The Sociology of Community Connections Second Edition

John G. Bruhn

The Sociology of Community Connections Second Edition

John G. BruhnDepartment of SociologyNorthern Arizona UniversityFlagstaff, Arizona 86011USAjbruhn2@cox.net

ISBN 978-94-007-1632-2 e-ISBN 978-94-007-1633-9DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1633-9Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011933569

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

Printed on acid-free paper

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What life have you if you have not life together?There is no life that is not in community.

T. S. Eliot (1934)The Rock

To my Nebraska hometown, Norfolk, where I first experienced the spirit of community

ix

The nature of “community” has changed considerably since the first edition of this book; it has become more firmly established as an artifact of technology. A generation of youth who have not experienced community of “place” now have the capability of connecting with others by touching a keypad or joining an online network. Information is accessed; merchandise is purchased; classes are taught; marriage partners are found; self-help is available; and entertainment, chat groups, and even bullying now characterize the ways we connect with each other on a daily basis across geographical, social, and cultural boundaries.

As human beings, we reach out to create systems of relationships. We need social connections to survive, reach goals, and leave legacies. We are curious adapting animals and so we continuously seek new ways of connecting as our needs change. We have created new elements of technology to enhance our connectedness. We are constantly being changed by an on-going culture of technology that shapes our individual and collective lives.

Scholars and researchers debate and gather data to show us the positive and nega-tive aspects of the influence of technology on our communications in an effort to make future changes more helpful than hurtful. There is concern on the part of some that there is a superficiality of connectedness in our experiences with one another driven by expediency, competition, and individualism resulting in decreased face-to-face relationships and tentative trust. It has been found that trust can be established online; however, trust is more readily established and durable when there are connections that facilitate continuous, dense networks of reciprocity that face-to-face interactions do rather quickly. Trust is essential in relationships because it encourages people to invest themselves in one another in groups and in social institutions. For example, some workplaces are more technology driven than others; many “workplaces” have been replaced by mobile ones whereby face-to-face encounters with colleagues need to be scheduled. Connectedness is more dependent upon necessity rather than establishing working connections enveloped in trust. Similarly, online academic courses lose some of the ambience of a classroom environment centered around face-to-face dialogue with peers and the instructor. Community still remains a viable and key concept in human relations; it has merely changed in meaning and measurement.

Preface

x Preface

The goal of the second edition of this book is to acquaint the reader with how connections are vital to their existence and in the performance of their daily activities. People exist in groups. Many of our current social problems have been attributed to the breakdown of connectedness, a fragmentation of communication and loss of community. The second edition includes four new chapters, which address issues of connectedness among migrant and seasonal farm workers, senior citizens, new work environments, and ecologically sustainable communities.

“Community” varies culturally; therefore, efforts have been made to expand cross-cultural examples in the text and also questions at the end of each chapter that enable the dimensions of diversity to be addressed and discussed face-to-face or online.

The second edition reaffirms through the inclusion of current research and scholarly literature the importance in regaining connectedness among groups, addressing social disconnectedness in social institutions that have negatively impacted our ability to build and retain social capital on the world stage. We interact out of necessity; we connect as a consequence of choice.

John G. Bruhn

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Acknowledgments

The impetus for a second edition came from the interest shown in the topic of “com-munity” through course offerings in universities and colleges and a general interest in connectedness spurred by technological devices. We obtained feedback from instructors who used the first edition as a text as to omissions and other changes for a future edition. Gratitude is expressed to Linda Weber, Beverley C. Johnson, and T. P. Schwartz Barcott especially for their critiques. I am also grateful for the suggestions of new chapters from Teresa M. Krauss, editor at Springer. The photo-graphs of Roseto are courtesy of a late friend, Remsen Wolf. Vince Colburn’s artistic skills are responsible for the professional newly designed and reproduced graphs.

Tracy Grindle is one of those rare typists who is dedicated to completing her work with perfection. Her skills in organization and composition have made her a silent but critical partner in completing this volume.

