Theology and inTernaTional developmenT - Christian Aid · Theology and international development...

Theology and inTernaTional developmenT

By dr paula Clifford, head of Theologywith an introduction by the Bishop of oxford

a Christian aid report april 2010

b Theology and international development Chapter heading

Front-cover photo: a shallow, hand-pump well built by Christian Aid partner EOC-DICAC as part of its Kedida Gamela project, which is aimed at improving health and livelihoods in rural parts of Ethiopia

© Christian Aid/Caroline Wood

Poverty is an outrage against humanity. It robs people of dignity, freedom and hope, of power over their own lives.

Christian Aid has a vision – an end to poverty – and we believe that vision can become a reality. We urge you to join us.

www.christianaid.org.uk

1Theology and international development

Executive summary 2

Preface by the Rt Revd John Pritchard, 3Bishop of Oxford

Introduction 4

1. Poverty, development and human rights 6

2. Theology and human relationships 11

3. Other theologies 16

4. The role of Christians and the churches 20

5. Theology and the organisation 25

6. Eradicating poverty 28

ConTenTs

2 Theology and international development Executive summary

exeCuTive summary

This paper, which is the result of extensive consultation with church leaders, Christian Aid supporters and staff in Britain and Ireland, consolidates Christian Aid’s recent theological thinking on critical issues in its international development work. It is hoped that a subsequent report will explore theological responses from churches, ecumenical groups and partners in the global South, and offer their further perspectives on working with other faith groups.

In positing a theological framework for international development, the paper first looks at our understanding of poverty and human rights. It argues for a consideration of a ‘capabilities’ approach to poverty and discusses how working with rights is consistent with biblical teaching on justice.

It then presents some aspects of relational theology, derived from the work of the Swiss theologian Karl Barth, and demonstrates how the major issues of development, such as HIV and AIDS, climate change, taxation and the food crisis, can be formulated in terms of broken relationships between rich and poor, women and men, people and the environment and so on. In this framework, sin lies in this fracturing of relationships and the failure to mend them.

Other theologies are briefly considered, either to be rejected, as in the case of the so-called ‘prosperity gospel’, or to be reviewed subsequently, as with various contextual theologies.

The remaining chapters deal first with how Christians and the churches respond to the challenges of international development, with a clear emphasis on the importance of advocacy and campaigning. The paper then looks at how relational theology might underlie our organisational structures, providing a theological underpinning for accountability and transparency and for the relationships between the organisation, its partners and beneficiaries, and its supporters.

Finally, the last chapter addresses the need – which is set out in Christian Aid’s Poverty Over report – to change the structures that keep poor people poor. The hope offered by relational theology is that the flawed structures that are indicative of broken relationships can be mended. Thus the work of a Christian development agency is based on exposing where that brokenness lies, and in demonstrating by all the means available to it how those relationships may be healed.

3Theology and international development Preface

ChristianAidWeekcomesaroundagainandhundredsofthousandsofChristianAidsupportersnoblysetoutintothenation’sstreetstodemonstratethepracticalrealityoftheirfaith.Theyaremotivatedbycompassion,rooted,theyinstinctivelyknow,inthelifeofJesusChrist.

Butatadeeperlevel,howarethesecompassionateactionstobegroundedinacoherenttheologicalframework?Howisinternationaldevelopmentjustified,theologically?HowdohumanrightsfitintoauthenticChristianthinking,andhowcanChristianAidandotherorganisationsdemonstratetheirlegitimacy?

ThesearesomeofthequestionsthatChristianAid’sheadofTheologyPaulaCliffordaddressesinthisabsorbingpaper.Shepilotsusthroughtheunderdevelopedtheologicalhinterlandofourcharitableendeavours,and,helpfully,focusesourattentiononarelationaltheologyrootedintheTrinity.

Godhasenteredintoarelationshipwithhumanbeings,embodyinghisnatureofbothloveandjustice.Godexpectsthathumanbeingswillreflectthosequalitiesofrelationshipintheirdealingswitheachother,andtheserelationshipscanbeproperlyframedintermsofhumanrightsandresponsibilities.

Thepaperhelpsustoplacethisrelationaltheologyofdevelopmentalongsidebothliberationtheologyandcontextualtheology,whiledealingwithproperseveritywithformsoftheologyandbiblicalinterpretationthatdemeanbothGodandGod’speople.

TherearestillthosewhothinkGodsenttheHaitiearthquaketopunishpeoplefortheirhereticalbeliefs.Andselectivereadingofscripturestillenablessometojustifythedestructiveexploitationoftheearth’sresources,andtobelieveitissomehowacceptabletohavethepoorwithusalwaysbecauseJesussaidtheywouldbe.

ThisbroadrelationalmodelhelpsilluminatethecontemporaryissuesthatChristianAidandotherdevelopmentagenciestackle.DysfunctionalrelationshipsgiverisetoinjusticeinrelationtoHIV/AIDS,climatechangeandpoverty.RightsaredeniedorabusedbecauseGod’simageisnotrecognisedinotherpeople.

Christianresponseswillrangefromimmediatecompassiontopropheticadvocacyandcampaigning,includingenablingpoorcommunitiestocampaignontheirownaccount.Andthisworkneedstobeundertakeninpartnershipandnetworks–’relationaltheologyinaction’.

AtatimewhenChristianAidhasadopteda’PovertyOver’slogantoholdtogetherthediversestrandsofdevelopmentactivity,thispaperoffersanessentialtheological

undergirding:‘thelikenessofGodthatwesharecreatesareciprocalrelationshipbetweenallofus’.ItrecognisesthataChristiancharitableorganisationneedsatheologicaljustificationforitsworkandneedstooperatewithdistinctiveChristianvalues.

ThisisthetaskDrCliffordhassohelpfullytakenon.It’sforboththeorganisationandtheChurchtoliveoutofitstheologyandsotoproclaimandenacttheyearoftheLord’sfavour.

RtRevdJohnPritchardBishopofOxford

prefaCe

4 Theology and international development Introduction

inTroduCTion

Theologyisindemand.ThatisthemessagethatanumberofChristianagencieshavebeenreceivingloudandclearaspeoplebothwithinandoutsidetheirorganisationsareshowingincreasinginterestinthetheologicalthinkingthatunderliestheirwork.Inthefieldofinternationaldevelopment,muchofthisintereststemsfromthefactthatourworkdealswithsituationsthatclassicaltheologianscouldbarelyhaveimagined,letaloneincorporatedintotheirviewofGodandhisworld.

