The Theory of KnowledgeThe Theory of Knowledge

Chapter 1 Chapter 1 Introduction to KnowledgeIntroduction to Knowledge

Introduction to the Theory of Introduction to the Theory of KnowledgeKnowledge

• What is TOK about?What is TOK about?– Socrates said it many years ago. “The Socrates said it many years ago. “The

unexamined life is not worth living” unexamined life is not worth living” – TOK is about examination of the world TOK is about examination of the world

around usaround us

TOK is about understanding TOK is about understanding How we know what we How we know what we

knowknow• What makes up the things What makes up the things

we think of as knowledge?we think of as knowledge? • When we know something When we know something

how do we know it is even how do we know it is even really true?really true?

• It helps us examine our lives It helps us examine our lives and helps us be critical of and helps us be critical of “knowledge claims” which “knowledge claims” which are not actually knowledge are not actually knowledge but instead only belief, but instead only belief, opinion, propaganda, and opinion, propaganda, and even deceiteven deceit

Lesson OneLesson One What do we know? What do we know?

• Knowledge Claims are Knowledge Claims are claims made by someone claims made by someone when they say they know when they say they know somethingsomething

• The world we know is made The world we know is made completely up of knowledge completely up of knowledge claimsclaims

• How do we know it these How do we know it these knowledge claims are knowledge claims are representative of reality? representative of reality?

Consider HistoryConsider History

• Historical artefacts are Historical artefacts are silent; they tell us silent; they tell us nothingnothing

• It is we that interpret a It is we that interpret a meaning onto themmeaning onto them

• Whatever affects Whatever affects these interpretations these interpretations will also affect any will also affect any knowledge claims knowledge claims being madebeing made

Is this view of prevalent

and common human sacrifice

among the Aztecs

truly warranted?

The world view: How the The world view: How the cosmos are structuredcosmos are structured

• How many seconds How many seconds in an hour? in an hour?

• How many seconds How many seconds in a day? in a day?

• How long is one How long is one million seconds? million seconds?

• How long is one How long is one billion seconds?billion seconds?

• 32 years 32 years a long a long timetime

How do we know what the How do we know what the universe is like?universe is like?

• Have we discovered for Have we discovered for ourselves?ourselves?

• How does science answer How does science answer the questions about the the questions about the origin of the universe?origin of the universe?

• What came before the What came before the big bang?big bang?

• How can science ever How can science ever hope to give us the hope to give us the answers?answers?

Is time even real?

Reality?Reality?

• How do we know?How do we know?• Why is our reality more real than realities of Why is our reality more real than realities of

people in the past?people in the past?• Very much of our reality is based on faith in Very much of our reality is based on faith in

scientific claimsscientific claims• We We believebelieve in a reality in a reality • People before believed in a different reality. People before believed in a different reality.

It was different but it was just as real to themIt was different but it was just as real to them • Are we really any closer to getting to the Are we really any closer to getting to the

whole, complete, whole, complete, realreal picture of how things picture of how things really are?really are?

Lesson 2: Understanding Basic Lesson 2: Understanding Basic ConceptsConcepts

(Sound Reasons for Claiming Knowledge)(Sound Reasons for Claiming Knowledge)

Theory of Knowledge is just Theory of Knowledge is just that, a that, a theorytheory

• It is not called the “facts of knowledge”It is not called the “facts of knowledge” • There is not one answer to questions There is not one answer to questions

regarding knowledge regarding knowledge countless theories countless theories about what knowledge actually isabout what knowledge actually is

• The nature of knowledge is so that a The nature of knowledge is so that a human beings’ subjective perspective of human beings’ subjective perspective of the world will, to some degree, influence the world will, to some degree, influence what he or she calls knowledgewhat he or she calls knowledge

Plato: Plato: Knowledge is Justified Knowledge is Justified True BeliefTrue Belief

• PP must be true. must be true.

• I believeI believe P P

• I have I have sound reasonssound reasons for believing for believing P. I need a type of justificationP. I need a type of justification

• I have no evidence that negates or I have no evidence that negates or erodes my belief in erodes my belief in PP

Sound Reasons for Sound Reasons for KnowledgeKnowledge

• Justifications for calling something Justifications for calling something knowledgeknowledge

PerceptionPerception

• A sound reason for A sound reason for knowledge is simply our knowledge is simply our perceptionperception

• Our sight, hearing, Our sight, hearing, feeling, taste and smellfeeling, taste and smell

• ““seeing is knowing”seeing is knowing”• Can be mistaken but Can be mistaken but

generally a very sound generally a very sound reason reason

Vase or Faces?

Self-AwarenessSelf-Awareness

• How do you know we like How do you know we like whatever we like?whatever we like?

• Self awareness is such an Self awareness is such an inherent part of our inherent part of our everyday lives everyday lives

• This knowledge requires This knowledge requires no proof or any other form no proof or any other form of empirical backingof empirical backing

• It is very strong subjective It is very strong subjective knowledgeknowledge

Some say that yellow stands for self-awareness.

What do you think?

