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The Scientific Revolution
What Was the Scientific Revolution?
A revolution in human understanding and knowledge about the physical universe17th centuryBegan with Kepler, GalileoEnded with Newton
The BIG PICTURE:The scientific revolution is historically important for three reasons: it laid the basis for our modern view of
the world as a rational, ordered place it shifted the nature of discourse in
"natural philosophy" from reason (deductive) to empirical (inductive) method
Finally, it affected the thinking of a wide range of people from poets and philosophers to practical men of politics and economics
“Science” Before the Scientific RevolutionBased almost entirely on reasoningExperimental method or observation wasn’t used at allScience in medieval times
• Alchemy• Astrology• tradition
A medieval alchemist
Factors Leading to the Scientific Revolution
Rise of universitiesContact with non-Western societiesThe RenaissanceExploration
RationalismReason, not tradition, is the source of all knowledgeRené Descartes (1596–1650)French philosopher and mathematicianCogito ergo sum (“I think, therefore, I am”)Deductive reasoning
René Descartes
Empiricism
The belief that experience is the only true source of knowledgeRoger BaconShift toward empiricism a hallmark of the Scientific RevolutionHelped lead to the development of the scientific method Roger Bacon
Francis Bacon andthe Scientific Method
1561–1626English philosopher and empiricistInductive reasoningArgued for experimental methodology
The Scientific Method
Science as a multiple-step process:
3. Test the theory with experiments
2. Develop a theory that explains the object or phenomenon
1. Observe an object or phenomenon
Roots of Scientific Thought: Aristotle
4th century BCE Greek philosopher and scientistWrote several scientific worksHis work laid the foundation for scientific study through the medieval eraGravity/Theory of falling objectsAstronomy: Crystal spheres
Roots of Scientific Thought: Ptolemy
2nd century CE Greek astronomer, mathematician, and geographerThe Almagest (Syntaxis)Geocentric (earth-centered) model of the universeMotion of the planets
Models of the Universe:
Geocentric vs. Heliocentric
Geocentric: the Earth is at the center of the universe; all heavenly bodies move around the Earth
Heliocentric: the Sun is at the center of the universe; all heavenly bodies move around the Sun—including the Earth
Nicholas Copernicus (1473–1543)
Polish astronomer and mathematicianCommentariolus (1514)Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres (1543)
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601)Danish astronomerAmassed accurate astronomical dataTheorized a system distinct from both the Ptolemaic and Copernican onesArgued that the Moon and Sun revolve around the Earth while other planets revolve around the SunBEST. DEATH. EVER.
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)
German astronomer and mathematicianStudent of TychoDidn’t agree with Tycho’s interpretation of dataDisagreed with Copernicus, claiming that other bodies moved in elliptical motion, as opposed to circular motionsTheorized three laws of planetary motion using Tycho’s data
Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion
Law of Ellipses: Planets orbit the sun in elliptical patternsLaw of Equal Areas: The speed of planetary motion changes constantly depending on the distance from the SunLaw of Harmonies: Compares the movement of all the planets, claiming a similarity in their motion
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
Italian mathematician, astronomer “Father of Science”Telescopes and astronomical discoveriesTheory of falling objects; disproved Aristotle
Galileo’s telescopic drawing of the moon
Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the WorldGalileo’s major workWritten in 1632Argued in favor of the heliocentric model of the universe
Frontspiece from the Dialogue; from left to right, the figures shown are Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Copernicus
Galileo vs. the Catholic Church
The church condemned heliocentric conceptions of the universeThe Roman InquisitionGalileo’s trialGalileo recants, put under house arrest
19th-century depiction of Galileo before the Inquisition tribunal
Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727)English astronomer, physicist, and mathematicianSynthesized the works of Copernicus, Kepler and GalileoThe Principia
Newton’s Laws of Motion
First Law: Law of InertiaSecond Law: Fundamental Law of DynamicsThird Law: Law of Reciprocal Actions
Medicine Before the Scientific Revolution
Based on traditionThe Church
Illustration depicting a
bloodletting, an accepted
medical procedure before the Scientific
Revolution
Ancient Medicine: Galen (131–201 CE)
Greek physicianOn the Elements According to Hippocrates“Bodily humours”Two types of bloodOn the Use of the Parts of the Body
Medieval Medicine: The Catholic Church
Provided for care of the poor and the sickMinor clerics took on physician-like rolesEventually, university-trained physicians displaced clerical physiciansClerics treat a royal patient with leeches
Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564)
Belgian anatomistOn the Fabric of the Human Body Corrected many of Galen’s errors
William Harvey (1578–1657)
English physicianOn the Movement of the Heart and Blood in AnimalsDescribed the functioning of the heart and circulatory systemDisproved Galen’s theories
Chemistry
Robert Boyle (1627–1691)Antoine Lavoisier
(1743–1794)
Joseph Priestley (1733–1804)
Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778)
Swedish botanistClassification and naming of flora and fauna
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck(1744–1829)
French biologistEarly theory of evolutionPhilosophie ZoologiqueLamarck’s “laws”
Mathematics
Math symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication and divisionAnalytical geometry: DescartesCalculus: Newton
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New Invention: The Telescope
Invented in the NetherlandsGalileoNewton
Illustration of Galileo at his
telescope
New Invention: The Microscope
Hans JanssenAnton Van LeeuwenhoekRobert Hooke
A Janssen microscope, c.1600Hooke’s drawing of a flea (from Micrographia)
New Invention: The Pendulum Clock
Invented by Christiaan Huygens, a 17th-century Dutch scientistAllowed scientists to more accurately measure time
Huygens’s design for a pendulum clock
New Invention: Barometer
Invented by 17th-century Italian physicist Evangelista TorricelliThe barometer measures air pressure
Torricelli’s barometer experiment
New Invention: Thermometer
Invented in the 17th century by Santorio Santorio, an Italian scientistFerdinand IIGabriel FahrenheitAnders Celsius
Illustration depicting Santorio’s thermometer
Santorio Santorio
New Invention: Mechanical Calculator
Invented by Wilhelm Schickard, a 17th-century German inventorGottfried von Leibniz’s “Step Reckoner”
Wilhelm SchickardA 1624 sketch Schickard made
of his calculator
The Significance of the Scientific Revolution
Abandonment of ancient and medieval systemsDevelopment of the scientific methodThe Enlightenment