ThisisnottosaythatChristianAidhassurvivedforover60yearswithoutanytheology.Ofcoursethatisnotthecase.Butthetimenowseemsrighttobringtogetherpreviousinsightsandnewideasthatnotonlyreflectourcurrentapproachtodevelopmentbutmayhelpsupportitinthefuture.Perhapsinevitably,thewayinwhichtheseideasarepresentedreflectthepreferencesoftheauthor,butthisis,hopefully,asurfacedetailthatshouldnotdistractusfromdeeperunderlyingissues.

Since2004,ChristianAidhaspublishedarangeofpaperswhichareaimedatsettingoutthetheologicalbasisofourworkincertainkeyareas:HIVandAIDS(producedinresponsetoadesireforacompassionatetheologyarticulatedbychurchesinAfrica);climatechange;tax;andlandissuesintheoccupiedPalestinianterritory.Inonesense,then,thepresentpaperrepresentsasynthesisofpreviouswork.Butratherthanproduceseparatetheologiesforeachmajorissuethatcomesourway,itseemsnowmuchmoresatisfactorytosetoutanoverarchingtheologyofdevelopmentthatcanincorporateallthesetopicsand,hopefully,allowfortheinclusionofnewonesthatariseinthefuture.

Atmuchthesametimeasweweredecidingonthisnewtheologicaldirection,ChristianAidwasformulatingafreshapproachtoitscampaigningandfundraisingwork.Sosincesummer2009,wehaveusedthewords‘PovertyOver’tocommunicateourmissiontoseetheeradicationofpoverty.Contrarytowhatsomecommentatorsassumed,thisdidnotrepresentadeparturefromourpreviouswork.ChristianAidhasalwaysbeendrivenbythedesiretoendpoverty.Thisiswhatourformerslogan‘webelieveinlifebeforedeath’wasallabout;thisiswhatthewidermovement‘MakePovertyHistory’,inwhichChristianAidplayedamajorrole,wasaimingfor.Aswithanyotherinternationaldevelopmentagency,ourrealambitionistoputourselvesoutofbusiness.

Atheologyofinternationaldevelopmentsoundslikeasubjectforadoctoralthesis.Butwithouttheluxuryofthreeyearsinauniversitylibraryandinthefield,thispapercanbestberegarded,likeitspredecessors,asaworkinprogress.Ourhopeisthatitwill,induecourse,bereplacedbyother,moredevelopedversions,withnewinsightsfrom

theexcitingandever-changingworldofdevelopment.AndwhiletheessenceoftheChristiangospelis,ofcourse,unchanging,newinterpretationsandtheologicalinsightsareconstantlycomingtothefore.These,too,willneedtobetakenintoaccountinthefuture.

ThispaperisanattempttoformulateintheologicaltermsthebasisofandmotivationforChristianAid’swork.Ourtheologydictatesandsupportshowwework,whoweworkwithandwhatkindoforganisationweare.Soatthesametimethatweareaskingourselveswhatkindofdevelopmentweareengagedin,weneedtoberaisingquestionsaboutthenatureofourtheologicalstanceandhowbesttoformulateit.Thatformulationmaytakeavarietyofforms,andwhiletheemphasisinthispaperisondevelopingatheologybasedonrelationships,thisshouldnotstopusfromexploringothertheologicalapproachesaswell,whichmightleadtoadeeperexaminationofthenatureofGod’skingdom,ortoarevisitingofliberationtheology.

The consultation processTwopreviousChristianAidtheologypapers,onclimatechangeandontax,followedasimilarevolutionarypattern.Webeganwithaformalconsultation,intheiconicsurroundingsofChristChurch,Oxford,betweenacademicspecialistsandtheologians.Thesesessionswereacrucialpartofalisteningprocess:hearinghowexpertsunderstoodtheissueswewereconcernedabout;andlearninghowtheologiansapproachedtheessentiallyunjustsituationswhereexcessivecarbonemissionswereworstaffectingthosepeoplewhohaddoneleasttocausethemandwheremulti-nationalcompanieswerepayingafractionofthetaxowedtothosepoorcountrieswhosemineralresourcestheywereexploiting.

Astheserespectivepaperswereinpreparation,wecontinuedourconsultationsforthisreport,thistimewithchurchleadersandotherChristianAidsupportersaroundtheUnitedKingdom.Andtheconsultationprocessdidnotendwithpublication.Awarethatthistheologywasaworkinprogress,wesoughttheviewsofexternalaudiencesandChristianAidstaffinBritainandIrelandand,furtherafield,atmeetingsorganisedbyotherEuropeanagenciesandbytheWorldCouncilofChurches.

However,theconsultationprocessisfarfromfinished.Thenextstagewillbetoseektheviewsofourpartnersandstaffoverseasintwospecificareas:first,toinvitetheircommentsonhowthetheologicalapproachdiscussedhereisappropriatetotheirparticularsituations,andwhatdetailsorqualificationsneedtobeadded;and,second,toincorporatetheirinsightsintowaysofworkingwithotherfaithcommunitiesintheirregion.Thesetwotopicswillbe

5Theology and international development Introduction

discussedinafollow-uppapertobeproducedbetween2010and2012.

Thediscussionsthathavecontributedtothepresentpaperwereheldintwoseparateforums:ininternalmeetingsforChristianAidstaffindifferentpartsoftheUK,severalofwhichincludedcontributionsfromoverseasstaffthankstobroadcastingtechnology;andpublicmeetings,asoftenasnotchairedbybishopsorotherchurchleaders,indifferentpartsofBritainandIreland.IamgratefultomanyofmycolleaguesandtocountlessChristianAidsupportersfortheirwillingnesstoengageinthisconversationandfortheirdesiretoseeChristianAiddevelopingadistinctivetheologytocomplementitswork.

IntheUKandIreland,IamparticularlygratefultoaclutchofAnglicanbishopswhohavesupportedusinthisandotherways,amongthemBishopDavidAtkinson,formerlyofThetford,BishopJamesBellofKnaresborough(whoalwaysgivesussomethingnewtothinkabout),BishopStephenCottrellofReading,BishopRichardHendersonofTuam,KillalaandAchonryintheRepublicofIreland,BishopJohnPritchardofOxfordandBishopMartinWhartonofNewcastle.Ihavealsobenefitedgreatlyfromconversationswithpartnersandchurchleadersoverseas,whoreallyaretoonumeroustomention.ButIwouldliketohighlightinparticularmembersoftheTheologyDepartmentattheUniversityofKwaZulu-NatalinSouthAfrica,andChristianAid’spartnersandfriendsinIsraelandtheoccupiedPalestinianterritorywhogavemetheirtimemostgenerouslyinasituationwheretheyrarelyhadanytospare.