• Memories are a sound Memories are a sound reason for knowledge reason for knowledge because we can be sure because we can be sure of them most of the timeof them most of the time

• We know things on We know things on account of our memoriesaccount of our memories

• Because something is a Because something is a “sound” reason for “sound” reason for knowledge, it does not knowledge, it does not necessarily mean it is necessarily mean it is always, 100% of the timealways, 100% of the time

What is this thing? Someone knew once.

DeductionDeduction

• This is one of the This is one of the very important very important words and concepts words and concepts in TOKin TOK

• Deduction is Deduction is making making conclusions based on conclusions based on premises that are premises that are known to be trueknown to be true

• Deduction is the basis Deduction is the basis for all mathematicsfor all mathematics

Is this deduction? Does he/she have knowledge?

InductionInduction

• inductioninduction is another is another extremely important term for extremely important term for TOK and our lives in generalTOK and our lives in general

• InductionInduction is claiming is claiming knowledge about future knowledge about future events based on past events based on past experiencesexperiences

• Science and the scientific Science and the scientific method is based heavily method is based heavily upon inductionupon induction

• There is There is no physical law that no physical law that states that just because states that just because something has in the past, something has in the past, that it will necessarily that it will necessarily happen any time again in happen any time again in the futurethe future

How do we know this will happen tomorrow?

AuthorityAuthority

• Very much of the Very much of the knowledge we have today knowledge we have today we have because an we have because an AuthorityAuthority has told us has told us

• We either consciously We either consciously choose to believe a choose to believe a knowledge claim or we knowledge claim or we simply accept the simply accept the knowledge because an knowledge because an authority we respect has authority we respect has presented us with the presented us with the informationinformation– TextbooksTextbooks– Media etc.Media etc.

Pope John XIII

ConsensusConsensus

• ConsensusConsensus or or Consensus Consensus gentiumgentium is basing is basing knowledge on the fact that knowledge on the fact that everyone, or at least most everyone, or at least most people agree that people agree that something is knowledgesomething is knowledge

• Consensus plays a Consensus plays a significant role in many significant role in many different aspectsdifferent aspects– moral valuesmoral values – Scientific discoveriesScientific discoveries– Historical claimsHistorical claims– Mathematical proofMathematical proof– Political ideology Political ideology

How much of what we know is becausemany people think it is right?

IntuitionIntuition

• Intuition is a feeling, an Intuition is a feeling, an inherent understanding.inherent understanding.

• Intuition makes us know Intuition makes us know about something internal; a about something internal; a way of thinking or way of thinking or perceiving somethingperceiving something

• Even if the intuition is not Even if the intuition is not reflective of reality, it is still reflective of reality, it is still knowledge for the knowledge for the individual on the individual individual on the individual levellevel

Seeing Red Michele Benzamin-Miki

RevelationRevelation

• Easily argued that Easily argued that RevelationRevelation is not a is not a good reason for good reason for claiming knowledgeclaiming knowledge

• However revelation is However revelation is responsible for much responsible for much of the knowledge that of the knowledge that many people hold dear many people hold dear todaytoday– religiousreligious– ethical ethical

• Can be knowledge on a Can be knowledge on a subjective level. subjective level.

Is something being revealed from above?

FaithFaith

• We should avoid We should avoid equating the concept equating the concept of faith with the of faith with the conviction felt in conviction felt in religious experiencereligious experience

• Faith is intertwined with Faith is intertwined with knowledge to a much knowledge to a much greater extentgreater extent

• Much of the knowledge Much of the knowledge we claim to know comes we claim to know comes to us on account of faith to us on account of faith in the claimsin the claims

• Faith is a central concept Faith is a central concept in TOKin TOK

Is there anything that moves mankind more than faith?

Lesson 3 Lesson 3 Certainty, a Foundation for Certainty, a Foundation for

Knowledge or an Outcome of Knowledge or an Outcome of it?it?• FoundationalismFoundationalism

• PragmatismPragmatism

• Two contrasting ideas for what Two contrasting ideas for what knowledge is based uponknowledge is based upon

Foundationalism Foundationalism

• The concept of foundationalism states that The concept of foundationalism states that something is knowledge if and only if we something is knowledge if and only if we are 100% certain of itare 100% certain of it

• Knowledge comes when on reaches this Knowledge comes when on reaches this subjective state of mindsubjective state of mind

• Knowledge=Truth, but TruthKnowledge=Truth, but Truth≠Knowledge≠Knowledge• Knowledge comes when one can not Knowledge comes when one can not

possibly imagine that he is incorrectpossibly imagine that he is incorrect• Certainty is the basis, or forundation of Certainty is the basis, or forundation of

knowledgeknowledge

Foundationalism (contd.)Foundationalism (contd.)

• Foundatonal knowledge claims are generally Foundatonal knowledge claims are generally subjective knowledge claimssubjective knowledge claims

• Knowledge based on elements such as self-Knowledge based on elements such as self-awareness, memory, perception, and awareness, memory, perception, and emotion are types of foundational emotion are types of foundational knowledgeknowledge

• Deduction can also be a type of foundational Deduction can also be a type of foundational knowledgeknowledge

• Foundational knowledge does not need to be Foundational knowledge does not need to be quantified or supported by others for it to be quantified or supported by others for it to be knowledge to the individual knowing the factknowledge to the individual knowing the fact

PragmatismPragmatism

• The perspective of pragmatism The perspective of pragmatism asserts that something is knowledge asserts that something is knowledge if and only if the proposed bit of if and only if the proposed bit of knowledge works in real life settings.knowledge works in real life settings.