John G. Bruhn

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Contents

1 Social Connections .................................................................................. 1Introduction ............................................................................................... 1Our Earliest Connections .......................................................................... 2

Building Social Bonds: Children and Their Parents ............................. 2Bonding with Animals .......................................................................... 3Bonding with Peers and Friends ........................................................... 4

Transmitting Culture and Beliefs .............................................................. 5Environment and Modeling ...................................................................... 6Generalizing Attachment Experiences ...................................................... 7When Social Bonding Fails ...................................................................... 8

Negative Attachments ........................................................................... 8Long-Term Effects of Negative Attachments ....................................... 9

Attachments Across the Lifecycle ............................................................ 10Attachment Continuity in Adulthood.................................................... 11

Community Attachments .......................................................................... 12Community: A Definition ..................................................................... 12Sense of Place ....................................................................................... 14Sense of Community ............................................................................. 14Sense of Community and Neighboring ................................................. 15The Competent Community .................................................................. 17Community: Missing or Present in New Forms? .................................. 18

Shifting Values, Changing Connections ................................................... 19Trust, Community, and Social Capital .................................................. 22The Right to Disconnect ....................................................................... 23

Purposeful Connections ............................................................................ 24Networked Connections ........................................................................ 24Multiple Communities .......................................................................... 25

Summary ................................................................................................... 26Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 28

xiv Contents

2 Conceptions of Community: Past and Present ..................................... 29Introduction ............................................................................................... 29European Conceptions of Community ...................................................... 30American Conceptions of Community ..................................................... 32

Human Ecology .................................................................................... 32Community Power ................................................................................ 37Urban Lifestyles .................................................................................... 39Networks as Communities .................................................................... 39

Contemporary Urban Sociology ............................................................... 40Social Movements and Conceptions of Community ................................. 41

Communitarianism ................................................................................ 41The Communities Movement ................................................................ 43

Loose Connections: Moving to the Center of the Continuum .................. 44Summary ................................................................................................... 44Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 45

3 Common Ties: Immigrant, Refugee, and Ethnic Communities ......... 47Introduction ............................................................................................... 47

Immigration to the United States: 1820–1924 ...................................... 48Immigration to the US After Ellis Island (1954–Present) .................... 48

A New Evolving Multiethnic America ..................................................... 51Newcomers with Old Connections ........................................................... 53

Finding the Familiar .............................................................................. 53Adaptation ................................................................................................. 56

Boundaries Bind, Networks Connect .................................................... 56Ethnic Ties and Trust ............................................................................ 59Ethnic Ties and Powerlessness .............................................................. 61

The Ethnic Neighborhood and Its Networks ............................................ 63The Health Effects of Immigration ........................................................... 65

Mental Health ........................................................................................ 65Health, Life Expectancy, and Mortality ................................................ 66

Summary ................................................................................................... 68Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 70

4 Mobile Communities: The Tentative Ties of Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers .................................................................... 71Introduction ............................................................................................... 71Regional Migration Patterns ..................................................................... 73

Eastern Stream ...................................................................................... 73Midwestern Stream ............................................................................... 73Western Stream ..................................................................................... 73

Becoming a Sojourner ............................................................................... 74Migrant Communities: The Colonias........................................................ 75Migrant Camps .......................................................................................... 75La Familia: Survival and Adaptation ........................................................ 76Different Migrants, Different Cultures,

and Different Connections .................................................................... 77

xvContents

Positive Connections ................................................................................. 77The Health of Farmworkers ...................................................................... 78The Health Care Disconnection ................................................................ 79New Connections ...................................................................................... 80The Role of Culture in Health Services Utilization .................................. 81Summary ................................................................................................... 82Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 82

5 Fragmented Ties: The Poor and the Homeless .................................... 85Introduction ............................................................................................... 85Who Are the Poor? .................................................................................... 86Who Are the Homeless? ........................................................................... 88Poverty and Homelessness as Indicators of National Health .................... 90Social Connections and Networks: The Urban Poor and Homeless ......... 92