Lastbutnotleast,twoparticularfriendsofChristianAid,DrRobertBeckford,nowamemberoftheboardofChristianAid,andtheArchbishopofBurundi,theMostRevdBernardNtahotouri,bothhelpedmewiththeircriticalobservationswhenthethinkingbehindthispaperwasatanearlystage.Thatsaid,theresponsibilityforanyerrors–whetheroffactorjudgment–remainsfirmlymine.

DrPaulaCliffordHeadofTheology,ChristianAid,LondonApril2010

6 Theology and international development Poverty, development and human rights

Why should Christians be concerned about international development?WhilemanyChristiansholdstrongviewsontheplightofpoorpeopleandthecausesofpoverty,farfewerwillhavemuchtosayaboutinternationaldevelopment.Somewillhavedifficultyindistinguishingbetweendevelopmentandmission;otherswillfeelthisissomethingtobelefttoprofessionals,andsecularonesatthat.Itis,however,worthreflectingbrieflyontheChristianunderstandingofinternationaldevelopment,asapreludetoexaminingChristianattitudestokeyissuesofpovertyandhumanrights.

Juxtaposingtheterms‘Christian’and‘development’islikelytoevokevariousmisconceptions.OneistheideathatanovertlyChristianorganisationexistssolelyforthebenefitofotherChristians:inotherwords,ChristianshelpingotherChristians.InthewordsofarecentChristianAidWeekslogan:‘Thatwouldn’tbeveryChristian,wouldit?’TheotheristhebeliefthatChristiandevelopmentagenciesexisttomakeconvertsoutofthoseinneed.Thiswouldbeneithergooddevelopmentpracticenorgoodevangelism.ToapproachpeoplewithaBibleinonehandandfoodintheotheristomakedevelopmentaidconditionalonacceptingChristianbelief,and,conversely,risksmakingfaithdependentonmaterialandphysicalgain.

WithinthemainstreamchurchesinBritainandIreland,though,thereisastrongimpulsetoengageininternationaldevelopment,eitherdirectlyorthroughtheirownagencies.Themissionagencies,establishedundercolonialrule,havemovedincreasinglyintodevelopmentworkalongsidetheirtraditionalroleofprovidingeducationandhealthcare,togetherwithChristianteaching.AndwhileEuropeandevelopmentagenciesmayrejectthisapparentconfusionofroles,therearemanypeopleintheglobalSouthwhoviewtheseparationofreligionfromsocialjusticeissuesasartificial,aconstructofthemoresecularglobalNorth.

ItisimportanttorememberaswellthatchurcheshavealongtraditionofChristianadvocacy,addressingthestarkestcasesoflegitimisedinjustice.Themoststrikingexamplesmustbethemovementsagainstslaveryand,morerecently,againstapartheid,althoughitshouldnotbeforgottenthatthesewereinjusticesthatalsofoundconsiderablesupportwithinsomechurchesandweremetwithindifferencebyothers.Acontemporarycounterpartisprobablyclimatechangecampaigning,andagainwhilemanychurchesareactivelyinvolvedinthis,thereisasignificantnumberofpeoplewithinthechurcheswhoareunmovedby,oractivelycontest,theveryideaofanthropogenicglobalwarming.

AnydevelopmentagencythatcallsitselfChristianhasadutytoarticulateitsreligiousraison d’être,forthesakeofbothitsdonorsanditsbeneficiaries.Istheagency

engagedinofferingaidbecauseitdiscernsanevangelistic‘opportunity’inagivensituation,orbecauseitbelievesitisactinginresponsetoanunderlyinggospelimperativetocareforpoorandvulnerablepeople?Somedonorswillrespondwarmlytothefirst,otherstothesecond.Andpeopleonthereceivingendhavearighttoknow,iftheysowish,wheretheirhelpiscomingfrom.

Developmentagenciesexisttoencourageandtodirectthemostbasichumanimpulsetocareforone’sneighbourinneedthatwasdemonstratedsomovinglyintheresponseofMozambicanstothefloodinginYork(seebelow).However,thatresponsehasanothermessageaswell,whichistodowiththemodelofdevelopment.Typically,thedeliveryofoverseasaidisaone-wayprocess–therichgivetothepoor–whichpeoplewillreadilyacknowledgeriskscreatingadependencyculture,althoughitis,ofcourse,inaccordancewithnaturaljustice.Moreimportantly,though,itleavesoutofaccountthemajorplayers:poorcommunitiesthemselves.TheMozambiqueexampleillustratesatwo-wayprocess,withsupportflowingbetweencommunitiesandeachacknowledgingitsvulnerabilitytotheother.Whilerelationshipswillbethesubjectofthenextchapter,itisworthnotingfromtheoutsetthatthepartnershipmodelofdevelopmentisrootedinafundamentalhumanrelationshipthattranscendsculturalandgeographicboundaries.

A ‘just economy’ ProfessorValpyFitzgeraldhashighlightedthesignificanceinliberationtheologyof‘thecommunitariannatureofthejusteconomyasaprecursoroftheKingdom’.1Inotherwords,Christianethicswillpromotejusticeinaglobalsetting,notjustinanarrowlocalone.Thisisvitalwhenweconsiderthat,inProfessorFitzgerald’swords,‘oneofthekeycharacteristicsofpovertyisthecountryinwhichpeopleareborn’.2

ChapTer one poverTy, developmenT and human righTs

The floods of 2000in november 2000, Christian aid received an envelope stuffed with mozambique currency and with a request that the money should be forwarded to the city of york. earlier that year, mozambique had itself suffered a devastating cyclone that led to widespread loss of life and livelihoods, and the country was the subject of a massive international relief effort. in york, torrential rain caused water levels to rise to up to 18 feet, the worst flooding the city had seen for 400 years. in terms of human suffering the two disasters were hardly comparable, yet despite this, and despite the fact that most of the cost of the york flood was borne by insurance and the uK government, there were people in a poor country who simply out of a feeling of solidarity with their fellow human beings felt compelled to respond to their need as best they could.

7Theology and international development Poverty, development and human rights

Inthiscontext,developmentaidis‘partofaninternationalsocialsafetynetwhichreflectsnotonlytheglobalethicalresponsibilitiesoftherichforthepoor,butalsotheclaimofthepoorupontherichasmembersofthesameglobalcommunity’.3TheAristoteliannotionofredistributivejustice,notesFitzgerald,isusuallyappliedtoindividualswithinanidentifiablecommunity.Soitisaquestionformoralphilosophyastowhethertheresponsibilityofindividualsextendsbeyondtheboundariesofthestate,andalsowhetherstatescanfunctionasmoralagentsinaninternationalsetting.ForChristians,however,theanswertobothpartsofthisquestionhastobeaffirmative,and,asthenextchapterwillshow,thiswillbecomeanintegralpartofarelationaltheologyofdevelopment.

