The role of science in IMO’s regulatory policy-making, with focus on climate change issues
Edward KleverlaanHead, Office for the London Convention/Protocol
and Ocean AffairsInternational Maritime Organization
Tokyo University, Tokyo, Japan5 March 2013
Views expressed in this presentation are those of the author and should not be construed as necessarily reflecting the views of IMO or its Secretariat.
Overview of Presentation• IMO – What is it and how does it work?
• Conventions on Pollution Prevention Ballast Water Management Convention Antifouling Systems Convention MARPOL
• London Convention/Protocol Carbon Capture and Sequestration Ocean fertilization/geoengineering
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Specialized UN agency.
Develops global regulations.
Adopts treaties and guidelines at the intergovernmental level.
Member Governments are responsible for implementing and enforcing the adopted regulatory framework.
International Maritime Organization
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170 Member States
All major ship owning nations
All major port & coastal states
Industry associations
IGOs and NGOs
Global Coverage
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Assembly Council
Committees Maritime Safety Marine Environment Protection Legal Technical Co-operation Facilitation
London Convention and Protocol
Sub-Committees
IMO at Work
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IMO ASSEMBLY170 Member StatesMeet every 2 years
IMO COUNCIL40 Member States
Meet every 6 months
TCC
IMO SUB-COMMITTEES
SLF FSIBLGDSCNAVCOMSARDEFPSTW
FAL MSC MEPC LEGLC/LP
Incident Proposal to IMOCommittee
Discussion, refer to Sub-Committee,
Working Group
Development of draft Regulation, circular,
Code or resolutionAdoption of
new regulation(s)(Conventions/Codes/Resolutions)
Idea, Scientific evidence
Action/Governance at IMO
Damage Caused by Ships Operational discharges
Oil/air pollution
Garbage/Sewage
Ballast water/Anti-foulants
Accidental or intentional pollution
Mystery spills
Physical damage to marine life and habitats
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Key Instruments to Protect the Marine Environment
SOLAS, COLREGS - safety Intervention Convention - threats to coast MARPOL - operational discharges from ships Anti-fouling Systems and Ballast Water Management
Convention Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation Wreck Removal and Ship Recycling Convention London Convention and Protocol
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A fouled hull is an economic disaster
Issue: Fouling and the need for its prevention
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Economic impact of a fouled hullA totally fouled hull is an economic disaster : Vessel burns 40% more fuel
In context :
a 260 000 DWT crude oil carrier burns an extra 24 tonnes fuel per day
if the worlds commercial fleet were totally fouled an extra70.6 million tonnes fuel would be burned each year
Vessel operates with reduced efficiency and safety, forcing dry-docking
In context :
docking costs > EURO 1 000 000 per day for a large vessel
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Edward Kleverlaan 12
Solution in 1960-1970s
Introduction of paints with TBT – (tributyltin)
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Characteristics of Organotins(TBT)
Pro’s exceptionally effective
– dry dock every 5 years
broad spectrum environmental (limits
marine pests) and economic benefits
Con’s highly toxic to marine
organisms: food chain
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Scientific Case against TBT antifouling paints
Coastal and deep-sea snails – clear cause and effect relationship at low concentrations (2 ng/L)
Persistent in marine sediments – half life of many years
Bioaccumulating (bioaccumulation factors of > 6000 measured)
Biomagnification observed :Residues detected in marine mammals (dolphins, seals, birds etc)
Edward Kleverlaan 15
IMO’s Response 1980’s: issue recognition and consideration by
IMO/MEPCInitial measures included recommendations on:
Maximum Leach Rates
Ban on use on small vessels < 25m
Guidelines on use, waste management
Early 1990’s: More scientific evidence calls for action within IMO to phase out use worldwide and to promote environmentally safe anti-fouling techniques
Anti-Fouling Systems Convention
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Adopted in October 2001 to prohibit the use of harmful organotins in anti-fouling paints on ships.
includes a science-based mechanism to review other harmful substances in anti-fouling systems.
In force since September 2008.
Currently 64 Contracting Parties; about 82% of world tonnage.
Invasive Aquatic Species
One of the main threats to world’s oceans
Ecological - Second greatest threat to marine biodiversity after overexploitation?