Non-kin Networks Among the Male Homeless .................................... 93Networks Among Homeless Women .................................................... 95The Fragile Family ................................................................................ 97Youth Poverty and Homelessness ......................................................... 99Homeless Veterans ................................................................................ 101

The Shelter: Temporary Connections ....................................................... 102Rural Homelessness .................................................................................. 104Poverty and Homelessness: Processes of Disconnectedness .................... 105Summary ................................................................................................... 107Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 108

6 Communities in Crisis: Reconnecting Frayed Social Ties .................. 111Introduction ............................................................................................... 111

What Is a Disaster? ............................................................................... 112How Disasters Change Social Ties ........................................................... 114

Place Disruptions and the Loss of the Familiar .................................... 114Primary Relationships Become Primary ............................................... 116Disasters Define Communities and Change Their Texture ................... 118Disasters Increase Preexisting Inequalities ........................................... 120Disasters Have Epilogues ...................................................................... 121Disasters Increase Resourcefulness and Cohesiveness ......................... 123Disasters Test Social Networks ............................................................. 126

Reconnecting Through Collective Coping ................................................ 127Emotional Simultaneity and Victim Unity ............................................ 127Symbols That Connect .......................................................................... 127The Talking Circle ................................................................................ 128Walls of Grief ........................................................................................ 129Survivor Reunions ................................................................................. 129

Resilience, Social Capital, and Rebuilding ............................................... 130Resilience .............................................................................................. 131Social Capital ........................................................................................ 131Rebuilding Human Systems .................................................................. 132

xvi Contents

Continuing Disasters ................................................................................. 133Some Disasters Have No End ............................................................... 133

Threats of Disaster .................................................................................... 136Environmental Surprises ....................................................................... 136Terrorism: Biological, Chemical, and Nuclear ..................................... 136The Effects of Terror Threats on Connections ...................................... 138

Summary ................................................................................................... 139Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 141

7 Communities of Exclusion and Excluded Communities: Barriers to Neighboring ......................................................................... 143Introduction ............................................................................................... 143

Social Exclusion: Defined ..................................................................... 144Communities with Walls and Gates .......................................................... 144

Privatized Social Capital ....................................................................... 145Types of Gated Communities ................................................................ 146The Minimal Moral Code of Suburbs ................................................... 147

Private Neighborhoods and Tentative Neighboring .................................. 148Excluded Communities ............................................................................. 150

The Excluded American Indian ............................................................ 150Low-Income Communities ................................................................... 152Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Communities ...................... 153Persons with HIV/AIDS ....................................................................... 154The Behaviorally Ill .............................................................................. 155Older Americans ................................................................................... 157The Obese ............................................................................................. 158The Anorexic, Bulimic, and Binge Eater .............................................. 159Persons with Disabilities and Impairments ........................................... 160

Social Inclusion ......................................................................................... 162“Managing” Inclusion/Exclusion .......................................................... 163

Summary ................................................................................................... 164Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 165

8 Connecting Seniors: Social Networks of Value .................................. 167Introduction ............................................................................................... 167Connectedness and Aging ......................................................................... 168Types of Living Arrangements and Connectedness .................................. 169

Predicted Future Living Arrangements ................................................. 170Attitudes Toward Aging and Connectedness in Different Cultures .......... 170Aging: Different Degrees of Connectedness ............................................ 171

Amish .................................................................................................... 172Israeli Kibbutz ....................................................................................... 172The Navajo ............................................................................................ 173Muslims................................................................................................. 174Ethnic Aged in America ........................................................................ 174

Aging, Disconnectedness, and Modernization .......................................... 175

xviiContents

Longevity and a Healthy Lifestyle ............................................................ 175Aging and Social Networking ................................................................... 177

Volunteering .......................................................................................... 177Virtual Networks ................................................................................... 178Intergenerational Mentoring and Relationships .................................... 179Health Benefits of Networking ............................................................. 179