How do we understand poverty?Ourattitudetowardspovertyandpoorpeopleisdeterminedbyhowweunderstandthoseterms.Probablythemostcommonunderstandingofpovertyinthedevelopingworldisaneconomiconethatisexpressedinsuchformulaeaspeoplewho‘liveonlessthanadollaraday’or,morerecently,lessthantwodollarsaday.Thisis,self-evidently,anegativeperceptionandonethatitishardtoevaluate,giventhatmanyoftheworld’spoorestpeoplewillproduceorobtainmuchofwhattheyneedforsurvivalwithoutrecoursetoanykindofcurrencyexchange.Inthedevelopedworld,thepoorestpeoplearealsosimilarlydefined,asthosewhoseincomefallsbelowacertainlevel(the‘povertyline’).4

Understandingpovertyintermsoftheamountofmoneypeoplehave(whichis,infact,todefinethemintermsofwhattheylack)commonlyprovokestwotypesofresponse.OneiswhatWhiteandTiongcocallthe‘conservativeparadigm’:povertyisregrettablebutunavoidable,anditisthedutyofthepoortoaccepttheirplacewithhumilityandtoworkhardertoimprovetheirlot.5Here,theroleoftherichistobehavefairlyandwithcompassiontowardsthelesswelloff.KeybiblicaltextsunderlyingsuchaviewaretypicallythoseoftheOldTestamentprophetswhichexpressGod’sdesirenotforelaborateculticceremoniesbutratherforjusticeforthepooranddisadvantaged(forexample,Isaiah1:11-17).

TheotherresponseinWhiteandTiongco’ssystemisthe‘liberalparadigm’,which,intheirwords,understandspovertyas‘backwardness’.Thisapproachstressesthepovertyoftheindividualratherthanthesocialgroup,anddistinguishesbetweenthe‘deserving’andthe‘undeserving’poor(adistinctionthathasitsorigininthePoorLawsofElizabethantimes).Typically,thedeservingpoorwouldbethosewhosecircumstances,suchasageorsickness,arebeyondtheircontrol,whiletheundeservingpoorarethosewhoareviewedashavinginsomewaychosentheir

situation.So,forexample,peoplelivingonthecitystreetsaretodaylabelledbymanyasundeservingpoor.Andwhile,insomepartsoftheworld,thedeservingpoormayderivesomehopefrompreachersofaprosperitygospel,theso-calledundeservingpoormerelyattractblameformanyofsociety’sills.6

WhileChristianshaveoftenespousedoneorbothoftheseparadigms,suchnegativeviewsofpoorpeopleandcommunitiescannotbesaidtobeinanysenseChristian.Thestartingpointofdevelopment–whetherornotitiscarriedoutbypeopleoffaith–hastobeapositiveviewofpoorpeople.ApositionpaperpublishedonbehalfofanumberofChristiandevelopmentagenciesinnorthernEuropeputsitverystarkly:peoplelivinginpovertyandsufferingtheconsequencesofconflictsanddisasters‘arerights-holders,andnotobjectsofcharity’.7

ForWhiteandTiongco,peoplearepoornotbecauseofanylackorfaultontheirpart,butbecausethericharerich.8Thereasonsforpovertylieintherelationshipbetweenpoorandnon-poor,theresultofasystemfoundedininjustice.Thisiswhattheytermthe‘liberationalparadigm’,withanobviousappealtoliberationtheologyanditsfocusonthepersonofJesusasonewhostandsalongsidethepoor.

Sinceitsorigins,liberationtheologyhasbeencharacterisedbyitspositiveviewofpoorpeople.GustavoGutiérrezwrites:‘Thepoorpersonissomeonebrimmingoverwithcapacitiesandpossibilities,whoseculturehasitsownvalues,derivedfromracialbackground,historyandlanguage...Wearetalkingaboutpoorpeoplewho,despitethewaytheyhavebeenaffectedbycircumstances(oftenseriously),resistallattemptstomutilateormanipulatetheirhopesforthefuture.’9

Therecognitionthatpovertyhastodowithfarmorethanlackofmoney,and,therefore,thatmoneyitselfwillnotbringabouttransformationalchange,isassociatedinparticularwiththeviewsofeconomistandphilosopherAmartyaSen,whichhavebeendevelopedbytheAnglicantheologianSabinaAlkire.InSen’sterminology,povertyisdefinedas‘capabilityfailure’10–someone’sabsoluteinabilitytoperformcertainkeyfunctions:forexample,toescapedisease,tobeeducated,tobeabletotravel,toparticipateincommunitylifeandtohaveself-respect.11Andthesecapabilities,orfreedoms,arenotnecessarilyindividuallyassociatedwithlackofmoney.Rather,absolutepovertyisseenashavingbothmaterialandsocialdimensionsand,arguably,aspiritualdimensionaswell.Andtheobjectiveofdevelopmentistoreducepovertyinawaythatismorethansimplyhandingoutmoneytothepoorestpeople.Itneedstoaddressthisquestionofcapabilitiesandenablepeopletoachievethem.12

Sen’scapabilitiesapproachhasbeencriticisedby,among

‘The poor person is someone brimming over with capacities and possibilities...’GustavoGutiérrez


others,DesGasper,whohasarguedthatoutsidethefieldofeconomicsitisinsufficientasatheoryofwellbeing,becauseofitsobscureconceptsandextremeemphasisonindividualchoice.Developmentis,hesays,morethana‘processofenlarginghumanchoices’.(Hemightalsohavepointedoutthatpeoplelivinginextremepovertyhavefewchoicestobeenlarged.)

