The Science of Good and Evil

Jamie Severtson

Western Michigan University

A review of Michael Shermer’s

Why People Cheat, Gossip, Care, Share, and Follow the Golden Rule

Evolution of Morality• Morality

– Right and wrong thoughts and behaviors in the context of a social group• Scientific analysis

– More beneficial than philosophical as an explanation of moral development

• Removes God from equation– Not arguing existence, just not relevant to scientific approach– Creates the problem of moral relativity

• Methodological naturalism– Morals result from laws of nature

• Evolution– Morals evolved through natural selection on individuals and

populations» All animals are trying to survive and cooperation is a good strategy

Evolution of Morality (cont.)

• Morality– Exclusively human

• Conscious assessment of right and wrong– Verbal behavior rule statements

» Self-aware, self-conscious

• Premorality– Moral-like behavior observed in our ancestors

• Examples– Vampire bats share food– Dophins push the sick to surface to get air

• Species differ to the degree that they demonstrate moral behavior– If humans are .8 to .9 moral, then– Apes are .6 to .7 moral– Monkeys are .4 to .5 moral– Whales and dolphins are .2 to .3 moral

Evolution of Morality (cont.)

• As humans evolved, culture changed and morality evolved– Increased populations

• Changing social structure– Division of labor

– Value changes

– Organized religion developed

Bands = 10s-100s of individuals

Tribes = 100s – 1,000s of individuals

Chiefdoms = 1,000s – 10,000s of individuals

States = 10,000s – 100,000s of inidividuals

Empires = 100,000s – 1,000,000s of individuals

Bio-Cultural Evolutionary PryamidA Model of the Origin and Development of Ethical Behavior

Immorality

• Problem with God– How can God be all knowing, and all good, if

evil exists?• God’s will

• Myth of pure evil– Force within us

• Accountability problem (free will?)– Solution

» Talk about evil as an adjective (e.g., evil act) rather than a noun.

» No such thing as pure evil

Immorality (cont.)

• Myth of pure evil (cont.)– Justifies immoral acts

• 17th century Europe– Burning “witches”– Spanish Inquisition

• 20th century Muslim Middle East– September 11th

» Killing Americans will restore peace

– Does not lead us to a real explanation for behavior

Immorality (cont.)• Although we have evolved into moral creatures,

anyone can engage in an evil act given the right circumstances– Holocaust

• Not all Germans were Nazis• Not all Nazis were “bad”• Those evil actions were not unique to Nazis

– Milgrim experiments– Zimbardo’s Standford prison experiements

– Calling someone evil does not get at the cause of behavior

Immorality (cont.)

• Myth of pure good– Nobel savages– Also detrimental to understanding of morality– Humans are both good and bad

Political Organization and Frequency of Warfare

Death Rate from Wartime

Making Moral ChoicesIn a Determined Universe

• Law– Insanity Defense

• Free will• Most people will follow the law• Few people will not under mental duress

– How can you punish someone for something they did not choose to do?

– The Durham Test• Did the defendant have a mental defect?• If so, was the defect the reason for the unlawful act?

Making Moral ChoicesIn a Determined Universe

• Free Will– Quantum indeterminacy

• Random neural firings

– Fuzzy Logic• Shades of categories unrecognized by law

– Neuroscience• Science shows that mind and body are not separate• Brain is wired and rewired

– Genetics and environmental conditions

• Choices “feel” free even if they aren’t really free

Making Moral ChoicesIn a Determined Universe

• Free Will (cont.)– Derived from determinism?

• Incompatible terms– Left with ignorance

» We can not know all of the causal variables» Therefore our choices are “free” because we are

ignorant

Godless Goodness

• “Is a belief in God necessary to right the wrongs of immoral behavior?”– Many nonbelievers behave morally

• Abraham is believed to be an atheist

– Many believers behavior immorally• Hitler was Catholic

– Without God, would you be more likely to commit:• robbery?• rape?• murder?

– Does the presence of God prevent these acts?

Godless Goodness (cont.)

• How can we be good without god?– Values (behaviors) are passed down through

generation to generation• Behaviors that coincide with cultural norms are

reinforced• Behaviors that do not are punished• “Secular ethics may be primitive and flawed, yet it

is the most precious thing we have.”

