The Unification of Germany
The Road to German Unification
During the early nineteenth century, Prussia was the only German state that could match the
power and influence of the Austrian Empire. They were comparable in terms of size, population
and wealth. Austria opposed the idea of German unification as it saw this as a threat to its own
empire. Although they were a minority, there was a significant percentage of German-speakers
in the empire. If they broke away to join a unified Germany, Austria would be smaller and
weaker. To this end, Prussia and Austria were rivals.
Austria weakened
Austria had lost key allies and was losing
influence in Europe.
Austria had refused to help Russia
in its war against France and
Britain (the Crimean War, 1854-
56) and lost a major ally as a result.
Austria was defeated in a war
against the French and northern
Italian states. As a result, it had
been forced to surrender some
territories.
Prussia strengthened
Prussia had become the most industrialized
state in Germany. She was now a force to
be reckoned with in Europe.
Prussia was producing more key
resources such as coal and iron than
Austria and it had surged ahead of
its rival in building road and rail
networks to help promote trade.
Prussia had successfully set up an
economic alliance (Zollverein)
with other German states that made
trade between states easier and
more profitable.
Obstacles to German Unification, 1815-50
Obstacles to Unification
- Division among nationalists
- German Dualism (Austria vs. Prussia)
- Austria
- Opposition to unification: German princes felt threatened by
unification
- Opposition and suspicion towards Prussia
- Zollverein as a symbol of division, envy of Prussia’s economic
success(Industrialization)
- Religion – Catholicism in the South vs Protestantism in the North
1. Divisions among the nationalists
Many middle and working class Germans wanted unification of the states. But they had very
different reasons.
Middle class
For the middle classes, unification could bring:
an increased ability to influence government and decision-making
democratically elected parliaments
improved ability to trade
increasing economic benefits – building on the proven benefits of the Zollverein
Working class
The new working class that had emerged in the towns wanted:
significant social change
improved working conditions
improved living conditions
increased power in parliament to bring about these changes
The middle classes would have seen some of the workers aims as a threat to their economic
status. Concessions to the workers would have potentially affected income.
2. Scale of unification
Nationalists were also divided over the question of what territory should be included in a future
united Germany.
.
3. German Dualism
– constant power play over who has the dominant position in the Deutscher Bund – Austria or Prussia
4. Austrian strength
The Austrian Empire was extremely powerful in Europe. It was greatly opposed to unification
of the German lands:
unified German states would be stronger and more of a threat to Austria
20 per cent of the Austrian Empire’s subjects were German - the Emperor feared
they would break away and join Germany, leaving Austria weaker
German nationalism could inspire other national groups within the Empire to
demand independence
unification would strengthen Prussia politically and economically, at the expense of
Austria.
Scale of Unification
a united Germany should include Austria
(Großdeutschland / großdeutsche Lösung)
Austria and its empire should not be included in a united Germany (Kleindeutschland/
kleindeutsche Lösung)
5. German princes and resentment towards Prussia
- The German princes felt threatened by unification: - their power was based on the idea of absolute control of their individual states - liberal ideas would remove a great deal of their power - a written constitution and parliament elected by the people would shift policy away
from their interests - they would lose their status in a unified Germany - only one prince could rule a united
Germany with the rest subservient to him
6. Opposition to Prussia
Apart from Austria, Prussia was the strongest German state. It was the only state that showed
any real ability to unite Germany. It was clear that unification would mean being ruled by the
Prussian King. This was not acceptable to the other German princes. They felt threatened by
Prussia’s strength, particularly its military strength.
In 1850, the German states sided with the Austrians as they reasserted power over Germany
and re-established the German Confederation. This showed how opposed many German princes
were to Prussia.
7. Economic issues
The German states were independent of each other. In the Industrial Revolution they developed
at different rates. A division grew between the northern and southern states.
The more northerly states were under the influence of Prussia. While the development of the
Zollverein, a German Customs Union, in the 1820s and 1830s was most beneficial to Prussia,
the agreements with its neighbors to allow free travel of people and goods encouraged the
growth and prosperity of all the states involved. The Zollverein was a coalition of German states
that managed tariffs and economic policies facilitating and encouraging trade within their
territories. Prussia was the primary driver behind the creation of the customs union. Austria was
excluded from the Zollverein because of its highly protected industry and also because Prince
von Metternich was against the idea.
