The Role of Occupations in Shaping The Role of Occupations in Shaping Personal Work Schemas and the Personal Work Schemas and the

Meaning of WorkMeaning of Work

M. Teresa CardadorM. Teresa CardadorMichael G. PrattMichael G. PrattUniversity of IllinoisUniversity of Illinois

Meaning MeetingMeaning MeetingMarch 31, 2007March 31, 2007

What We NeedWhat We Need

General feedback General feedback Does this make sense?Does this make sense? What is the most exciting / interesting?What is the most exciting / interesting?

Given that we have to collect more data, on what Given that we have to collect more data, on what specific areas should we focus?specific areas should we focus?

Our “game plan” is to show some of our data Our “game plan” is to show some of our data and findings – but leave a lot of time for and findings – but leave a lot of time for discussion.discussion.

IntroductionIntroduction

Work in organizations is increasingly performed by those Work in organizations is increasingly performed by those in professions and other occupations in professions and other occupations (Wallace, 1995)(Wallace, 1995)

We know relatively little about the “micro-level” We know relatively little about the “micro-level” consequences of one’s occupation consequences of one’s occupation (cf. Ibarra, 1999; Pratt, et al., (cf. Ibarra, 1999; Pratt, et al., 2006) 2006) for shaping how individuals experience their work for shaping how individuals experience their work (i.e., what is meaningful?)(i.e., what is meaningful?)

Meaning in and at work is linked to physical and Meaning in and at work is linked to physical and psychological health psychological health (Baumeister, 1991; Ryff & Singer, 1998; (Baumeister, 1991; Ryff & Singer, 1998; Wrzesniewski, et al., 1997), Wrzesniewski, et al., 1997), enhanced motivation, performance enhanced motivation, performance (Roberson, 1990)(Roberson, 1990) and attachment and attachment (Ashforth & Pratt, 2003; Pratt, 1998) (Ashforth & Pratt, 2003; Pratt, 1998)

PurposePurpose

Our purpose was to build theory at the Our purpose was to build theory at the intersection of occupations and meaning intersection of occupations and meaning making / meaning of workmaking / meaning of work

Occupations

Meaning of Work

Research Question:Research Question:Linking Occupations and MeaningLinking Occupations and Meaning

MethodMethod Qualitative, comparative research designQualitative, comparative research design

Semi-structured interviews with individuals Semi-structured interviews with individuals from 3 occupational groups from 3 occupational groups

Looking across occupations allowed us to Looking across occupations allowed us to detect the role of occupation in influencing detect the role of occupation in influencing how workers construct their workhow workers construct their work

Data and Analysis Data and Analysis Data Collected:Data Collected:

Advanced Practice Nurses (9)Advanced Practice Nurses (9) Police Officers (8)Police Officers (8) Entrepreneurs (7)Entrepreneurs (7)

Groups chosen using a purposeful sampling Groups chosen using a purposeful sampling approach: approach: Expression of strong occupational identities - contexts where Expression of strong occupational identities - contexts where

identity dynamics may be visible identity dynamics may be visible (Eisenhardt, 1989); (Eisenhardt, 1989); Differences (education, training, organizational structure, and Differences (education, training, organizational structure, and

personal characterizations of work) would make inter-personal characterizations of work) would make inter-occupational differences easier to identifyoccupational differences easier to identify

Analysis: Analysis: inductive analytic approach taking iterative inductive analytic approach taking iterative steps between the data and the emerging set of steps between the data and the emerging set of theoretical ideas theoretical ideas (Miles & Huberman; 1994; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). (Miles & Huberman; 1994; Strauss & Corbin, 1990).

