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The Synapse
• A junction that mediates information transfer from one neuron:• To another neuron, or• To an effector cell (muscle, secretory…)
• Presynaptic neuron—conducts impulses toward the synapse (sending side)• Postsynaptic neuron—transmits impulses
away from the synapse (receiving side)
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Types of Synapses
• Axodendritic—axon of one to dendrite of another• Axosomatic—axon of one to soma of another• Less common types:• Axoaxonic (axon to axon)• Dendrodendritic (dendrite to dendrite)• Dendrosomatic (dendrite to soma)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 11.16
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Axodendriticsynapses
Axosomaticsynapses
Cell body (soma) ofpostsynaptic neuron
Axon
(b)
Axoaxonic synapses
Axosomaticsynapses
(a)
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Electrical Synapses
• Less common than chemical synapses• Neurons are electrically coupled (joined by gap
junctions)• Communication is very rapid, and may be
unidirectional or bidirectional• Are important in:• Embryonic nervous tissue• Some brain regions
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Chemical Synapses
• Specialized for the release and reception of neurotransmitters• Typically composed of two parts • Axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron, which
contains synaptic vesicles • Receptor region on the postsynaptic neuron
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Synaptic Cleft• Fluid-filled space between presynaptic and
postsynaptic neurons, found at chemical synapses• Transmission across the synaptic cleft• Is a chemical event (not electrical)
• Involves release, diffusion, and binding of neurotransmitters
• Provides unidirectional communication between neurons
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Synaptic Transmission Summary• Action potential arrives at presynaptic neuron’s axon terminal
and opens voltage-gated calcium channels
• Calcium enters neuron terminal and causes synaptic vesicle fusion with cell membrane
• Neurotransmitter exocytosis occurs
• Neurotransmitter diffuses across cleft and binds to receptors on postsynaptic neuron
• Ion channels in membrane of post-synaptic cell open, causing excitation or inhibition (graded potential)
• Neurotransmitter diffuses away from receptors as it is broken down in the cleft and/or taken back up by pre-synaptic neuron
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Action potentialarrives at axon terminal.
Voltage-gated Ca2+
channels open and Ca2+
enters the axon terminal.
Ca2+ entry causesneurotransmitter-containing synapticvesicles to release theircontents by exocytosis.
Chemical synapsestransmit signals fromone neuron to anotherusing neurotransmitters.
Ca2+
Synapticvesicles
Axonterminal
Mitochondrion
Postsynapticneuron
Presynapticneuron
Presynapticneuron
Synapticcleft
Ca2+
Ca2+
Ca2+
Neurotransmitterdiffuses across the synapticcleft and binds to specificreceptors on thepostsynaptic membrane.
Postsynapticneuron
1
2
3
4
Figure 11.17, step 4
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 11.17, step 5
Ion movementGraded potential
Binding of neurotransmitteropens ion channels, resulting ingraded potentials.
5
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 11.17, step 6
Reuptake
Enzymaticdegradation
Diffusion awayfrom synapse
Neurotransmitter effects are terminatedby reuptake through transport proteins,enzymatic degradation, or diffusion awayfrom the synapse.
6
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Termination of Neurotransmitter Effects
• Neurotransmitter effect is terminated in a few milliseconds by• Degradation by enzymes• Reuptake by astrocytes or axon terminal • Diffusion away from synaptic cleft
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Synaptic Delay• Neurotransmitter must be released, diffuse
across synapse, and bind to receptors• Synaptic delay = time needed to do this (0.3-5.0
ms)• Synaptic delay is the rate-limiting step of neural
transmission (in short neurons at least)
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Postsynaptic Potentials
• Graded potentials• Strength determined by:• Amount of neurotransmitter released
• Time the neurotransmitter is in the area
• Types of postsynaptic potentials • EPSP—excitatory postsynaptic potentials
• IPSP—inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 11.2 (1 of 4)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 11.2 (2 of 4)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 11.2 (3 of 4)
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 11.2 (4 of 4)
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Excitatory Synapses and EPSPs
• Neurotransmitter binds to and opens chemically gated channels that allow simultaneous flow of Na+ and K+ in opposite directions• Na+ influx is greater than K+ efflux, causing a net
depolarization• EPSP helps trigger AP at axon hillock if EPSP is
of threshold strength and opens the voltage-gated channels
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 11.18a
An EPSP is a localdepolarization of the postsynaptic membranethat brings the neuroncloser to AP threshold. Neurotransmitter binding opens chemically gated ion channels, allowing the simultaneous pas-sage of Na+ and K+.