Economic – US$10s of billions globally annually
Human health – disease and death in humans
Ballast Water as a Vector
Ballast water discharge
~ 3-10 billion tonnes of ballast transferred globally / year> 7,000 species of microbes, plants and animals carried globally at any one time
European Zebra Mussel - Great Lakes
•Infest >40% US waterways.•Fouls water intake pipes of industry.•Costs > US$1 B to date
Comb-jelly - Black Sea
•Collapse of Black Sea fisheries in 1980s•Losses ~ US$240/year
Chinese Mitten Crab - Europe
‘Crown-Jewel’ Ecosystems threatened:
AmazonCoral Reefs
Impacts over time: oil pollution vs aquatic bio-invasions
Time
Impa
cts Oil Pollution
Marine Bio-Invasions
IMO Response Alien species have spread around the world for centuries but serious attention
was not given to the problem until the 1970’s and 80’s
Guidelines for Preventing the Introduction of Unwanted Organisms and Pathogens from Ships' Ballast Water and Sediment Discharges (MEPC.50(31)) adopted in 1991
The MEPC Guidelines were revised in 1993 by Resolution A.774(18) which also requested MSC and MEPC to work towards mandatory regulations
In 1997, Resolution A.868(20) - Guidelines for the control and management of ships' ballast water to minimize the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens –was adopted
The BWM Convention was adopted 13 February 2004 in London
Ballast Water Management Convention
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Adopted in February 2004 to prevent the effects of harmful aquatic organisms carried in ships' ballast water.
One of the most significant marine environmental protection achievements in recent years.
36 countries have become Contracting States to date (29% of world fleet).
Entry into force conditions: Ratification by 30 countries; and 35% of the gross tonnage of the world’s
merchant fleet.
Six annexes cover ship-generated pollution.
Ensures ships are adequately designed, equipped, certified and inspected.
Requires States to deal with oily and chemical wastes – port reception facilities.
Applies to all ships, although not to pollution arising from the exploration and exploitation of sea-bed mineral resources.
Prevention of Pollution from Ships - MARPOL
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MARPOL Annexes
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AnnexesI & II
Annex III
AnnexIV
AnnexV
Annex VI
Oil and Noxious Liquid
Substances
Harmful Substances
Carried at Sea in Packaged Form
Sewage from Ships
Garbage from Ships
Air Pollution from Ships
In Force In Force In Force In Force In Force
152 Parties 138 Parties 131 Parties 145 Parties 72 Parties
99% of World Tonnage
97% of World Tonnage
89% of World Tonnage
98% of World Tonnage
94% of World Tonnage
Action taken by IMO to address GHG emissions from international shipping
IMO’s Response to CO2 Emissions from Ships
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NOAA Earth Systems Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring Divisionhttp://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/
• Atmospheric CO2 levels measured at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii show increases since the 1960s.
• UNFCCC addresses the need to limit average global temperature increases and the resulting climate change.
• Kyoto Protocol legally binds developed countries to emission reduction targets.
Assembly Resolution A.963(23)
IMOs work on three distinct routes:
Technical Mainly applicable to new ships. OperationalApplicable to all ships in operation.Market-based Measures (MBM) Carbon price for shipping, incentive, may generate funds.
Policies and Practices Related to the Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships (December 2003): Establish a baseline for GHG emissions from international
shipping
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GHG baseline established and updated in 2009 using 2007 data
2nd IMO GHG study - scope of work Estimate present day and future greenhouse gas emissions
and emissions of other relevant substances from total transport and from international shipping CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6,
NOx, NMVOC, CO, PM, Sox
Estimate impacts of emissions on climate Compare emissions intensity with other transport modes Evaluate technology options for emissions reductions Evaluate policy options for emissions reductions Consider cost-effectiveness analysis and public health
impacts
Inventory Approach Inventory assessed using an activity-based approach
Analytical details are found in the report along with a confidence assessment
Activity-based (bottom-up) approach was determined to be preferred over fuel statistics (top-down) approach
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Other emissions
rates
Average installed power
Average operating
time
Average engine
loadAverage
SFOCAverage Carbon content
World Fleet Fuel Consumption (2007)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Fuel
Con
sum
ptio
n (M
illio
n to
ns)
This studyIMO Expert Group (Freight‐Trend), 2007Corbett and Köhler (Freight‐Trend), JGR, 2003Eyring et al., JGR, 2005 part 1 + 2Endresen et al., JGR, 2007 (not corrected for comparison)Endresen et al (Freight‐Trend)., JGR, 2007IEA Total marine fuel salesIEA Int'l Marine Fuel salesPoint Estimates This study (Freight trend)Freight‐Trend Eyring et al., JGR, 2005EIA bunker
Bottom-up(Activity-based)
estimates
Top-down(Fuel-sales)
data
2007 Low bound Best High boundTotal fuel consumption 279 333 400
Source: 2nd IMO GHG study, 2009
Emissions Summary (2007)
Ship Exhaust Refrigerant Transport of Crude oil
Total
CO2 1050 - - 1050CH4 0.10 - 0.14** 0.24N2O 0.03 - - 0.03HFC - 0.0004 - 0.0004PFC - - - -SF6 - - - -NOx 25 - - 25NMVOC 0.8 - 2.3 3.1CO 2.5 - - 2.5PM 1.8 - - 1.8SOx 15 - - 15
Table 3-11 – Summary of emissions (million tons) from total shipping 2007*
* HFC numbers for 2003. Transport of Crude oil numbers for 2006.** Highly uncertain.