““Context”Context”

Overview of the (3) OccupationsOverview of the (3) Occupations

Advanced Practice NursesAdvanced Practice Nurses Functions: direct care, facilitate functioning of the unit, education, Functions: direct care, facilitate functioning of the unit, education,

research, professional leadershipresearch, professional leadership

Higher level knowledge and skills – practice with autonomyHigher level knowledge and skills – practice with autonomy

Advanced education and clinical training beyond the RNAdvanced education and clinical training beyond the RN

Other Characteristics: (Allen, 2007; Gardner, Change & Duffield, 2007)Other Characteristics: (Allen, 2007; Gardner, Change & Duffield, 2007) Heavily female dominated - stereotypical view that nursing is Heavily female dominated - stereotypical view that nursing is

associated with a caring instinct associated with a caring instinct

Practice has evolved to “fill the gaps” in the health care system; high Practice has evolved to “fill the gaps” in the health care system; high coordination among occupational groupscoordination among occupational groups

The relationship with patients is at the heart nursing claims to The relationship with patients is at the heart nursing claims to specialized expertisespecialized expertise

Police OfficersPolice Officers

Functions: order maintenance, law enforcement and serviceFunctions: order maintenance, law enforcement and service

Successful completion of required course of instruction for law Successful completion of required course of instruction for law enforcement officers approved home state enforcement officers approved home state

Characteristics: (Brown, 1988; Dick, 2000; Manning, 1995; Paoline, 2003)Characteristics: (Brown, 1988; Dick, 2000; Manning, 1995; Paoline, 2003) Unique coercive authority over citizensUnique coercive authority over citizens

Highly stressful and unpredictable – presence of danger/violence Highly stressful and unpredictable – presence of danger/violence

Collective culture: helps to buffer strains that officers face dailyCollective culture: helps to buffer strains that officers face daily

High level of autonomy and decision makingHigh level of autonomy and decision making

Perception that no one really understands the real nature of police work Perception that no one really understands the real nature of police work

EntrepreneursEntrepreneurs Functions: Organizes, operates, and assumes the risk for a (new) Functions: Organizes, operates, and assumes the risk for a (new)

business venturebusiness venture

Facilitating factors: (Luchsinger & Bagby, 2001; Olm & Eddy, 1985; Facilitating factors: (Luchsinger & Bagby, 2001; Olm & Eddy, 1985; Rose & Unwala, 1986)Rose & Unwala, 1986)

Ambitious and competitive; an unusual degree of determinationAmbitious and competitive; an unusual degree of determination

Self generating enthusiasm for product or processSelf generating enthusiasm for product or process

Willingness to take calculated risksWillingness to take calculated risks

Questioning status quoQuestioning status quo

Frustrated by bureaucratic systemsFrustrated by bureaucratic systems

Motivated by problem solving, effecting change, innovationMotivated by problem solving, effecting change, innovation

Occupations

Meaning of Work

OccupationalIdentity

• character-based• task-based

RoleOrientation

WorkSchema

What I NeedFor Work Meaning

Preliminary Findings:Preliminary Findings:Linking Occupations and MeaningLinking Occupations and Meaning

Role OrientationRole Orientation

One’s unique approach to their occupational role One’s unique approach to their occupational role (Parker, 2000)(Parker, 2000)

ROs are malleable - can be influenced by both ROs are malleable - can be influenced by both personal and situational factorspersonal and situational factors (Parker, et al., (Parker, et al., 1997)1997)

Role are a central anchor for the construction of Role are a central anchor for the construction of self schemasself schemas (Stryker, 1980)(Stryker, 1980)

Role Orientation DimensionsRole Orientation DimensionsHow do I describe my work?How do I describe my work?