Absolute vs. Relative vs. Provisional Ethics

• Absolute– Inflexible– Typically derived from religious sources– Most popular

• Relative– Flexible– Derived from social group– Problems of justifying any action

• Consequential– An action

Absolute vs. Relative vs. Provisional Ethics (cont.)

• Provisional– Allows room to make better moral choices– Middle ground between absolutism and relativism

• “It would be reasonable for us to offer our conditional agreement that an action is moral or immoral if the evidence for and the justification of the action is overwhelming.”

Skinner on Morals

• “…the behavior we call moral or just is a product of special kinds of social contingencies arranged by governments, religions, economic systems, and ethical groups” (Skinner, 1974, p. 268-269)

Conclusions

• Many of the author’s notions regarding the development of morality are in line with behavior analytic account– Evolution of altruism in different species

• Moral behavior is necessary for the survival of the individual and the species

– Human verbal behavior makes them unique• Rule governed behavior• The creation of “God” as a governing authority

Conclusions (cont.)

– Religion adds contingencies to control behavior

• May have been necessary at one point in the history of humans, but may not be necessary now

– Consequences for behavior may be due to • Natural selection• Classical conditioning• Operant conditioning

– Shermer appears to uphold the theoretical assumptions of contextualism

Thank you!

For more information on a theoretical behavior analytic account of religion and moral development, enjoy the

following slides put together by Jamie Severtson and Candice Jostad

Religion and Religion and Moral Moral

DevelopmentDevelopmentAvoiding Hellfire and eternal

damnation

By Jamie M. Severtson & Candice

M. Jostad

“…the behavior we call moral or just is a product of special kinds of social contingencies arranged by governments, religions, economic systems, and ethical groups” (Skinner, 1974, p. 268-269)

Natural Contingencies

• Do not Support Moral Behavior(Support immoral behavior)•Greed•Laziness•Lying•Lust•Gluttony•Wrath•Pride

Jamie’s Mom on the importance of morality…

• “My answer, without looking at the bible, is that morals are important because…you gotta be moral, because if you’re not, it’s bad. Bad things could happen, and you want to be good.”

The Need for Moral Control

• Mediation of future (Skinner, 1974)

• Enjoy the benefits of Group Membership (Baum, 2005)

The Need for Moral Control

• good behavior without monitoring (Malott & Suarez, 2004)

– “The eyes of the Lord are everywhere, keeping watch on the wicked and the good.” Proverbs 14:32

Religion• contingencies to support moral behavior

– Be altruistic– Cooperate with Others– Love thy Neighbor– Be Kind– Obey Parents– Feed the hungry– Care for the sick– Be Honest– Show Mercy– Forgive Others

That’s okay.

I’m sorry I said your wig looks

fake!

Behavioral Theory

– Respondent Conditioning•Pairing

– Operant conditioning•Direct-Acting

Contingencies•Indirect-Acting

Contingencies

Religion Impacts Moral Development through:

Respondent Conditioning

• Conditioned Reinforcers & Aversive Stimuli

GoodGod JesusLoveRightRighteous

Heaven• Elicit physical reactions

BadSatanDemonsHateWrongEvil

Hell

CS

US

CS

US

Stimulus Equivalence

“Good” “God”

Trained Relations

Derived Relations

Stimulus Equivalence

“Heaven”

“God”

“Righteous”

Trained Relations

Derived Relations

Operant Conditioning

• Contingencies– Direct-Acting

•E.g., Prayer, Bible Study, Crafts– Reinforce participation– Punish Inappropriate behavior

– Indirect-Acting (Rules)•Heaven & Hell

–Ultimate Reinforcer –Ultimate Aversive Condition

The Big Ten

• How can 10 rules encompass all moral behavior?– If certain stimuli are in an

equivalence class with “Good” or “Bad” then you would engage in Relevant approach or avoidant behavior

Honor thy Father & MotherHonor thy Father & Mother• No back-talk• Clean up your toys• Don’t fight with your brother• Take out the trash• Do your homework• Feed the dog• Come home before curfew• Ask before you take the car• Get good grades• Go to college• Get married• Have babies

Thou shall not covet your Thou shall not covet your neighbor’s wifeneighbor’s wife

– How many different rule statements could you make based on this one commandment?

Conclusions•Religion benefits Society by

establishing moral behavior for the survival of the culture

• Moral development occurs as a result of the social community’s reinforcing practices