The Sociological Perspective • The Sociological perspective is illustrated
through considering causes of suicide
• Suicide often regarded as a supremely antisocial and non-social act
• Yet there are hidden social causes of suicide-SEE DURKHEIM, SUICIDE: A STUDY OF SOCIAL FORMS
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Suicide is considered supremely antisocial and non-social act for three main reasons: It is condemned by nearly everyone in society. It typically is committed in private, far from the public’s intrusive glare. It is comparatively rare (in 2004, there were about 11 suicides for every 100 000 people in Canada).
Theory, Research, and Values • Auguste Comte (1798-1857): Sought to
understand the social world using scientific method of research Coined the term, “sociology” SOCI in latin-companion LOGY in latin-reason.
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Spencer was strongly influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution: He thought societies were comprised of interdependent parts like biological organisms; these interdependent parts included families, governments, and the economy. According to Spencer, societies evolve in the same way as biological species do: Individuals struggle to survive, and the fittest succeed in this struggle; the least fit die before they can bear offspring. This allows societies to evolve from “barbaric” to “civilized.” According to Spencer, deep social inequalities exist in society, but that is just as it should be if societies are to evolve. Had vision of ideal society but never conducted any research Herbert Spencer (1820-1903): Made claim for discovering scientific laws governing operation of society Like Comte, never conducted
Theory, Research, and Values 1. There Is tension between (i) belief in importance of science, & (ii) vision
of ideal society 1. Tension in works of important early figures
in sociology (e.g., Marx, Durkheim, Weber)
2. Tension- continues today- Theory, research, and values…
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The tension between analysis and ideal, diagnosis and prescription, is evident throughout sociology. reflected in works of important early figures in sociology (e.g., Marx, Durkheim, Weber) Tension- continues today-becomes clear when considering the following: Theory, research, and values…
1. Functionalism: How is social order supported by macrostructures?
2. Conflict Theory: How is social inequality maintained and challenged?
3. Symbolic Interactionism: How do people create meaning when they communicate in micro-level settings?
4. Feminism: What are the social sources of patriarchy in both macro and micro settings?
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There are more theories that exist in addition to these four; however, these four traditions have been especially influential in the development of sociology.
stable patterns of social relations (“social structures”)
2. Social structures can either maintain or undermine social stability.
3. Suggests social structures are based mainly on shared values
4. Argues that re-establishing equilibrium - best way to solve most social problems.
S. D. Clark (1910-2003) First Chair of Sociology at University of Toronto. Functionalist focus: How society re-established equilibrium after experiencing disruptions caused by economic change.
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Durkheim’s theory of suicide is an early example of what sociologists now call functionalism.
Functionalism in North America • Talcott Parsons: Best known for
identifying how various institutions must work to ensure smooth operation of society as a whole
• Robert Merton: Proposed that social structures have manifest and latent functions.
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Suggested some functions of social structures are manifest (visible & intended), while others are latent (unintended & less obvious) Merton noted that some of the consequences of social structures may be disruptive or dysfunctional, and create social instability.
FIGURE 1.2 on p. 6 - Durkheim’s Theory of Suicide Durkheim called suicide in high solidarity settings altruistic: Soldiers who knowingly giving up their lives to protect comrades commit altruistic suicide. Suicide in low-solidarity settings is egoistic or anomic: Egoistic suicide results from the poor integration of people into society because of weak social ties to others. Someone who is unemployed is more likely to commit suicide than someone who is employed because the unemployed person has weaker social ties. Anomic suicide occurs when vague norms govern behaviour: The rate of anomic suicide is likely to be high among people living in a society lacking a widely shared code of morality.