1.1. Self vs. Other:Self vs. Other: Degree to which one describes Degree to which one describes work in terms of benefits to self or otherswork in terms of benefits to self or others

2.2. Process vs. OutcomeProcess vs. Outcome: Degree to which one : Degree to which one describes work in terms of process or outcomedescribes work in terms of process or outcome

3.3. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic RewardIntrinsic vs. Extrinsic Reward: Degree to which : Degree to which one describes work as associated with internal one describes work as associated with internal or external rewardsor external rewards

Role Orientation:Role Orientation:Self vs. OtherSelf vs. Other

Self: Self: “Okay, this is driven by the scientific/technical side. “Okay, this is driven by the scientific/technical side. It’s typically summed up by the old saying, you know, ‘to It’s typically summed up by the old saying, you know, ‘to go where no one has gone before…You know, it’s kind go where no one has gone before…You know, it’s kind of like, ooh, this is cool! But, again, that factor of being of like, ooh, this is cool! But, again, that factor of being able to do something and not being afraid to do able to do something and not being afraid to do something.” (E, M) something.” (E, M)

Other:Other: “…“…it’s rewarding when you have somebody and it’s rewarding when you have somebody and they get better. You know, it feels good, and it feels good they get better. You know, it feels good, and it feels good to nurture. It feels good to be able to sit down with a to nurture. It feels good to be able to sit down with a family and just let them vent, and empathize and try to family and just let them vent, and empathize and try to solve their problems or try to help them get through their solve their problems or try to help them get through their problems.” (APN, F)problems.” (APN, F)

Role Orientation:Role Orientation:Process vs. OutcomeProcess vs. Outcome

Process:Process: “ “For me, I enjoy going out and literally picking up the For me, I enjoy going out and literally picking up the pieces of the puzzle and trying to put it together and trying to get in pieces of the puzzle and trying to put it together and trying to get in the mind of whoever did the crime…I also, like I mentioned earlier, the mind of whoever did the crime…I also, like I mentioned earlier, really enjoy not knowing from one second to the next what’s gonna really enjoy not knowing from one second to the next what’s gonna happen, you know, being able to just at a moment’s notice have to, happen, you know, being able to just at a moment’s notice have to, you know, snap into one particular role of the job. That, to me, is you know, snap into one particular role of the job. That, to me, is huge, and I’ve always said, you know, I can never have a job where huge, and I’ve always said, you know, I can never have a job where it’s just gonna be the same thing over and over and over. It would just it’s just gonna be the same thing over and over and over. It would just drive me nuts. And that’s why this job really appeals to me.” (PO, F)drive me nuts. And that’s why this job really appeals to me.” (PO, F)

Outcome: Outcome: “W“We had a pretty audacious vision to build, you know, e had a pretty audacious vision to build, you know, [company] is just a little bit along the way of where we ultimately want [company] is just a little bit along the way of where we ultimately want to be impacting our market place and what not. So that is a piece of to be impacting our market place and what not. So that is a piece of it. The vision, in and of itself, I think is one that’s pretty meaningful, it. The vision, in and of itself, I think is one that’s pretty meaningful, too. I mean, our work is used, our instruments are used in a lot of too. I mean, our work is used, our instruments are used in a lot of disease research and ultimately disease treatments. And so, we disease research and ultimately disease treatments. And so, we literally do have the opportunity quote/unquote change the world with literally do have the opportunity quote/unquote change the world with kind of what we’re doing.” (E, M)kind of what we’re doing.” (E, M)

Role Orientation:Role Orientation:Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic RewardIntrinsic vs. Extrinsic Reward

Intrinsic Reward:Intrinsic Reward: “The satisfaction of knowing “The satisfaction of knowing that, you know, you did what you were supposed that, you know, you did what you were supposed to do to make things a little better. And you can’t to do to make things a little better. And you can’t change everything, but you know, you can make change everything, but you know, you can make a significant amount of change in just what you a significant amount of change in just what you do.” (M, PO)do.” (M, PO)

Extrinsic Reward:Extrinsic Reward: “ “I work for money. In I work for money. In software, I definitely work for money…I guess software, I definitely work for money…I guess my 20-year career in software has always been my 20-year career in software has always been for money, to make a living.” (E, M)for money, to make a living.” (E, M)

Occupation and Role OrientationOccupation and Role Orientation

Dominant Role Orientation Dominant Role Orientation CombinationsCombinations

Advanced Practice NursesAdvanced Practice Nurses Process and OutcomeProcess and Outcome