• We do not know anything until we We do not know anything until we see that it workssee that it works

• Knowledge is power. It must allow us Knowledge is power. It must allow us to do something to do something

Pragmatism (contd.)Pragmatism (contd.)

• Scientific knowledge is pragmatic knowledge. If a Scientific knowledge is pragmatic knowledge. If a scientist can not show that her hypothesis works, scientist can not show that her hypothesis works, then her hypothesis is disregardedthen her hypothesis is disregarded

• People such as Engineers, mechanics, and pilots People such as Engineers, mechanics, and pilots all know their professions when they can do what all know their professions when they can do what they are supposed to dothey are supposed to do

• According to the pragmatist, we have knowledge According to the pragmatist, we have knowledge when it allows us to sucessfully navigate through when it allows us to sucessfully navigate through our environment.our environment.

• We become certain of something only when we We become certain of something only when we first know it; when it works. first know it; when it works.

• Certainty is an outcome of knowledge, not a basis Certainty is an outcome of knowledge, not a basis for itfor it

Lesson 4Lesson 4Is Truth and Reality Is Truth and Reality

Subjective?Subjective?

Subjectivism vs. Subjectivism vs. RepresentationalismRepresentationalism

• The The subjectivist subjectivist believes there is no true believes there is no true reality. Any so-called reality that there reality. Any so-called reality that there is, is based upon peoples experiencesis, is based upon peoples experiences

• The The representationalistsrepresentationalistsargue that here argue that here is a reality; all we have to do is open our is a reality; all we have to do is open our eyes to see it. If something is true it is eyes to see it. If something is true it is true because corresponds with the true because corresponds with the reality around us. reality around us.

SubjectivismSubjectivism

• Something is true is if it Something is true is if it relates to someone’s relates to someone’s experience in a way that experience in a way that they can understand and they can understand and relate to itrelate to it

• ““Memories buy weightless Memories buy weightless kilograms of ideas.” Is this kilograms of ideas.” Is this statement a reality? It is not statement a reality? It is not a reality because no one can a reality because no one can relate to itrelate to it

• Reality is subjective because Reality is subjective because it depends on ones ability to it depends on ones ability to relate to somethingrelate to something

Is this actually sweet?

RepresentationalismRepresentationalism

• A A representationrepresentation is is something which gives us something which gives us information about another information about another thing or one thing that thing or one thing that stands for another thingstands for another thing

• TrueTrue in representationalist in representationalist terms, is a property of a terms, is a property of a representation that representation that corresponds to the real corresponds to the real world or corresponds with world or corresponds with factfact

• Beliefs or subjective states Beliefs or subjective states of mind have no bearing on of mind have no bearing on reality. Reality is what it is.reality. Reality is what it is.

This is not how an egg is friedRegardless of what one believes.

Plato’s Allegory of the CavePlato’s Allegory of the Cave

Plato’s Allegory of the CavePlato’s Allegory of the Cave

• We can only know things from our own We can only know things from our own perspectiveperspective

• Reality is a subjective experience because Reality is a subjective experience because we are limited and confined to our own we are limited and confined to our own human way of seeing thingshuman way of seeing things

• Like a person that has never left a cave Like a person that has never left a cave and can therefore never know any other and can therefore never know any other reality, so too are people. They see things reality, so too are people. They see things from the perspective of their own “cave”from the perspective of their own “cave”

Meditations on First Meditations on First PhilosophyPhilosophy

• ““cogito ergo sum” cogito ergo sum” I think I think therefore I amtherefore I am

• ScepticismScepticism• Nothing can be known Nothing can be known

except one’s own except one’s own existenceexistence

• There is no way to know There is no way to know if there is a realityif there is a reality

• We can not escape our We can not escape our subjective outlook on life subjective outlook on life to know anything away to know anything away from ourselves or the from ourselves or the way we know thingsway we know things

Rene Descartes 1596-1650

Lesson 5Lesson 5What they will have to doWhat they will have to do

• One essay 1200-1600 words on one of ten One essay 1200-1600 words on one of ten prescribed topicsprescribed topics

• Never change any aspect of the topic.Never change any aspect of the topic.• But, if you want a good essay prepare to write a But, if you want a good essay prepare to write a

1600 word essay. 33% more can be said in a 1600 1600 word essay. 33% more can be said in a 1600 word essay than can be in a 1200 word essay.word essay than can be in a 1200 word essay.

• The essay is 70% of the final grade. The essay is The essay is 70% of the final grade. The essay is graded externallygraded externally

• One PresentationOne Presentation..• About 10 minutes long. Graded by the teacher.About 10 minutes long. Graded by the teacher.• On a “contemporary isssue”On a “contemporary isssue”• The presentation is 30% of the gradeThe presentation is 30% of the grade