Time (ms)(a) Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
Threshold
Stimulus
Mem
bran
e po
tent
ial (
mV)
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Inhibitory Synapses and IPSPs
• Neurotransmitter binds to and opens channels for K+ or Cl–
• Causes hyperpolarization (inside of cell becomes more negative)
• Reduces the postsynaptic neuron’s ability to produce an action potential
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 11.18b
An IPSP is a localhyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membraneand drives the neuron away from AP threshold. Neurotransmitter binding opens K+ or Cl– channels.
Time (ms)(b) Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
Threshold
Stimulus
Mem
bran
e po
tent
ial (
mV)
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Integration: Summation
• One EPSP cannot induce an action potential
• EPSPs can sum to reach threshold
• IPSPs and EPSPs can cancel each other out
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Integration: Summation
• Temporal summation
• One presynaptic neuron sends several or many impulses in a short time to the postsynaptic neuron
• Spatial summation
• Multiple presynaptic neurons stimulate the post-synaptic neuron simultaneously
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 11.19a, b
Threshold of axon ofpostsynaptic neuron
Excitatory synapse 1 (E1)
Excitatory synapse 2 (E2)
Inhibitory synapse (I1)
Resting potential
E1 E1 E1 E1
(a) No summation:2 stimuli separated in time cause EPSPs that do notadd together.
(b) Temporal summation:2 excitatory stimuli closein time cause EPSPsthat add together.
Time Time
E1 E1
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 11.19c, d
E1 + E2 I1 E1 + I1
(d) Spatial summation ofEPSPs and IPSPs:Changes in membane potential can cancel each other out.
(c) Spatial summation:2 simultaneous stimuli atdifferent locations causeEPSPs that add together.
Time Time
E1
E2 I1
E1
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Neurotransmitters
• Most neurons make two or more neurotransmitters, which are released at different stimulation frequencies
• 50 or more neurotransmitters have been identified
• Classified by chemical structure and by function
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Chemical Classes of Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine (Ach)
• Released at neuromuscular junctions and some autonomic neurons
• Synthesized in the pre-synaptic neuron
• Degraded by acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
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Chemical Classes of Neurotransmitters
• Biogenic amines include:• Norepinephrine (NE)
• Epinephrine
• Serotonin
• Many others
• Broadly distributed in the brain
• Play roles in emotional behaviors and the biological clock
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Chemical Classes of Neurotransmitters
• Amino acids include:
• GABA—Gamma ()-aminobutyric acid
• Glutamate
• Many others
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Functional Classification of Neurotransmitters• Excitatory (depolarizing) and/or inhibitory (hyperpol.)• Determined by receptor type on postsynaptic neuron
• GABA usually inhibitory
• Glutamate, epinephrine usually excitatory
• Acetylcholine
• Excitatory at neuromuscular junctions in skeletal muscle
• Inhibitory in cardiac muscle
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Neurotransmitter Actions
• Direct action
• Neurotransmitter binds to channel-linked receptor and opens ion channels
• Promotes rapid responses
• Examples: ACh; glutamate and GABA at some of their synapses
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Neurotransmitter Actions
• Indirect action
• Neurotransmitter binds to a G protein-linked receptor and acts through an intracellular second messenger
• Promotes long-lasting effects
• Examples: Norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin; glutamate and GABA at some of their synapses