Self and OtherSelf and Other

Intrinsic and ExtrinsicIntrinsic and Extrinsic

Police OfficersPolice Officers ProcessProcess

OtherOther

ExtrinsicExtrinsic

EntrepreneursEntrepreneurs ProcessProcess

SelfSelf

IntrinsicIntrinsic

Role Orientation and Role Orientation and Personal Work SchemaPersonal Work Schema

Work Schema:Work Schema: System of beliefs about a particular domain System of beliefs about a particular domain

(Markus, 1997)(Markus, 1997) Schemas function as an organizing framework Schemas function as an organizing framework

for a person’s thoughts, feelings and for a person’s thoughts, feelings and experience in a particular behavioral domain experience in a particular behavioral domain (Markus & Wurf, 1987)(Markus & Wurf, 1987)

One’s unique approach to their role was One’s unique approach to their role was linked to personal constructions of work – linked to personal constructions of work – work schemas. work schemas.

Work SchemasWork SchemasHow do I view my work?How do I view my work?

Engaging:Engaging: Individuals describe work as personally enjoyable, Individuals describe work as personally enjoyable, interesting, challenging, and rewarding. These factors stem largely interesting, challenging, and rewarding. These factors stem largely from work tasks themselves. from work tasks themselves.

Purposeful:Purposeful: Individuals describe work in terms of making a Individuals describe work in terms of making a difference to others in some way – its outcomes are valuable or difference to others in some way – its outcomes are valuable or important and it contributes to something larger than oneself. important and it contributes to something larger than oneself.

Relational:Relational: Individuals describe work primarily in terms of the Individuals describe work primarily in terms of the relationships involved. Work provides an avenue for the relationships involved. Work provides an avenue for the development and maintenance of meaningful personal relationships. development and maintenance of meaningful personal relationships.

Instrumental:Instrumental: Individuals describe work as a means to another end Individuals describe work as a means to another end

(e.g., financial, lifestyle, keeping busy). (e.g., financial, lifestyle, keeping busy). NOTE: While almost all NOTE: While almost all participants claimed to value money, some emphasized this more participants claimed to value money, some emphasized this more than others. Those who considered it their central reason for than others. Those who considered it their central reason for working were considered to have an Instrumental Schema. working were considered to have an Instrumental Schema.

Work Schemas (cont.)Work Schemas (cont.)

Most had a dominant work schema, with Most had a dominant work schema, with elements of otherselements of others

While these schemas surfaced in all While these schemas surfaced in all occupations, prevalence differed across occupations, prevalence differed across occupationoccupation

Illustrative QuotesIllustrative QuotesWork SchemasWork Schemas

Engaging: Engaging: “I just love dong this. It’s fun, it’s a “I just love dong this. It’s fun, it’s a challenge. It’s neat to see what we’ve built. It’s challenge. It’s neat to see what we’ve built. It’s incredibly rewarding.” (E, M)incredibly rewarding.” (E, M)

Purposeful:Purposeful: “I’d like to make a difference…I feel “I’d like to make a difference…I feel like I’d like to contribute. I wanna have a hand in like I’d like to contribute. I wanna have a hand in how things are done, because I want it to go how things are done, because I want it to go how I think it should go. Instituting change is a how I think it should go. Instituting change is a very important thing for me, or to maintain very important thing for me, or to maintain standards, high standards…” (APN, F)standards, high standards…” (APN, F)

Illustrative QuotesIllustrative QuotesWork SchemasWork Schemas

Relational: Relational: “I really like caring for people, and so, it’s hard for me to “I really like caring for people, and so, it’s hard for me to imagine not doing that…I guess I do have the ability to, you know, imagine not doing that…I guess I do have the ability to, you know, talk to people or talk them into things or help them understand, you talk to people or talk them into things or help them understand, you know, stuff one way or the other, and convince them to do things… know, stuff one way or the other, and convince them to do things… It’s really important to us to have those kinds of relationships. You It’s really important to us to have those kinds of relationships. You know, you get really involved with your patients.” (APN, F)know, you get really involved with your patients.” (APN, F)