Livable Communities for Seniors ............................................................. 180Community Engagement ...................................................................... 180The Eden Alternative ............................................................................ 181

Summary ................................................................................................... 182Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 183

9 Connections of Faith: Religion as Community..................................... 185Introduction ............................................................................................... 185

Changing Connections .......................................................................... 185The Religious Community in Transition .................................................. 188

Current Patterns of Change ................................................................... 188The Congregation as a Community ...................................................... 190Moral Values and the Socialization of Youth

in the Changing Church .................................................................... 191Religious Individualism, Choice, and the Reactive Church ................. 193

The Growth and Civic Engagement of Non-Christian Immigrants .......... 194Interfaith Connections ........................................................................... 195

Religious/Spiritual Connections ............................................................... 196Religion, Spirituality, and Health .............................................................. 197

Longevity and Religious Attendance .................................................... 197Faith, Coping, and Emotions ................................................................ 198Prayer Connections ............................................................................... 199

Religious Groups, Spiritual Capital, and Forgiveness .............................. 200Religious Communities and Health .......................................................... 201Religion and Disease Prevention .............................................................. 203Faith-Based Communities and Organizations ........................................... 204

Are Faith-Based Organizations Effective and Cost Efficient? .............. 205Summary ................................................................................................... 206Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 208

10 Vital Bonds: Social Support, Social Networks, and Health ................ 209Introduction ............................................................................................... 209Understanding Social Support .................................................................. 210

Social Support Shaped by Culture ........................................................ 212Social Support and Social Networks ......................................................... 213Social Support, Social Networks, and Health ........................................... 213

Enhancing Health and Reducing Mortality ........................................... 214Ameliorating the Effects of Illness ....................................................... 216Social Support and Recovery from Illness ............................................ 217Social Support for Caregivers ............................................................... 218

xviii Contents

Self-help and Support Groups ................................................................... 218Social Support and Community Health .................................................... 220

The Roseto Story: Culture as a Health Advantage ............................... 221The Effects of Acculturation and Social Change on Family

and Community Cohesion................................................................. 223Changes and Choices in Roseto ............................................................ 226Creating Social Cohesion ...................................................................... 227

Summary ................................................................................................... 227Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 230

11 The Social Internet: Cybercommunities ............................................... 231Introduction ............................................................................................... 231

The Internet: A Mosaic of Communities .............................................. 231Cybercitizenship ................................................................................... 232Defining Online Communities .............................................................. 233

The Scope of Internet Diffusion ................................................................ 234The Scope .............................................................................................. 234Teens, Cell Phones, and Texting ........................................................... 235The Networked Family ......................................................................... 235Types of Internet Users ......................................................................... 236

The Effects of Internet Diffusion .............................................................. 237The Effects ............................................................................................ 237

Community Networks ............................................................................... 239The Virtual Organization .......................................................................... 240

Cooperation and Trust ........................................................................... 241Virtual Leadership ................................................................................. 242Virtual Teams ........................................................................................ 243

The Virtual Self ......................................................................................... 244Online Personas .................................................................................... 244

Internet Ethics ........................................................................................... 246Summary ................................................................................................... 247Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 248

12 Virtual Connections in New Work Environments ................................ 249Introduction ............................................................................................... 249Alternative Work Styles and Workplaces .................................................. 250

Collaboration: An Alternative Work Style ............................................ 251Building Trust: A Key to Collaboration ................................................ 252Alternative Workplaces ......................................................................... 253

Workplace Communities ........................................................................... 254Effects of Virtuality on the Cultures of Organizations .............................. 255Organizations as Communities ................................................................. 256

Elements of Infrastructure ..................................................................... 256The Organization as a Community: An Example ..................................... 258The Future of the Workplace in a Distributed World ................................ 259

Physical Place and Collaboration .......................................................... 259

xixContents

Employee Choice .................................................................................. 259Communities of Work ........................................................................... 260

