers with low El displayed more
anger responses to children's behavior. Obviously, the study shows how emotional
intelligence is related to positive behavior or positive psychology.
Bar-On (2010) notes that positive psychology is defined “…positive characteristics
and strengths that enable individuals to thrive … it is based on the belief that people want to
lead meaningful and fulfilling lives, to cultivate what is best within themselves, and to
enhance their experiences of love, work and play”(p.56) . In his study (2005), that aims to
explore the connection between emotional intelligence and positive psychology, he
concludes that the two constructs are highly correlated based on the factors of well being.
These factors include the ability to understand and accept one’s emotions and oneself in
general; the ability to achieve personal goals to enhance one’s potential; and the ability to
distinguish one’s feelings and put things in correct perspective. This means that those
individuals who have high emotional self awareness are those with an enhanced sense of
well-being. Hence, unarguably individuals, who seek to enhance self accountability, seek to
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 15
distinguish their feeling and implement the correct one to achieve their own goals.
Deductively, the more self awareness, the more self accountability.
On the other hand, some scholars go beyond testing emotional intelligence to testing
the implementation of emotional intelligence as an evaluating tool. Latif (2006) provides a
description of the planning and implementation of the management skills course and how
could be evaluated based on the pre and post emotional intelligence assessment. His study
figures out that the management skills course resulted in a significant improvement in
participants’ emotional intelligence. Additionally, Masciulli (2011) puts also his finger on
the possibility of shaping effective, ethical and public leaders by implementing emotional
intelligence skills. Interestingly, Masciulli (2011) strongly emphasizes the need of ethical
leaders in public organizations due to globalization, network governmental and
intergovernmental organizations, uncertain and complex times. He goes on to say that
emotional intelligence would develop masses of leaders’ thoughts by enhancing their
abilities of distinguish value and judge their performance of producing goods and providing
services.
At this point, self accountability in public sector is imperative and it has to be
addressed. Moreover, according to (Mulgan, 2002) “…internalized accountability was
proffered as a solution to the dilemma facing board members who felt they ought to be
publicly accountable but could not say to whom”, indeed, they accountable to their selves.
Self accountability in the public sector could be defined as an internal sense that goes
beyond the external accountability (political bureaucratical, managerial, professional) to
provide public interest honestly, efficiently and effectively. According to previous concepts
of self accountability, individuals in public sectors will be accountable to themselves in
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 16
addition to their accountabilities to others for providing public interest. They will frequently
judge their performances, and blame themselves for their mistakes and shortcomings. Those
individuals, who have higher sense of self awareness self consciousness, self monitoring and
self motivation, will have a high level of self accountability. Since these elements are
existent in the emotional intelligence model and self accountability definition, the study
considers these factors as indicators of the relationship between emotional intelligence and
self accountability. Moreover, since emotional intelligence is a skill that could be trained
and learned (Latif, 2006; Masciulli ,2011), as a consequence, self accountability may be
enhanced through emotional intelligence training. However, these concepts are based on
reviewing the literature and have to be addressed significantly.
Conclusion:
It seems to be hard to ignore the complexity and changes facing public administration.
It has to be noticed that the more complicated issue is how public administration can adapt
to these changes while maintaining accountability. If these changes are imperative and
inescapable, it is more than necessary to find a remedy for accountability’s dilemma. This
paper turns attentions to the concept that accountability is not limited to up-down control or
even financial control; it goes beyond that to be emerged from the inner as self
accountability. It is worthy to note that self accountability is necessary to enhance actions,
work, and relationships with others. If the development leads us to adapt new method, and
establish new theory and apply new practices, the consideration of self- accountability has to
be established and infused. .
Here, from the literature review and previous studies, it is apparent that emotional
intelligence has a role in shaping self accountability. Even though the researcher found no
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 17
explicit study investigating the relationships between emotional intelligence and self
accountability this does not mean there are no relationships nor the subject has less
importance. The researcher goes on with many scholars (Salguero & Fernández-Berrocal,
2010) to strongly recommend test these relationships statistically. This study would be
significant if the empirical investigation shows that self accountability is indeed correlated
to emotional intelligence.
.
.
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Shaping Self Accountability 18
.
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