Instrumental: Instrumental: “Well…you need to sustain yourself and your family, so “Well…you need to sustain yourself and your family, so you need the money, but…I like to keep busy, I like to do things, I you need the money, but…I like to keep busy, I like to do things, I like to challenge myself. It’s different everyday. It’s something like to challenge myself. It’s different everyday. It’s something different. I mean if I didn’t work, I’d just be doing the same TV different. I mean if I didn’t work, I’d just be doing the same TV Maury Povitch show everyday….not doing anything just gets really Maury Povitch show everyday….not doing anything just gets really boring. This job is definitely not boring.” (PO, M)boring. This job is definitely not boring.” (PO, M)

Relationship between Role Relationship between Role Orientation and Work SchemasOrientation and Work Schemas

Role Orientation CombinationsRole Orientation Combinations Work SchemaWork Schema

Other, Outcome, IntrinsicOther, Outcome, Intrinsic Purposeful / EngagingPurposeful / Engaging

Self, Process, IntrinsicSelf, Process, Intrinsic Engaging / PurposefulEngaging / Purposeful

Self, Outcome, IntrinsicSelf, Outcome, Intrinsic Engaging / RelationalEngaging / Relational

Other, Process, ExtrinsicOther, Process, Extrinsic Relational / InstrumentalRelational / Instrumental

Other, Process, IntrinsicOther, Process, Intrinsic Relational / EngagingRelational / Engaging

Self, Process, ExtrinsicSelf, Process, Extrinsic Instrumental / EngagingInstrumental / Engaging

Self, Outcome, ExtrinsicSelf, Outcome, Extrinsic Instrumental / RelationalInstrumental / Relational

Other, Outcome, ExtrinsicOther, Outcome, Extrinsic Instrumental / PurposefulInstrumental / Purposeful

Work Schemas and Work Schemas and Meaning of WorkMeaning of Work

One’s work schema was associated with One’s work schema was associated with the meaning ascribed to one’s workthe meaning ascribed to one’s work

Both were influenced by one’s occupationBoth were influenced by one’s occupation

Relationship between Relationship between Work Schemas and Meaning of WorkWork Schemas and Meaning of Work

EngagingEngaging PurposefulPurposeful RelationalRelational InstrumentalInstrumental

Advanced Practice Nurses

Collaborative problem solving; providing good care to patients

Providing a high standard of care, promoting the highest quality of care for patients

Developing relationships with other patients and co-workers

Hours, Flexibility, Money: symbolizes professional equity

Police Officers Having variety, excitement in work; using my specialized skill

Making a difference in the community

Developing trusting relationships with other officers; being a role model to kids

Flexibility, Money: as a symbol of security and support

Entrepreneurs Doing things I am good at; seeing success of business through my effort

Working toward a shared organizational purpose; having a socially valuable business output

Developing friendships with business partners and others in business network

Lifestyle, Money: allows business to continue, symbolizes success

Relationship between Work Schemas Relationship between Work Schemas and “Meaning Needs”and “Meaning Needs”

Schemas determine the type of information Schemas determine the type of information attended to and the importance attached to it attended to and the importance attached to it (Markus, 1977)(Markus, 1977)

People tend to seek information about and from People tend to seek information about and from

others that is related to their self-schema others that is related to their self-schema (Markus & (Markus & Wurf, 1987)Wurf, 1987)

Meaning needs varied depending on the work Meaning needs varied depending on the work schema held by the individualschema held by the individual

Relationship between Work Schemas Relationship between Work Schemas and “Meaning Needs”and “Meaning Needs”

EngagingEngaging PurposefulPurposeful RelationalRelational InstrumentalInstrumental