Summary ................................................................................................... 260Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 261

13 Ecologically Sustainable Communities: Place-Based and Purpose-Based Connections ...................................... 263Introduction ............................................................................................... 263Ecology, Sustainability, and Community .................................................. 264The Ecological Footprint Model ............................................................... 265A Sense of Place and Sense of Purpose .................................................... 266

Smart Growth ........................................................................................ 266Eco-Cities .............................................................................................. 267Transition Towns ................................................................................... 269

Building a New Ethic of Sustainability..................................................... 270Sustainable Behavior: Changing Culture and Values ........................... 272An Example of Sustainability: City of Lake Oswego ........................... 273

Summary ................................................................................................... 274Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 276

14 Solitary Communities: Disconnecting from the Common Good ................................................ 277Introduction ............................................................................................... 277Communication in Solitary Communities ................................................ 278

Outcome-Oriented Communication ...................................................... 278Process-Oriented Communication ........................................................ 279

Sources of Disconnections ........................................................................ 280Fear ....................................................................................................... 280Distrust of Institutions........................................................................... 281Anger at Inequalities ............................................................................. 282Changes in Institutional Boundaries ..................................................... 283Domestic Migration .............................................................................. 285

Reconnections ........................................................................................... 285Communities of the Future ....................................................................... 287Sustainable Communities.......................................................................... 287Summary ................................................................................................... 289Questions for Discussion .......................................................................... 290

References ........................................................................................................ 291

Index ................................................................................................................. 321

xxi

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 The interrelationship between trust, social cohesion, and social capital ............................................................ 23

Fig. 3.1 Immigration to the US: 1820–2010................................................ 49Fig. 3.2 Number of foreign born and the foreign-born

population as a percentage of the total population of the US: 1960–2007 ................................................................... 50

Fig. 3.3 Percent distribution of the foreign-born population by region of birth, for the US: 1960–2007 .............................................................................. 50

Fig. 4.1 Migratory streams for farmworkers ............................................... 72Fig. 4.2 Migrant farmworkers health coverage for adults ........................... 79Fig. 4.3 Migrant farmworkers health coverage for children ........................ 80

Fig. 5.1 Number in poverty and poverty rates in the US: 1959–2008 ......... 86

Fig. 8.1 Number of people aged 65 and over, by age group, selected years 1900–2006 and projected 2010–2050 ..................... 168

Fig. 8.2 Living arrangements of persons 65+, 2009 ................................... 169

Fig. 9.1 Types of religious connections: their forms and purposes ................................................................ 197

Fig. 10.1 How communities create social cohesion ...................................... 228

Fig. 12.1 Elements of infrastructure of organization as a community .............................................................................. 257

Fig. 13.1 Man-nature ethic and ethic of sustainability .................................. 271

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List of Tables/Box

Table 1.1 Benefits derived from social connections .................................... 7Table 1.2 Institutional changes and value shifts

in the United States circa 1960–2010 .......................................... 20

Table 2.1 Milestones in the evolution of the concept of community in Europe, 1840–1925 .......................................... 31

Table 2.2 Milestones in the evolution of the concept of community in America, 1915–1950 ........................................ 33

Table 2.3 Milestones in the evolution of the concept of community in America, 1950–2010 ........................................ 38

Table 5.1 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2009 poverty guidelines ........................................................................ 87

Table 5.2 Some demographic characteristics of the homeless .................... 89Box 5.1 Community Voice Mail for the Homeless ................................... 106

Table 6.1 The AIDS epidemic worldwide ................................................... 134Table 6.2 Burden of AIDS among US ethnic groups .................................. 135Table 6.3 Some effects of terror threats on society ..................................... 138

Table 7.1 Characteristics of communities of exclusion and excluded communities ................................................................ 151

Table 8.1 Countries of the world by life expectancy ................................... 176

Table 9.1 Major religious traditions in the US ............................................ 187

Table 10.1 Cultural changes and choices in Roseto ...................................... 226