Development was furthered by the introduction of the railways in the 1830s. Rail
communication helped end the isolation of the northern states. Better transport of natural
resources and goods further benefited economic development.
However, the Zollverein was also a symbol of division:
many states in the south had not joined
Austria had excluded itself
Prussia can be seen to have used the Zollverein to further its own agenda and increase its
influence
the economic success of Prussia was envied by many of the German states
Industrialization was much slower in the southern states, which tended to fall under the
influence of Austria
8. Religious issues
The Reformation had begun in Germany in the 1500s. By the end of the movement, a significant
number of German states had converted to Protestantism.
This led to a major barrier to unification in the 1800s:
as the most recent protectors of the Holy Roman Empire, the Austrians had remained
Catholic
Austria held great influence over the more southerly German states - they too remained
Catholic
Protestantism had originated and remained in the northern German states
Prussia was Protestant - as were the northern states it most influenced
This religious schism meant that unification would be difficult to bring about.
Indifference of the masses
Nationalism was mainly the concern of the educated and business middle classes. There was
much popular apathy towards a united Germany.
Romantic ideals of nationalism grew through the works of writers and thinkers, such as Goethe
and the Brothers Grimm. But a large proportion of the German population were peasants. Many
were illiterate and would not be aware of these cultural influences.
Some nationalist aims were largely intellectual - they did not offer obvious benefits.
Economic benefits of unification would help the middle classes – increased profits and reduced
taxes would have little effect on the general population.
Improved social and working conditions in the towns and cities would not help rural workers.
It has been argued that peasants were too involved in the day to day struggle of subsistence
living to engage with the nationalist cause.
The Master Plan?
The man who did most to unite the German states was Otto von Bismarck.
He was the Prussian Chancellor and his main goal was to strengthen even
further the position of Prussia in Europe. Bismarck was an incredible
strategist. He pursued a policy of “Blood and Iron”. He is also known as the
Iron Chancellor.
Bismarck on solving the German question:
“nicht durch Reden und Majoritätsbeschlüsse werden die großen Fragen der Zeit entschieden
– das ist der große Fehler von 1848 und 1849 gewesen –, sondern durch Eisen und Blut.“
According to Bismarck, "The great questions of the day would not be settled by means of
speeches and majority decisions, which was the greatest mistake in 1848 and 1849, but by
iron and blood.”
His primary aims were to:
unify the north German states under Prussian control
weaken Prussia's main rival, Austria, by removing it from the Bund
make Berlin the center of German affairs - not Vienna
strengthen the position of the King of Prussia, William I, to counter the demands for
reform from the Liberals in the Prussian parliament (the Reichstag).
Strengthen Germany’s role in Europe – German hegemony but without being perceived
as a threat to other countries complex and ingenious alliance system
It is important to note that there is much debate about Bismarck's aims to unify all German
states under Prussian rule. Some historians argue that Bismarck only intended to unify the north
German states but the strength of nationalist feelings after 1866 led to German unification under
its own steam. According to this opinion, Bismarck actually reacted to political changes in other
German states and capitalized on it rather than pursuing a master plan from the beginning to
control all German states.
Army reforms
Bismarck wanted to build up Prussia's army in case his unification plans led to war. To do this
he needed money. The Prussian parliament refused to allow money to be raised for Bismarck's
military reforms.
Bismarck ignored the Reichstag and simply collected the money for army reforms through
general taxation. He never bothered to obtain permission from the Reichstag.
Isolating Austria
Bismarck knew Austria was a major obstacle to unification. To succeed in his aims war seemed
inevitable. Before he fought the powerful Austrian empire, however, he needed to weaken its
position in Europe.
Prussia refused to help Poland when it rebelled against Russian control. Bismarck then
formed a powerful alliance with Russia.
Bismarck then formed another key alliance with France. In a meeting with Napoleon III, he
promised to support France in its plans to invade and control Belgium.
Bismarck also struck a deal with Italy. Italy promised to help Prussia in any war against
Austria, providing Austria were the aggressor and Italy gained Venezia in return
Blood and Iron – The Wars of German Unification
The German-Danish War (1964) and the Austro-Prussian War (1866)
German states annexed by Prussia 1866
Bismarck got his excuse for a war against Austria during a territorial dispute over two small
German states, Schleswig and Holstein. These were under the control of Denmark but not
technically a part of it.