GaspersinglesouttwokeyaspectsofSen’sapproach:thestressonthefactthathowpeopleliveismoreimportantthanwhattheyearn,andtheimportancegiventothevalueoffreedomandpeople’srighttomaketheirownchoices.However,headdsanimportantcaveat:‘Freedomastheabilitytoachievemoreandmoreisinsufficientifothers’freedomisnotconsidered.’13Inotherwords,poorpeoplehavedutiesandresponsibilitiestowardsothersaswellaspersonalrights.Andthisis,infact,atleastpartlyexpressedinSen’suseof‘commitment’,whichisawillingnesstoacttowardsgoalsotherthanourownwellbeing.14

ThecapabilitiesapproachhasbeendevelopedfurtherbyMarthaNussbaumwho,confusingly,usessimilartermstoSen,butwithdifferentmeanings.Asaliteraryscholar,hervisionisbroaderthanthatoftheeconomist,andsheisengagedinawiderhumanisticundertaking.Butherworkissignificantbecauseittakesanunashamedlysympatheticstanceandsheusesstoriesinwhichthevoicesofthepoorareheard,assheengageswiththequestionastowhatconstitutesa‘decentlife’.GasperhighlightsNussbaum’s‘universalistic’languagewhich,hesays,‘focusesonwhatweshareashumanbeings:itaimstogiverespectto[thatwhich]deservesrespect,nottomorallyirrelevantfeatures[suchas]race,genderand,arguably,nationality’.15InChristianterms,thisalladdsuptorecognisingtheimageofGodinotherpeople.

Nowthere’sanobvioussimilarityinwordingbetweenthesediscussionsofcapabilitiesandhumanrights.Povertymeanstheinabilitytobeeducated–orthedenialofaperson’srighttoaneducation;povertymeanstheinabilitytohavefoodorshelter–or,equally,thedenialoftherighttofood/cleanwaterandtherighttoahome,andsoon.What,then,isaChristianviewofhumanrightsthatiscompatiblewithatheologicalapproachtointernationaldevelopment?

How do we understand human rights?ItisprobablytruetosaythatmanyChristians,aswellasmanynon-Christians,arehostiletothewholeideaofhumanrights.SomeChristianswillseethemasindividualistic;others,morecontroversially,willviewthemasanti-religious,alicencetobehavebadly(withastrongemphasisonsexualbehaviour).Andthatviewisperhapspartiallyunderstandablewhenconsideringthatwhenwe

readabouthumanrights,itisveryofteninthecontextoftriviallitigation,peopleseekingtocreatea‘right’toprotectwhatevertheyfeelisunderthreat.TheUKanti-smokinglegislationproducedasubstantialcropofcaseslikethis.Butinsituationswherepeople’sbasicrightsaregenuinelyabused,forexample,Palestiniansbeingdeprivedoftheirrighttofreedomofmovementortheirrighttowater,orSouthAfricans(duringtheapartheidyears)beingdeniedtheirrighttofreedomfromdiscriminationongroundsofrace,humanrightsareveryimportantindeed.

Whatismore,theUnitedNationsUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(1948)setsoutvaluesthatareessentiallyreligious.Andtheideathatallpeoplepossessnaturalrightsisanancientone.RogerRuston,forexample,examinestheteachingofThomasAquinas(whodiedin1274)foranearlyformulationoftheideaofnaturalrightsandalsosinglesoutthemedievalconceptofthe‘rightofself-preservation’asaprecursorofourrighttolife.Rustonsuggests:‘Byabout1300,theparticularrightsthatwerebeingdefendedintermsofnaturallawincludedrightstoproperty,rightsofconsenttogovernment,rightsofself-defence,rightsofinfidels,marriagerights,andproceduralrightsinacourtoflaw.’16TheologianGeorgeNewlandssinglesoutthe14th-centurylogicianWilliamofOckham(whodiedin1347)aspromotingtheideathatallpersonspossessnaturalrights,andemphasisingthedignityofhumanbeingsascreatedinGod’simage.17

Itisalsothecasethatsincetheirbeginnings,thesenaturalrightshavebeenunderstoodwithrespecttothecommunityratherthantheindividual.AshistorianBrianTierneyputsit:‘Thefirstrightstheorieswerenotderivedfromcontemplationoftheindividualisolatedfromhisfellows…butfromreflectionontherightorderingofhumanrelationshipsinemergingsocieties.’18

YetChristiansseemtobeuncomfortablewiththenotionof‘rights’,preferringtoemphasiseinsteadthedutiesorresponsibilitiesthatgowiththem.Butthatistodistortthefundamentalrelationshiponwhichrightsandresponsibilitiesarebased.Byacknowledgingonlymydutytoyou,IaminasensedenyingyouyourrightsbecauseIammakingyouwhollydependentonthedegreetowhichIperformmyduties.Yetrightsandresponsibilitiesordutiesaretwosidesofthesamecoin.Ifyouaresick,becauseIseeinyoutheimageofGoditismydutytocareforyouorensurethatyoureceivetreatment.Conversely,youhavearighttoexpectthatfromme.

Whenitcomestointernationaldevelopment,practitionershavedistinguishedtwoapproaches:oneis‘needsbased’andtheotheris‘rightsbased’,althoughChristianAidhasalsosetoutanapproachthatworkswithrightsratherthanbeingbaseduponthem.19Inreality,theworkcarried

9Theology and international development Poverty, development and human rights

outundereachapproachismoreorlessthesame.Butifwerespondtoaperson’slossofahomefromarightsperspectiveratherthanjustaddressingtheircurrenturgentneed(orperhapsmorerelevantly,ifagovernmentfailstorespond),thenafailuretorecogniseaperson’srighttoahomecanbechallengedthroughnationalandinternationallaw.Andinextremecases,thismakesasuccessfuloutcomemorelikely.

Insomecases,suchastheHIVcrisis,arights-basedapproachrevealsamorecomplexproblemtobeaddressedthandoesaneeds-basedapproach(seeboxbelow).Soaresponsethatdealsspecificallywithgenderrights,freedomfromdiscrimination,privacyrightsandsoonislikelytobemoreeffectiveintermsofbeinglastingandenforceable,thanamoregeneralapproachwhichrecognisesaneedfortreatmentandprevention.

Human rights, community and the BibleTheconceptofacharterofuniversalhumanrightsemergednotfromasingleindividualbutfromacommunity;notfromalocaltribalcommunitybutatrans-globalone,inthedayswhentheterm‘globalisation’wasyettobecoined.Theoutragesperpetratedbyonesectionofthisglobal‘community’againstanother,andbysub-communitiesofhumanbeingswithinthiscommunityagainstanother,duringtheSecondWorldWarwerethedrivingforcebehindtheUNDeclaration.Yetdespitethat,opponentsofhumanrightsarguethattheyaretooindividualistic,encourageindividualism,andhavelittleornoroleinthelifeofthecommunity.Thissectionaimstodemonstratethatthereverseistrue.

