The Scientific RevolutionThe Scientific Revolution

1540-17891540-1789

The Scientific RevolutionThe Scientific Revolution

What was revolutionary in new attitudes What was revolutionary in new attitudes toward the natural world? toward the natural world?

What does the name tell us about this What does the name tell us about this historical period? historical period?

ScienceRevolution

Big change in scientific thought

Medieval view of the worldMedieval view of the world

– Primarily Primarily religiousreligious and and theologicaltheological– Political theory based on divine right of kingsPolitical theory based on divine right of kings– Society largely governed by Church views, Society largely governed by Church views,

traditions, and practicestraditions, and practices– Superstition played major role in the lives of Superstition played major role in the lives of

the peoplethe people– Scientific thought in the early-16th century was Scientific thought in the early-16th century was

still based on Medieval ideasstill based on Medieval ideas

Classical PhilosophersClassical Philosophers

Big Three: Big Three:

(1) Socrates – asking (1) Socrates – asking questions leads to wisdom questions leads to wisdom

(2) Plato – believed in eternal (2) Plato – believed in eternal forms projecting forms projecting themselves into the themselves into the temporal universe temporal universe

(3) Aristotle – believed that (3) Aristotle – believed that eternal forms were found eternal forms were found

on earthon earth *The church had accepted Aristotelian concepts of the universe.

Aristotle’s ScienceAristotle’s Science

Views about the universe were largely Views about the universe were largely influenced by the ancient ideas of Aristotleinfluenced by the ancient ideas of Aristotle

The The geocentric viewgeocentric view held that the earth held that the earth was the center of a static, motionless was the center of a static, motionless universeuniverse

Science was essentially a branch of Science was essentially a branch of theology (not separate from religion) theology (not separate from religion)

Causes of the Scientific RevolutionCauses of the Scientific Revolution

1.Medieval universities provided the framework1.Medieval universities provided the framework.. By 1300, philosophy had become an accepted discipline By 1300, philosophy had become an accepted discipline

(in addition to law, medicine, and theology).(in addition to law, medicine, and theology). Medieval philosophers developed a degree of Medieval philosophers developed a degree of

independence from theologians and a sense of free independence from theologians and a sense of free inquiry.inquiry.

Leading universities established new professorships of Leading universities established new professorships of mathematics, astronomy, and physicsmathematics, astronomy, and physics (natural (natural philosophy) within their departments of philosophy.philosophy) within their departments of philosophy.

Major scientific figures either studied or taught at Major scientific figures either studied or taught at universities.universities.

Causes, Con’t Causes, Con’t

2. The 2. The RenaissanceRenaissance stimulated science stimulated science by rediscovering by rediscovering ancient mathematicsancient mathematics

Renaissance Renaissance patronage was often patronage was often scientific as well as scientific as well as artistic and artistic and humanistic.humanistic.

Another Cause Another Cause

3. Navigational problems on sea voyages in the age 3. Navigational problems on sea voyages in the age of overseas expansion created a need for of overseas expansion created a need for scientific advancesscientific advances

New instruments: telescope, barometer, New instruments: telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, and thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, and air pump.air pump.

Gresham College, England: scientists worked Gresham College, England: scientists worked closely with top officials in the Royal Navy and closely with top officials in the Royal Navy and leading merchants and shipbuilders.leading merchants and shipbuilders.

Became main center of scientific activity during Became main center of scientific activity during the first half of 17th century.the first half of 17th century.

Last CauseLast Cause

4. Scientific methodology4. Scientific methodology.. Bacon formalized empirical, experimental Bacon formalized empirical, experimental

research.research. Descartes emphasized deductive Descartes emphasized deductive

reasoning.reasoning.

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

A New WorldviewA New Worldview

The Scientific Revolution became the The Scientific Revolution became the major cause of the new world view of the major cause of the new world view of the 17th and 18th centuries17th and 18th centuries

– SecularismSecularism emerged and many educated emerged and many educated people became people became openly hostileopenly hostile to religion to religion

– The revolution in learning became a major The revolution in learning became a major foundation in Western societyfoundation in Western society

A. Copernicus (1473-1543)A. Copernicus (1473-1543)

Aim to glorify GodAim to glorify God Sun-centered universeSun-centered universe Challenged circular orbitsChallenged circular orbits Universe of staggering Universe of staggering

sizesize Earth no different than any Earth no different than any

other planetother planet On the Revolutions of the On the Revolutions of the

Heavenly SpheresHeavenly Spheres (1543) (1543)

B. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)B. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

Most sophisticated Most sophisticated observatory of his dayobservatory of his day

Arrogant noblemanArrogant nobleman Remained an Remained an

AristotelianAristotelian Discovered comet Discovered comet

shooting right through shooting right through crystalline spherescrystalline spheres

C. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)C. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Student of BraheStudent of Brahe Planetary motion Planetary motion

conforms to conforms to mathematical formulamathematical formula

Elliptical orbitsElliptical orbits Planets do not move at Planets do not move at

uniform speeds in their uniform speeds in their orbitsorbits

D. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)D. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Early practitioner of the Early practitioner of the experimental methodexperimental method

Mathematical formula for Mathematical formula for acceleration of falling acceleration of falling objectsobjects

Law of inertiaLaw of inertia His discoveries using the His discoveries using the

telescopetelescope Challenges categories of Challenges categories of

“form” and “matter”“form” and “matter” End of his lifeEnd of his life

E. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)E. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Father of the Scientific Father of the Scientific RevolutionRevolution