In 1863, the King of Denmark declared Schleswig and Holstein to be a part of Denmark.
In 1864, Prussia and Austria teamed up and declared war on Denmark. They won easily.
Bismarck then engineered a treaty with Austria (the Treaty of Gastein) which he knew was
unlikely to work. Prussia was to control Schleswig and Austria would control Holstein. This
treaty was designed to provoke, since Austrians would have to go through a hostile Prussia
to reach Holstein.
The Austrians tried to use their influence in the German Bund to pressure Prussia to address
the Schleswig-Holstein issue.
The Bund backed Austria in the dispute over Schleswig-Holstein.
In response, Prussia said that the Bund was invalid, declared war on Austria and invaded
the German states of Hanover, Hesse and Saxony.
The Austrians were quickly defeated by the Prussian army during the Seven Weeks War,
with the help of Italy.
Isolating Austria (Part 2) North German Confederation 1867 - 1871
Bismarck's plan to isolate Austria was working. As a result of the Seven Weeks War (Peace of
Prague):
Prussia kept all the territories it had captured.
A North German Confederation was set up under the control of Prussia.
A federal Diet (parliament) was established for the states in this North German
Confederation. The Diet would be elected and each state could keep its own laws and
customs.
The southern German states formed their own independent confederation.
Austria promised to stay out of German affairs.
Austria paid compensation to Prussia but did not lose land to it. Prussia did not want to
weaken Austria too much since it might be a useful ally in the future against Prussia's
enemies.
Isolating France
With Austria weakened, Bismarck now turned his attention to the other great stumbling block
to unification - the French. France had watched Prussia's growing power with alarm. As he had
with Austria, Bismarck tried to weaken France as much as possible before war started.
Officially, Russia was an ally of France but Bismarck used diplomacy to make sure Russia
stayed out of the up-coming war.
Bismarck also made sure Italy stayed neutral and wouldn't fight for France.
Bismarck gambled that the British would stay out of the war since it didn't want France to
become any more powerful than it already was.
Franco-Prussian War 1870 – 71 Bismarck found his excuse for war when Spain offered its vacant crown to a
Leopold von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a relative of the Prussian King,
William I.
France was outraged since it didn't want Prussia to become more
powerful and feared an imbalance in Europe. The French insisted King
William make his relative refuse the crown and even went a step further,
and insisted the King denounce any right for the throne for eternity, which
the King refused.
Bismarck used the King's refusal as a way to provoke the French. He
published a heavily edited and provocative telegram, known as The Ems
Telegram, of the King's refusal, making it seem he had insulted the
French ambassador. The French Emperor, responding to fury from the French press and
public, declared war on Prussia. As outraged as the French were, Bismarck was very pleased
as this was the opportunity he had long been waiting for.
In the Franco-Prussian war, France was heavily defeated and its ruler, Napoleon III, was
overthrown by a French rebellion.
Napoleon III and Bismarck after the Franco-Prussian War, 1871
As a result of the Franco-Prussian war, France lost the territory of Alsace-Lorraine on its border
with Germany. It also had to pay Germany £200 million in compensation. A new imperial
constitution was set up within the now unified German states, with William I as Emperor
(Kaiser) and Prussia firmly in control.
The Blacksmith of German Unity, 1880
German Unification German Empire 1871
In the build up to war, the southern confederate German states voluntarily joined the Prussian-
controlled Northern German Confederation. Germany was now unified.
Bismarck leads Alsace and Lorraine into the German Empire
An unbelievable humiliation for France was that the German Empire was proclaimed and the
German Emperor crowned in their most cherished symbol of power – the palace of Versailles.
This will play another important role in the future, as you already know, as Germany’s fate will
be decided in the exact same place after World War I in the Treaty of Versailles.
Summary - Bismarck's contribution to unification
Economic co-operation meant that unification may have happened eventually
anyway, but Bismarck made sure that it happened.
He made sure that the army reforms took place.
He successfully isolated other countries by making them look like aggressors.
He made Prussia appear to be the defender of the German states and protector of
their rights.
But did unification go before rights, justice and freedom?
Bismarck – Master Planner or Supreme Opportunist?
“Deutschlands Zukunft“, 1870
Bismarck and Hitler – What would Bismarck have thought of Hitler?
What was Hitler’s opinion of Bismarck?