Philosophicallyandethically,thereisanalmostinevitabletensionbetweenthelocalandtheuniversal(exceptperhapsinthemostremoteandseparateoftribalcommunities,althougheventhentheuniversalisprobablypresentinsomeform,possiblyatranscendentalone).Butthatdoesnotmeanthathumanbeingsneedoptforeitheroneortheother.AsAmitaiEtzoniargues:

‘One cannot maximise either individual rights (and, in their name, destroy particularistic values and the communities on which they are based) or community (thus ignoring our obligations to all human beings).’ 20

Inotherwords,wederiveourvaluesystemsfromacombinationofindividual,communityanduniversalethics,withthesignificanceofeachcomponentvaryingaccordingtosocialandreligiouscontexts.

Ifwegobacktobasics,thisisclearlysetoutinthefoundationdocumentofJudaeo-Christianethics,theTenCommandments.ThefirstthreecommandmentsdealwiththeexclusiveclaimsofGod(worshipdirectedtohimaloneandthehonouringofhisname)andthenexttwowithGod’sinstitutions(theSabbathandthefamily).Theremainderallhavetodowithbasichumanandsocialobligations,condemningthekindsofactionthatwreckcommunitylife.

TheAmericantheologianWalterHarrelsonsumsupcommandmentseighttoten(stealing,bearingfalsewitnessandcovetousness)as‘theregulationoflifeincommunityinsuchafashionastoassurethathumanbeingsandfamiliescanmaintaintheirplaceandtheirrightswithinit’.21

TheformoftheUNDeclarationofUniversalRightsand

The extent of human rights violations in the developing world is well highlighted by the hiv crisis. The unequal access to medical treatment only became fully apparent in many countries as the virus spread. violations of women’s rights fuelled the epidemic and the denial of treatment exacerbated its impact. epidemics among certain groups (for example, the gay community) revealed that those most affected were those whose rights were already undermined. and hiv itself led to further rights

violations, for example, in the introduction of laws discriminating against homosexuals and in mandatory hiv testing in some countries which resulted in privacy violations.

in this instance, a rights-based approach to hiv advocates voluntary rather than compulsory testing, and demands equal access to treatment. upholding the rights of women enables them to protect themselves against the virus, while protecting the right to

education secures people’s access to information on hiv.

yet given the fact that the vast majority of hiv cases are in sub-saharan africa and that human rights are viewed by Christians in the south as allied to Western behaviour, consideration for such rights has to be part of a wider approach that also takes account of local perspectives. for example, the islamic belief is that human rights are god-given and in the case of sickness, three rights are applicable: the right to

care from the government (this includes not only treatment but privacy, information and so on); the right to care from one’s family; and the right to care for oneself (managing the illness and seeking appropriate help).

Materialtakenfromadiscussionpanel(JosephO’Reilly,PhilipDayle,RachelCarnegieandWafaaSadek)‘Doesahumanrights-basedapproachstrengthenourworkonHIV?’,ChristianAid,WorldAIDSDay2009.

human rights and hiv and aids


Freedomsencapsulatesthedualityofindividualandcommunity(whetherlocalorglobal).Freedomfromracialorreligiousdiscrimination,forexample,appliesasmuchtomybehaviourtowardsmyHinduneighbourinthehousenextdoororattheschoolgateasitdoestoaUKtownorcity’srelationshipwithadistinctiveimmigrantcommunityinitsmidst,ortoCambodia’sdealingswithVietnameserefugees.

ANigeriantheologianexpressesasimilaridea,arguingthatindividualrightsaredeterminedinrelationtothecommunity:

‘The autonomy and rights of the individual subject are enjoyed in relationship, in communication. Indeed, the “freedom” of the individual is “for” the construction of a better community.’ 22

Christiansinpost-modern,developednationsthathavetakenindividualismtoanextremeshouldbewareofdenigratinghumanrightsonthebasisofthatparticular,transitoryworld-view.Itshouldratherbeamatterforhopethatasthe‘mefirst’culturedeclines,community-centredhumanrightscontinuetoflourish.AnditisentirelyappropriatethataChristiandevelopmentagencyshouldhaveanunderlyingtheologyinwhichhumanrightshaveanintegralpart.Furthermore,enablingpeopletoknowtheirownrightsandtodefendthemisanessentialpartoftheworkofaccountablegovernance,whichisdiscussedbrieflyinthenextchapter.

However,itcanbethecasethatcommunityrightsaregivenprecedenceovertherightsoftheindividual,andthismayneedtobechallenged.OneextremeexamplehastodowiththerighttowaterinSouthAfrica,wherethereisawaterpolicyinplacethatallowssomebasicfreeaccess,althoughtherehasbeenaconsiderabledelayinrollingthisouttopeopleinpoorurbanandruralareas.Yetasaresultofgrowingenvironmentalawareness,theenvironmentisconsideredtobeaconsumerofwaterinitsownright.Asaresult,thiscantakeprecedenceoverthedeliveryofwatertopoorpeopleandcommunities.

ConclusionThetheologythatfollowsassumesanumberofbasicprinciplesthatemergefromthetopicscoveredinthischapter.First,itrecognisesanapproachtodevelopmentthatisgroundedintheChristiangospelbutthatisalsodistinctfromChristianmission.Whilemanypeopleinvolvedininternationaldevelopmentmaywellbemotivatedbytheirpersonalfaith,thatfaithisshownmostclearlyintheactionstheyundertaketoservethepoorestpeople,andnotintheirtransmittingtheirbeliefsdirectlytothepeopletheyhelp.

Intheabsenceofabettermodel,itstillseemsmostsatisfactorytodistinguishtwodistinctwaysof‘preachingthegospeltoallpeoples’:one,throughliterallypreachingandcommunicatingthefaithinotherways;theother,throughaction,wherefaithremainsanunderlying,yetindispensable,motivationalelement.Thesecondprinciplehastodowithhowwewhoarerichtreatthepoor,thatis,inpositiveterms,asfellowhumanbeingswiththesamecapabilitiesthatwehave;peoplewithwhomweenterintoapartnershiprelationship.Finally,humanrightsareincorporatedintoourtheologyinordertostrengthenthetiesthatbindhumanbeingsand,mostsignificantly,humancommunitiestogether.

11Theology and international development Theology and human relationships

Howdowesetaboutformulatingatheologyofdevelopmentthatbearsonsomeverycontemporaryissuesthatforthemostparthavenotyetbeenthesubjectmatterofsystematictheologicalanalysisorreflection?

TherelationaltheologydescribedbelowcentresonthenatureoftherelationshipsbetweenpeopleandGodand,byextension,relationshipsbetweenhumanbeingsthemselves.Soitseemslogicaltobeginbyindicatingthenatureofourunderstandingofthesekeyplayers:Godandhispeople.