The Inductive MethodThe Inductive Method Emphasis on practical, Emphasis on practical,

useful knowledgeuseful knowledge New attitude toward New attitude toward

naturenature

F. Rene DescartesF. Rene Descartes

Employed deductive Employed deductive reasoning to prove his reasoning to prove his existence: existence: “cogito ergo “cogito ergo sum”sum” (“I think; therefore, I (“I think; therefore, I am”)am”)

Discourse on MethodDiscourse on Method Science must:Science must:

– start with clear and start with clear and incontrovertible factsincontrovertible facts

– subdivide each problem subdivide each problem into as many parts as into as many parts as necessary, using a step-necessary, using a step-by-step logical sequenceby-step logical sequence

Descarte’s Scientific Method…Descarte’s Scientific Method…

The spiritual can only be The spiritual can only be examined through deductive examined through deductive reasoning (logic)reasoning (logic)

The material is subject to the The material is subject to the experimental method.experimental method.

– Modern Scientific Method: Modern Scientific Method: inductive method (of Bacon) + inductive method (of Bacon) + the deductive method (of the deductive method (of DescartesDescartes

Cartesian DualismCartesian Dualism divided all existence into divided all existence into the spiritual and the the spiritual and the material.material.

G. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)G. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Newton far from the Newton far from the perfect rationalistperfect rationalist

A great synthesizerA great synthesizer Blends inductive and Blends inductive and

deductive methodsdeductive methods Argues for a universe Argues for a universe

governed by natural lawsgoverned by natural laws Principia; Mathematical Principia; Mathematical

Principles of Natural Principles of Natural PhilosophyPhilosophy (1687) (1687)

Anatomy, Physiology, and BiologyAnatomy, Physiology, and Biology

Scientists began challenging Greco-Roman medical Scientists began challenging Greco-Roman medical views (especially those of the Roman physician, views (especially those of the Roman physician, Galen in the 2nd century AD)Galen in the 2nd century AD)

– Vesalius: Vesalius: The Structure of the Human BodyThe Structure of the Human Body (1543): renewed (1543): renewed and modernized the study of human anatomyand modernized the study of human anatomy

William Harvey (1578-1657)William Harvey (1578-1657)– On the Movement of the Heart and BloodOn the Movement of the Heart and Blood (1628): Explained (1628): Explained

how blood was pumped by the heart and circulated how blood was pumped by the heart and circulated throughout the body. throughout the body.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)– ““Father of microscopy”: developed powerful microscopesFather of microscopy”: developed powerful microscopes– First to see and write about bacteria, yeast plants, living First to see and write about bacteria, yeast plants, living

organisms in a drop of water and the circulation of blood organisms in a drop of water and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries.corpuscles in capillaries.

Royal Scientific SocietiesRoyal Scientific Societies

Governments/monarchs encouraged scientific inquiry as Governments/monarchs encouraged scientific inquiry as a means to further the prestige of the state and remain at a means to further the prestige of the state and remain at the cutting edge of technologythe cutting edge of technology

Scientific societies created a means by which scientists Scientific societies created a means by which scientists could communicate with each other internationally; this could communicate with each other internationally; this helped forge an international scientific communityhelped forge an international scientific community

The The Royal SocietyRoyal Society in England was perhaps the most in England was perhaps the most successful and prestigious; founded in 1660successful and prestigious; founded in 1660

Other royal societies were created in Naples, France, Other royal societies were created in Naples, France, Prussia (by Frederick I) and Russia (by Peter the Great). Prussia (by Frederick I) and Russia (by Peter the Great).

Social Impact of the Social Impact of the Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution

Led directly to the Led directly to the EnlightenmentEnlightenment of the 18th century of the 18th century Improvements in exploration Improvements in exploration Spirit of experimentation perhaps helped accelerate the agricultural Spirit of experimentation perhaps helped accelerate the agricultural

revolution—18th centuryrevolution—18th century Improvements in medical knowledge helped improve the quality of Improvements in medical knowledge helped improve the quality of

life later (19th & 20th centuries)life later (19th & 20th centuries) Reduced support for witch hunts by discrediting superstition and Reduced support for witch hunts by discrediting superstition and

witchcraft as fallacies.witchcraft as fallacies. Science and religion were not in acute conflict until the 19th and 20th Science and religion were not in acute conflict until the 19th and 20th

centuries.centuries. No attempt in 17th and 18th centuries to secularize scienceNo attempt in 17th and 18th centuries to secularize science Scientists believed they were studying and analyzing God’s creation.Scientists believed they were studying and analyzing God’s creation. Universal agreement among scientists and philosophers regarding Universal agreement among scientists and philosophers regarding

the supernatural origin of the universe.the supernatural origin of the universe. Debate centered on the Debate centered on the extentextent to which God continued to be to which God continued to be

involved in his Creation.involved in his Creation.

Results/Big IdeasResults/Big Ideas

After Catholic Counter Reformation, the After Catholic Counter Reformation, the Church became more hostile to science and Church became more hostile to science and science declined in Italy (but not France).science declined in Italy (but not France).

Protestant countries became the leaders of Protestant countries became the leaders of the scientific revolution, especially Englandthe scientific revolution, especially England

Introduction of REASON into popular Introduction of REASON into popular thoughtthought