Conflict Theory and Karl Marx • Conflict theory originated in work of Marx • Historical or dialectical materialism Struggle between classes to resist & overcome
opposition of other classes • Marx believed workers would become aware of
their exploitation (i.e., develop class consciousness) Bring about a SOCIALIST -“communist”
society
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Marx was a German social thinker, who lived a generation before Durkheim, observed the destitution and discontent produced by the Industrial Revolution, and proposed a sweeping argument about the way societies develop. Form trade unions & labour parties, which would end private ownership of property & Marx argued that owners of industry are eager to improve the way work is organized and to adopt new tools, machines, and production methods; these innovations allow them to produce more efficiently, earn higher profits, and drive inefficient competitors out of business. However, this drive for profits also causes capitalists to concentrate workers in larger and larger establishments, keep wages as low as possible, and invest as little as possible in improving working conditions; thus, according to Marx, a large and growing class of poor workers will oppose a small and shrinking class of wealthy owners, eventually bringing about a “communist” society (a system in which there is no private property, and everyone shares property and wealth)
• Weber noted growth of the service sector of economy, with its many manual workers & professionals
• Occupational groups stabilize society because they enjoy higher status
• Showed class conflict is not the only driving force of history
• Argued politics & religion also are important sources of historical change
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Although some of Marx’s ideas have been usefully adapted to the study of contemporary society, his predictions about the inevitable collapse of capitalism have been questioned. Max Weber, a German sociologist who wrote his major works a generation after Marx, was among the first to find flaws in Marx’s argument. In addition to Weber, other writers pointed out that Marx did not understand how investing in technology would make it possible for workers to toil fewer hours under less oppressive conditions; nor did Marx foresee that higher wages, better working conditions, and welfare state benefits would pacify manual workers.
& meanings 4. PEOPLE attach meanings to things to gain a
clear sense of the significance of their actions (e.g., role of Protestant ethic in early capitalist development)
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Verstehen means understanding in German. The Protestant ethic is the belief that religious doubts can be reduced, and a state of grace ensured, if people work diligently and live ascetically. The idea that subjective meanings and motives must be analyzed in any complete sociological analysis was only one of Weber’s contributions to early sociological theory; Weber believed it had an unintended effect: People who adhered to the Protestant ethic saved and invested more money than others did. The work of Mead and his colleagues gave birth to symbolic interactionism, a distinctively American theoretical tradition that continues to be a major force in sociology today. According to Goffman, in the carefully staged play of social interaction, a person’s age, gender, race, and other characteristics may help to shape his or her actions, but there is much room for individual creativity as well. Overall, the study of the subjective side of social life helps us get beyond the official picture, deepening our understanding of how society works and supplementing the insights gained from macrolevel analysis. By stressing the importance and validity of subjective meanings, symbolic interactionists increase tolerance for minority and deviant viewpoints. Mead argued individual’s sense of self is formed in the course of interaction with other people Goffman compared social interaction to a carefully staged play, complete with front stage, backstage, defined roles, & wide range of props
Social Constructionism • Is a variant of symbolic interactionism
• Argues that when people interact, they typically assume things are naturally or innately what they seem to be…(taken for granted)
• Suggests apparently natural or innate features of life are often sustained by social processes that vary historically and culturally
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For example, many people assume differences in the way women and men behave are the result of their different biological makeup; in contrast, social constructionists show that many of the presumably natural differences between women and men depend on the way power is distributed between them and the degree to which certain ideas about women and men are widely shared. People usually do such a good job of building natural-seeming social realities in their everyday interactions that they do not notice the materials used in the construction process; social constructionists identify those materials and analyze how they are pieced together. By stressing how subjective meanings vary historically and culturally, social constructionists show that many seemingly natural features of social life actually require painstaking acts of social creation.
Postmodernism
• Postmodernism was originally a reaction to modernism.
• Influenced by the Western European
disillusionment induced by World War II, • Postmodernism tends to refer to a cultural,
intellectual, or artistic state lacking a clear central hierarchy or organizing principle.
Postmodernism • Postmodernism • Sees social reality as embodying
extreme complexity, contradiction, ambiguity, diversity, or inter-referentiality
• Suggests male domination is determined by structures of power
• Examines operation of patriarchy in both microlevel and macrolevel social settings
• Recommends eliminating patterns of gender inequality
Margrit Eichler (1942- )
Chair, Sociology, OISE.
Head of Women’s Studies,
University of Toronto. Internationally known
for work on feminist methodology.
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Are various strands of feminist theory, but all share the features above. and social convention rather than biological necessity Patriarchy, feminists contend, is as important as class inequality, if not more so, in determining a person’s opportunities in life. The main sources of gender inequality include differences in the way boys and girls are reared; barriers to equal opportunity in education, paid work, and politics; and the unequal division of domestic responsibilities between women and men.