God and justiceThemodelofdevelopmentonpage13hasatitscentretheabsenceofjustice.Injusticeinvariousareasofhumanbehaviourleadstopoverty,andtheChristianimpulsetocorrectthisstemsfromacertainconvictionastothenatureofGodhimselfasaGodofjustice.

ThisisnottodownplayothercharacteristicsofGod.InboththeOldandtheNewTestaments,qualitiesofloveandpeacearealsoascribedtoGod,andthese,too,areanintegralpartofourrelationshipwithhimandwithoneanother.However,theabsenceofeitherorbothoftheseinourhumanrelationshipsisalsolikelytobeasourceofinjustice,whichiswhyjusticeisgivenpriorityhere.

WhiletheOldTestamentwriters,inparticular,frequentlyuselegaljusticeasarichsourceofmetaphor,‘justice’intheBibleismorecommonlyusedoutsidethecontextofacourtoflaw,torefertohowwebehavetowardsoneanother.Incontrasttohumanbeings,Godhimselfnotonlyactsjustlybutheischaracterisedasinherentlyjustbynature.Forexample,theSongofMosesdescribesGodasarock,whose‘workisperfectandallhiswaysarejust.AfaithfulGod,withoutdeceit,justanduprightishe’(Deuteronomy32:4).

Consequently,intheOldTestament,thepropheticbooksandthePsalmsarefullofinvocationstobehaveasaGodofjusticerequires:‘WhatdoestheLordrequireofyou’,asksMicah,‘buttodojustice,andtolovekindnessandtowalkhumblywithyourGod?’(Micah6:8).Justbehaviourisanessentialpartofthemake-upofarighteousperson,withamarkedemphasisonthewaywebehavetowardspeoplewhoareparticularlyneedy:‘Givejusticetotheweakandtheorphan;maintaintherightofthelowlyandthedestitute.Rescuetheweakandtheneedy;deliverthemfromthehandofthewicked’(Psalm82:3-4).AndtheprophetAmoshasawonderfullypoeticvisionofwhatlifecouldbelikeifwefollowtheseprecepts:‘letjusticerolldownlikewaters,andrighteousnesslikeanever-flowingstream’(Amos5:24).

NewTestamentteachingmovesusonfromthesomewhatgeneralconcernaboutjusticeforpeoplewhoarepoororin

comparableneed(typically,theyarewidows,orphansandforeigners–theasylum-seekersofancientIsrael)tospelloutwhatitmeansto‘dojustice’inthelightofthegospel.Inbehaving‘justly’towardsoneanotherwearenotonlyfollowingtheexampleofJesusbutweareseeingJesusin‘theother’:‘“Iwashungryandyougavemefood.Iwasthirstyandyougavemesomethingtodrink,Iwasastrangerandyouwelcomedme…TrulyItellyou,justasyoudidittooneoftheleastofthesewhoaremembersofmyfamily,youdidittome”’(Matthew25:35,40).

Forthewriterof1John,itisnotpossibletofollowJesusand,atthesametime,rejectthoseinneed:‘Weknowlovebythis,thathelaiddownhislifeforus–andweoughttolaydownourlivesforoneanother.HowdoesGod’sloveabideinanyonewhohastheworld’sgoodsandseesabrotherorsisterinneedandyetrefuseshelp?’(1John3:16-17).AndtheEpistletotheHebrewsurgesnotjusthelpforthoseintroublebutidentificationwiththem:‘Rememberthosewhoareinprison,asthoughyouwereinprisonwiththem;thosewhoarebeingtortured,asthoughyouyourselveswerebeingtortured’(Hebrews13:3).ThisisclearlybehavingafterthemannerofJesus,who‘emptiedhimself,takingtheformofaslave’(Philippians2:7),fullyidentifyinghimselfwithsinfulhumanity.

ArchbishopRowanWilliamshasdescribedtheconsequencesofthisself-identificationwiththoseinneed;peoplewhoarebeingtreatedunjustly:

‘People like William Wilberforce and Henry Thornton felt they were made less human than they should be by the appalling injustice of the slave trade. They felt a hunger for justice – a sense of being spiritually impoverished – “undernourished” because of slavery.’ 23

Sowhenweareinthepresenceofinjusticewearenotunaffectedourselves:consciouslyorunconsciously,wearediminishedbyit.Andour‘hungerforjustice’liesinadesiretoredressthebalance,toenableourfellowhumanbeingstorecovertheirhumandignity,thesamedignitythatweenjoyourselves.

InhisencyclicalofJuly2009,Caritas in Veritate,PopeBenedictXVIalsoarguesforthecentralityofjustice,declaringthatwhilelove(charity)goesbeyondjustice,justiceisnonethelessinseparablefromandintrinsictolove:‘justiceistheprimarywayofcharityor,inPaulVI’swords,“theminimummeasure”ofit’.24SetthatalongsideRowanWilliams’recognitionthatweareimpoverishedbyinjustice,anditisevidentthatrestoringjusticeisanimperativeforboththosewhoinflictandthosewhoexperienceinjustice.AndsinceGodishimselfjust,combatinginjusticeisanecessaryresponsetothecommandtoloveGodandloveourneighbour.

ChapTer TWo Theology and human relaTionships

12 Theology and international development Theology and human relationships

Made in the image of God ThebeliefthatGodisinherentlyjustprovidesafirstanswertosomebasicquestionsaboutinternationaldevelopment.Thesemighttakesuchformsas:whatunderstandingofGodmotivatesustospeakoutaboutcontemporaryissues?WhatunderstandingofGodmakesusangryorupsetattheinjusticeinourworld?

Wenowhavetoposesomequestionsaboutourselves.Whatunderstandingofourfellowhumanbeings,alongsideourunderstandingofGod,drivesour‘hungerforjustice’notonlyforourselvesbutforpeoplewemayneverhavemet?

ThestartingpointfortheologiansandphilosopherswhohavegrappledwiththeconceptsofhumanrightsandresponsibilitieshastraditionallybeenGenesis1:

‘God said, “Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth.”

‘So God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them’ (Genesis 1:26-27).

Nowthereis,ofcourse,muchdebateaboutwhatthismeans.WhatisthequalityinusthatreflectsGodand,incidentally,differentiatesusfromtheanimals,whichisarguablywhat‘havingdominion’isallabout?Weneedtoaskthequestionbecauseif,asnotedinchapterone,Iam,somehow,inGod’simage,andyouare,too,thensurelythataffectshowwebehavetowardsoneanother.SowehaveherethebeginningofanideathatbecausehumanbeingshaveGod’simageinus,itaffectshowwetreatoneanother.