Source: 2nd IMO GHG study, 2009
Key Driving Variables (based on IPCC SRES scenarios)
Category Variable Related Elements
EconomyShipping transport
demand (tonne-miles/year)
Population, global and regional economic growth, modal shifts, sectoral demand shifts.
Transport efficiency
Transport efficiency (MJ/tonne-mile) –depends on fleet composition, ship technology and
operation
Ship design, propulsion advancements, vessel speed, regulation aimed at achieving other objectives but that have a GHG emissions consequence.
Energy Shipping fuel carbon
fraction (gC/MJ fuel energy)
Cost and availability of fuels (e.g., use of residual fuel, distillates, LNG, biofuels, or other fuels).
Different values applied to three categories of ships:• Coastwise shipping - Ships used in regional (short sea) shipping; • Ocean-going shipping - Larger ships suitable for intercontinental trade; and,• Container ships (all sizes).
CO2 Emissions from International Shipping
Source: 2nd IMO GHG study, 2009
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Source: 2nd IMO GHG Study, 2009
Assessment of potential reductions of CO2 emissions from shipping using known technology and practices
Energy efficiency regulations for ships
New chapter 4 added to MARPOL Annex VI – regulations 19 to 23
Application• bulk carriers, tankers, container ships, general cargo ships, gas
carriers, reefers and combination carriers • ships >400 GT
Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) - new build
Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) - existing ships
Technical co-operation and transfer of technology
Entered into force 1 January 2013
EEDI – definition
speed shipCapacityfactor emission COnconsumptio fuelPower
society to Benefittenvironmen to ImpactEEDI 2
(transportation work)
The EEDI is likely to promote innovation at the design stage of ships for a reduction of their energy consumption at full load
The EEDI is applicable to ship types responsible for 71% of CO2 emissions from international shipping
3.944
0.000
2.000
4.000
6.000
8.000
10.000
12.000
14.000
16.000
18.000
20.000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
EED
I (g/
t*nm
)
Deadweight (t) (*1000)
Energy Efficiency Design Index
Attained EEDI
Phase 0 (Base line)
Phase 1 (2015-2019)
Phase 2 (2020-2024)
Phase 3 (2025 and onwards)
Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP)
SEEMP – operational management tool to include: Improved voyage planning (Weather routeing/Just in time arrival at port)
Speed and power optimization
Optimized ship handling (ballast/trim/use of rudder and autopilot)
Improved fleet management
Improved cargo handling
Energy management
Monitoring tools
Market-Based Measures for international shipping (MBM) under consideration by IMO
MBM would serve two main purposes:
An economic incentive for the shipping industry to invest in more fuel-efficient ships & technologies and to operate ships in a more energy-efficient way (in-sector reductions)
Ship emissions “off-set” in other sectors – potential revenues raised and disbursed (out-of-sector reductions)
MBM proposals under review by IMO: Fund (emissions capped, carbon price fixed), ETS (emissions
capped, carbon price not fixed), Port State levy, Efficiency/Incentive, Rebate Mechanism Mandatory CO2 emission reductions (monitoring, reporting
and verification)
London Convention and Protocol
The London Convention 1972 (LC) One of the first global conventions to protect the marine
environment from human activities. In force since 1975. 87 Contracting Parties.
The London Protocol 1996 (LP) Will eventually replace LC. In force since 2006. 42 Contracting Parties.