Naomi Wolf, The Beauty Myth
FEMINIST CONFLICT APPROACH • Two key stages in women’s history:
• 1. The Surgical Age- 19th century
• 2 Cosmetic Age- late 20th century/21st
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Women were passive, body was for reproduction…cult of female invalidism-take it easy, no sports. Beauty =thinness, objectification of appearance-cosmetics=capitalism
Cosmetic Age
• NAOMI WOLFE- Linked 19th, 20th and 21stc.
1. CAPITALISM 2. GENDER INEQUALITY 3. HEALTH AND MEDICINE 4. MASS MEDIA
Conflict: IDEAS VS. IDEOLOGY
• IDEAS- human thought, innovation, creativity, reflexivity.
• IDEOLOGY-a product of material forces,
material conditions…
Production vs. Reproduction
• FUNCTIONALISTS=argue that human beings reproduce and create for themselves social institutions such as the family. (idealism)
• Conflict theorists- argue that human production gives rise to social institutions as society advances the division of labour results in human alienation. (materialism)
Production vs. Reproduction
• FUNCTIONALISTS=argue that human beings reproduce and create for themselves social institutions such as the family. (SOCIALIZATION PARADIGM-idealism)
• Conflict theorists- argue that human production
gives rise to IDEOLOGY-social institutions are ideological and bourgeois..
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as society advances the division of labour results in human alienation. (materialism)
Reproduction
• FUNCTIONALISTS=argue that human beings reproduce and create for themselves social institutions such as the family. (idealism)
• Conflict theorists- argue that human
production gives rise to social institutions (ie family)
• Conflict theorists believe that as society advances, the division of labour results in human alienation. (materialism)
Marxist Feminists
• EVEN romantic love, (family and sexuality) are ideological and tied to the ruling class.
• Mass media provide images of desirability,
sexuality, gender relations etc. • Women’s role in family, unpaid labour serves the
interests of the bourgeoisie.
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Nuclear family/conflict view Nuclear family-patriarchal-serves the need of capitalism) In the conflict view, nuclear family is `not natural’ Ideas about family, sexuality, gender are nothing more than ideology tied to the forces of production.
CONCLUSION
• THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE-social force influence individual behaviour
• PARADIGMS-SF, CONFLICT, SI, FEMINISM..
• Paradigms differ on the impact of society on the individual.
• Paradigms are key to unlocking parochial and provincial tunnel vision
FIGURE 1.3 on p. 7 - Suicide Rates by Age and Sex, Canada, 2004 Sources: Statistics Canada, 2008, CANSIM, Table 102-0540. “Deaths by Cause, Chapter XX: External Causes of Morbidity and Mortality (V01 to Y89), Age, Group and Sex, Canada, Annual (Number) (44814 series)” Retrieved January 3, 2008 (htpp://www.statcan.ca/English/Freepub/84F0209XIE/2003000/Related.htm ; Estimates of Population (2001 Census and Administrative Data), by Age Group and Sex, Canada, Provinces and Territories, Health Regions (June 2005 Boundaries) and Peer Groups, Annually (Number).” Retrieved January 3, 2008 (http://dc1.chass.utoronto.ca.myaccess.library.utnoronto.ca/cgi-bin/cansimdim).
Durkheim’s Contribution • Durkheim argued suicide rates varied as
result of differences in degree of social solidarity in different categories of the population
• Social solidarity refers to: - the degree to which group members share
beliefs and values; and - the intensity and frequency of their interaction
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To support his argument, Durkheim showed the following: Married adults are half as likely as unmarried adults are to commit suicide (because marriage creates social ties and a kind of moral cement that bind the individual to society). Women are less likely to commit suicide than men ( because women are more involved in the intimate social relations of family life). Jews are less likely to commit suicide than Christians (because centuries of persecution have turned Jews into a group that is more defensive and tightly knit). The elderly are more prone than both the young and the middle-aged to take their own lives in the face of misfortune (because the elderly are most likely to live alone, to have lost a spouse or partner, and to lack a job and a wide network of friends).
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
• READ: DURKHEIM, SUICIDE: A STUDY OF SOCIAL FORMS..