“Meaning Needs”From Job

The ability to do things I’m good at/enjoy; autonomy and variety

The opportunity to create something of social value, implement a vision

The opportunity to help others

The opportunity to be recognized, appreciated; flexibility

“Meaning Needs”From

Relationships

The opportunity to have good/collaborative relationships with colleagues and “customers”

The opportunity to develop others (staff, employees), and to develop close relationships with those served

The opportunity to develop trusting co-worker relationships and experience peer support

Being a role model to others; the opportunity to develop trusting co-worker relationships

“Meaning Needs”From Organization

Receiving support, training/education, opportunities for development

Demonstrating support for the mission and common goals; maintaining positive organizational reputation

Fostering a sense of community and mutual reliance/respect

Promoting fairness; providing personal recognition of job well done

Illustrative QuotesIllustrative Quotes Purposeful/from Organization:Purposeful/from Organization: “I think that the vision and the “I think that the vision and the

mission have become very corporate, very business-oriented, and mission have become very corporate, very business-oriented, and they’ve really moved away from…I mean, I think that they attempt to they’ve really moved away from…I mean, I think that they attempt to say the right things, but I think they don’t walk their talk. And so, I say the right things, but I think they don’t walk their talk. And so, I think that I would like to see them make strides to, you know, really think that I would like to see them make strides to, you know, really own the work they put out there.” (APN, F)own the work they put out there.” (APN, F)

Instrumental/from Organization: Instrumental/from Organization: “I think I always struggle with the “I think I always struggle with the issue of, you know, we come and we give patient information or we issue of, you know, we come and we give patient information or we go with information to providers, trying to help them, give them the go with information to providers, trying to help them, give them the information, that if they read it, would provide them with good information, that if they read it, would provide them with good knowledge to make informed clinical decisions. And oftentimes that knowledge to make informed clinical decisions. And oftentimes that information is not valued or reviewed.” (APN, F)information is not valued or reviewed.” (APN, F)

ImplicationsImplications

Occupations matter. Shape occupational Occupations matter. Shape occupational identities, roles, schemas and ultimately, identities, roles, schemas and ultimately, meaningmeaning

Development of “work schemas”Development of “work schemas”

Relationship of our research to work orientation - Relationship of our research to work orientation - may present a nuanced view of how these are may present a nuanced view of how these are shapedshaped

Role Orientation, Work Schemas, Role Orientation, Work Schemas, and Work Orientationand Work Orientation

Role OrientationRole Orientation Work SchemaWork Schema Correspondence withCorrespondence with

Tripartite ModelTripartite Model

Other, Outcome, IntrinsicOther, Outcome, Intrinsic Purposeful / EngagingPurposeful / Engaging CALLINGCALLING

Self, Process, IntrinsicSelf, Process, Intrinsic Engaging / PurposefulEngaging / Purposeful CALLINGCALLING

Self, Outcome, IntrinsicSelf, Outcome, Intrinsic Engaging / RelationalEngaging / Relational CALLINGCALLING

Other, Process, ExtrinsicOther, Process, Extrinsic Relational / InstrumentalRelational / Instrumental CAREERCAREER

Other, Process, IntrinsicOther, Process, Intrinsic Relational / EngagingRelational / Engaging CAREERCAREER

Self, Process, ExtrinsicSelf, Process, Extrinsic Instrumental / EngagingInstrumental / Engaging CAREERCAREER

Self, Outcome, ExtrinsicSelf, Outcome, Extrinsic Instrumental / RelationalInstrumental / Relational JOBJOB

Other, Outcome, ExtrinsicOther, Outcome, Extrinsic Instrumental / PurposefulInstrumental / Purposeful JOBJOB

What We NeedWhat We Need

General feedback General feedback Does this make sense?Does this make sense? What is the most exciting / interesting?What is the most exciting / interesting?

Given that we have to collect more data, Given that we have to collect more data, on what specific areas should we focus?on what specific areas should we focus?