TheMeasure ofMind$/ - Cabrillo College - Breakthroughs...

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The Measure of Mind What Is Science? How Do Psychologists Conduct Research? How Do We Study the Effects of Time? How Do We Draw Conclusions From Data? How Can We Conduct Ethical Research?

What Is Science?

What Is Science?

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Example: Why Do We Help Others?

What Is Science? How Do Psychologists Conduct Research?

How Do We Study the Effects of Time?

How Do We Draw Conclusions From Data?

How Can We Conduct Ethical Research?

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Can we explain why some people are more likely to help than others?

Science as a Way of Knowing

Ways of Knowing

Science Introspection Emotion

Systematic observation Experimentation





Intuition Deductive Logic

Systematic Observation

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Experimentation

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THEORY explains and predicts observed phenomena

HYPOTHESIS falsifiable and

testable prediction

DATA systematic observation

Confirmation





Peer Review and Replication

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Peer Review Replication





Example: Darley & Batson, 1973

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Thinking about helping norms

THEORIES of helping

More helping

More religious people More helping

Time pressure Less helping

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2

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Questionnaires Instructions for preparing a talk

On the way to the next building…

Darley & Batson, 1973

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Part 1 Part 2

Topic Good Samaritan vs. Jobs

and

Time Pressure Late vs. On Time vs. Early

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1 Topic Jobs

2 Religiosity

Less Religious

3 Time pressure

On time

HYPOTHESIS about helping

Early





Good Samaritan

More Religious

Late


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0 = Did not notice victim 1 = Noticed, but did not offer help 2 = Did not stop, but told someone else 3 = Asked victim if he needed help 4 = Insisted on taking victim inside 5 = Refused to leave victim





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H1 not supported – Topic did not affect helping

H2 not supported – Religiosity did not predict helping

H3 supported – Hurry led to less helping

1

2

3 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00

Late On Time Early

Help

ing

Time Pressure





How Do Psychologists Conduct Research? L01 L02

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Differentiate the key features, strengths, and limitations of correlational and experimental methods, and apply this distinction in designing a new study or interpreting the results of a study.

Explain the main goal of descriptive research methods and the ways in which case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys approach this goal.

Descriptive Methods

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Case Studies

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Naturalistic Studies

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Surveys





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Correlational Methods

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Theorized Cause: Predictor

Theorized Effect: Outcome

Religiosity Helping

Measured only Measured only





Direction of correlations

Positive correlations An association between increases in one variable and increases in another, or decreases in one variable and decreases in the other.

Negative correlations An association between increases in one variable and decreases in another.

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Test Question:

What kind of correlation is this? 1. Positive 2. Negative 3. No correlation

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ScaPerplots Correlations can be represented by scatterplots.

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Explaining correlations

Start with three variables (X, Y, Z) X might cause Y Y might cause X X might be correlated with Y, which alone causes Z

Correlations show patterns, not causes.

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Experimental Methods

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Theorized Cause: Independent Variable

Theorized Effect: Dependent Variable

Time Pressure Helping

Hold other variables constant

Manipulated by Experimenter/ Random Assignment Measured Only





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An experiment

A controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another. An experiment includes variables of interest, control conditions, and random assignment.

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Variables of interest Independent variables Variables the experimenter manipulates Dependent variables Variables the experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable(s)

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Test Question? An experimenter wants to study the effects of music on studying. He has some students study while listening to music and others study in silence, and then compares their test scores. What is the independent variable in this experiment? 1. The students 2. The presence of music while studying 3. The kind of music 4. The test scores

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Test Question:Answer An experimenter wants to study the effects of music on studying. He has some students study while listening to music and others study in silence, and then compares their test scores. What is the independent variable in this experiment? 1. The students 2. The presence of music while studying 3. The kind of music 4. The test scores

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Control conditions

In an experiment, a comparison condition in which subjects are not exposed to the same treatment as in the experimental condition. In some experiments, the control group is given a placebo, an inactive substance or fake treatment.

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Random assignment For experiments to have experimental and control groups composed of similar subjects, random assignment should be used. Each individual participating in the study has the same probability as any other of being assigned to a given group.

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Experimenter effects Unintended changes in subjects’ behavior due to cues inadvertently given by the experimenter. Strategies for preventing experimenter effects include single- and double-blind studies.

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How Do We Draw Conclusions From Data? L01 L02 L03 L04 L05

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L08

Define reliability and validity, and evaluate a specific operational measure of a variable with respect to these criteria.

Differentiate the kind of information conveyed by descriptive versus inferential statistics in describing scientific data, and interpret the meaning of specific statistics (i.e., mean, correlation coefficient).

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Reliability? Validity?

Operational Measures

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Theoretical Variable

Operational Measure





Reliability

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Reliability: The consistency of an operational measure across time and observers

Consistency across time and similar measures

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Consistency across observers





Face Validity Construct Validity Predictive Validity

Validity

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Validity: The extent to which an operational measure actually measures the concept it is supposed to measure

Theoretical Variable

Operational Measure





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Summarize actual study data

Extend conclusions to larger population

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics

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Descriptive Statistics: One Variable

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Central Tendency of One Variable

(e.g., Mean, Median, Mode)

Variability of One Variable (e.g., Standard Deviation)

13.5% 13.5%

34% 34%

2.0%0.5% 0.5%2.0%

68%95%99%

−4 +4−3 +3−2 +2−1 +10





Descriptive Statistics: Relationships Between Variables

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Relationships Between Variables (e.g., Correlation Coefficient)

GPA43.53

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Inferential Statistics

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Sample of People Studied Population of Interest

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Inferential Statistics

Statistical Significance The probability that relationships between variables observed

in the sample are NOT true in the larger population p <.05; p = .01

the likelihood that we got this result, “just by chance”

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What Is Science? How Do Psychologists Conduct Research? How Do We Study

the Effects of Time? How Do We Draw Conclusions From Data?



Ethical Guidelines: Humans

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Reasonable Incentives

Informed Consent

Minimize Harm

Confidentiality





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Ethical Guidelines: Animals

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Clear Purpose for Research Care for Animals Minimize Pain and Suffering ©

Bill G

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TheMeasure ofMind$/ - Cabrillo College - Breakthroughs...

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