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Joint Meeting of the Contracting Parties
(annual)
LC and LP Scientific Groups
LP-Compliance Group
Governance LC/LP
What is Dumping at Sea ? - Article 1
Dumping is “any deliberate disposal into the sea of wastes or other matter from vessels, aircraft, platforms or other man-made structures.” Includes storage of wastes in the seabed. Includes abandonment or toppling at a site.
Dumping is not: Operational discharges from vessels or offshore installations. Pipeline discharges from coasts or cities. Wastes discharged into rivers and out to sea. Placement of matter for a purpose other than mere disposal.
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Why CO2 issues under LP?
Acidification of the Surface Ocean due to Atmospheric CO2 Increase
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As dissolved CO2 increases, the ocean becomes more acidic, shown as a lower pH level, and marine life cannot develop shells
or coral reef material well.
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1. Scientific Groups identified elevated levels of CO2 in the atmosphere by CO2 emissions from the combustion of fossil fuel contribute to climate change and ocean acidification.
2. CO2 sequestration in sub-seabed geological formations acceptable under LP. The aim is: permanent isolation!
3. is only one option of a range of measures to tackle these challenges, including, first and foremost, the need to further develop and use low carbon forms of energy and conservation measures to reduce emissions.
Why CO2 sequestration
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Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage
Approved and accepted by IPCC Working Group III and 24 Session of the IPCC in Montreal, 26 Sep. 2005
Scope of London Protocol
CO2 sequestration
Sleipner Field (Norway)
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1. LP Parties adopted amendments in 2006 to Annex 1 to the Protocol, to regulate the sequestration of CO2 streams from CO2 capture processes in sub-seabed geological formations. These amendments are in force since February 2007.
2. This means that a basis has been created in international environmental law to regulate carbon capture and storage (CCS) in sub-seabed geological formations for permanent isolation.
3. LP Parties adopted amendment to Article 6 in October 2009 that allows the export of carbon dioxide streams for disposal in accordance with annex 1.
LP Amendments on CCS
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• Science-based Risk Assessment and Management Framework for CO2 Sequestration in Sub-seabed Geological Formations completed in 2006
• Science-based Specific Guidelines for Assessment of CO2 Sequestration in Sub-seabed Geological Formations completed in 2007
Guidance Documentation
CO2 and Ocean Acidification Issues
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London Protocol leadership
• Regulating safe management of new technologies:o Carbon capture and
sequestration in sub-seabed geological formations
o Ocean fertilizationo Geoengineering
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What is it?: Stimulation of natural photosynthesis in theoceans, i.e., by “seeding” with iron particles or nutrients, todraw down part of the surplus of CO2 from the atmosphere
Scientific Concerns: (1) effectiveness of the method, doesit work? (2) potential impacts on the marine environmentand human health
REGULATION OF OCEAN FERTILIZATIONUNDER LC/LP
Ocean Fertilization
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_pumpChisholm, S.W. 2000. Nature 407: 685-687
REGULATION OF OCEAN FERTILIZATION UNDER LC/LP
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2007: Parties issued “Statement ofConcern” developed by the ScientificGroups and agreed to work towardsregulation of ocean fertilization
2008: “Policy” resolution adoptedallowing only “legitimate scientificresearch” (no commercial activities)
2009 and 2010: Development andadoption of the “AssessmentFramework for Scientific ResearchInvolving Ocean Fertilization”
REGULATION OF OCEAN FERTILIZATION UNDER LC/LP
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2011-2013 Parties continue developingoptions that would establish:“ a global, transparent and effective controland regulatory mechanism for oceanfertilization activities and other activitiesfalling within the scope of the LondonConvention and Protocol that have thepotential to cause harm to the marineenvironment ”
Part of work on marine geoengineering.
Marine Geoengineering and LP
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1. ‘Geoengineering’ refers to engineering the earth system & often in relation to reducing the effects of climate change.
2. However for LP, ‘Marine Geoengineering’ can generally be taken to be anything done to the marine environment to reduce the impacts of climate change.
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Conclusions• IMO is a specialized UN agency regulating
international shipping
• Science is a key element in the identification of new areas to regulate. It plays a key role in bringing issues to the table and guides the development of international regulatory instruments.
• On this basis IMO has developed several new Conventions and amendments (AFSC, BWMC, MARPOL Annex VI (CO2), London Protocol Amendments)
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Conclusions
• It continues to play a role in keeping instruments up to date and remains relevant through ad-hoc and standing technical/working groups to support the Committees and Sub-Committees at IMO.
• Science is an essential component in any decision making at IMO.