TheideathatthehumanimageofGodisoneofbeing(imago entis)seemsbydefinitiontobeuntenable,unlessitisunderstoodtobeaverypartialimage.Analternativeviewisthatthisisan‘imageofrelationship’:thatwhatisuniquetohumanbeings,asopposedtotheanimalworld,isGod’srelationshipwiththem.Ifthatisthecase,twothingsfollow.

• Fromcreation,therehasbeenaspecialrelationshipbetweenGodandhumans;andthisrelationalaspectofGod(showninhiscovenantrelationshipwithpeopleintheOldTestament,andinanewrelationshipthroughJesusChristintheNewTestament)inturn,determineshow we behave to one another.AspeopleinrelationshipwithGod,wearecalledintosimilarrelationshipswithoneanother.

• Andfromourrelationshipwithoneanother,aspeoplemadeinGod’simage,flowtherightsandresponsibilities

wecallhumanrights.So,forexample,becauseweshareGod’simage,Ihavearesponsibilityandadutynottomistreatyoubecauseofyourrace,gender,age,religionandsoon,and,conversely,youhavearighttoexpectfrommethatnon-discriminatorybehaviour–again,becauseweshareGod’simage.DietrichBonhoeffersawtheimageofGodintermsoffreedom:wearelikeourcreatorbecausewearefree.Andhesuggestedthatfreedomisnotsomethingyoupossessforyourself,itisarelationalthing:sincefreedomoriginatesfromGod,itbecomes,inturn,arelationshipbetweenhumanbeings.25Andfreedomsarecloselyalignedwithhumanrights.

LookingattheBible,asawhole,andbeyondittothedevelopmentofChristiandoctrine,relationshipismodeledinthenatureofGodasTrinity:Father,SonandHolySpirit.TheveryessenceofGodisrelationship.AndthegoodnewsoftheNewTestamentisthathumanbeingsaredrawnintothatrelationship(John17).

Sothetheologicalmodeloutlinedonpage13hasallofthesecomponents.First,itisbasedonourunderstandingofGod,whoischaracterisedbyenteringintorelationshipwithhumanbeingsandbyhisinherentnature,whichincludesbothloveandjustice.And,ofcourse,Godhimselfisessentiallyrelational–asFather,SonandHolySpirit.Second,ourunderstandingofGodasonewhoentersintoaspecialrelationshipwithhumanbeingsdemandsthattheyreflectthatrelationshipintheirdealingswithoneanother.Andthird,thatrelationshipbetweenhumanbeingscanbestatedintermsofhumanrightsandresponsibilities.

Karl Barth’s covenantal theologyThedoctrineoftheTrinityisthestartingpointforChurch Dogmatics,theinfluentialworkofthe20th-centurySwisstheologianKarlBarth.Thevolumesthatareparticularlyrelevantinconsideringatheologicalframeworkforinternationaldevelopmentarethoserelatingtothethemesofcreationandcovenant.

Barth’sunderstandingofcovenantisnotlimitedtothewell-knowncycleofcovenantbreakingandcovenantrenewalthatisfamiliartousfromthestoriesoftheOldTestamentpatriarchs.Heseescovenantalrelationshipsasgoingbacktothemomentofcreation–whentheeternalrelationshipbetweenGodandhumanitybegins.So,heargues,attheverybeginning,Godcreatedhumankindandestablishedaspecialcovenantalrelationshipwiththemandwiththecreatedworld.

GodidentifieswithhumankindthroughhisSon,andforBarthitisimportantthatallthreepersons–Father,SonandHolySpirit–werepresentatcreation.Insummary,inBarth’s


writing,creationandcovenant–God’seternalrelationshipwithhumankind–areinextricablylinked.Creationhaspreparedthecovenantandbecometheuniquesignofit.SoBarthbringstogethertheOldTestamentteachingoncreationandcovenantandtheNewTestamentrevelationofJesusChristandthechurch’sdoctrineoftheTrinity.

Thisbroadtheologicalcanvasisaparticularlyhelpfulframeworkforthediscussionofthemajorissuesofourtime.ItplacescontemporaryhumanrelationshipswithGodinaneternallyexistingpatternthatisrootedincreationitself.SoGodisrevealedas beingalwaysinvolvedinhisworldandeternallycommittedtohispeople,whateverbefallsthem.And,inturn,itoffersamodelfortherelationshipsbetweenhumanbeingsaswellasourrelationshipwithGodandwiththecreatedworld.

Suchrelationshipsfindtheirexpressionincommunity.Barth’sviewoftheChristiancommunityispresentedinvolumeoneofChurch Dogmatics.Barthunderstandshumanlifeasmadeupofbeing(itsinwardaspects)anddoing(itsoutwardaspectsinfellowshipwithothers).So‘community’isequatedwithaction,whichunitesbelievers.ThisiswhatitmeanstopraiseGod,saysBarth:‘NopraiseofGodisserious,orcanbetakenseriously,ifitisapartfromorinadditiontothecommandment:“Thoushaltlovethyneighbourasthyself”.PraiseofGodmustalwaysbeunderstoodasobediencetothiscommandment.’26Therefore,lovingourneighbourisnotanoptionalextra:itisthebasisforcommunityandthetrueexpressionofChristianunity.

SoBarthdefinesacommunitybyitscommitmenttotakeaction,andtheChristiancommunitybyitswillingnesstoundertakeaspecifictypeofactionrootedinthecommand

toloveourneighbour.Thisishelpfulindefiningthecharacteristicsofourdisparatecommunitiestodayandinbringingthemtogether.ForwhilealltheminicommunitiesthataresomehowincludedintheideaofchurchmaynotseethemselvesasthedeeplyunitedwholethatthePaulineideaofthebodyofChristdemands,27theyare,nonetheless,broughttogetherinaction.

Internationaldevelopmentissueshavetodowithwiderrelationshipsbetweencommunitiesaswellasintra-communityones.Unjustbehaviourbyonecommunitytoanotherorwithinacommunityresultsinthebreakdownofrelationships,whichitmaybecomethetaskofinternationaldevelopmentagencies,andChristianonesinparticular,tohelprestore.

Patterns of relationshipsTheverybasicmodelofdevelopmentrelationshipsbelowsetsoutsomeofthekeyfactorsthatresultfrominjusticeandthatleadtopoverty.However,lifeisnotalwaysthatsimpleandthelinksbetweentheoutercirclesindicatethatinjusticecanhavemanycausesand,therefore,manyremedies.So,forexample,theinjusticeandpovertythatunderlietheHIVepidemicmaybeexacerbatedbyunjusttraderelationships;theunjusteffectsofclimatechangeonthepoorestcommunitieshaveimplicationsforpeopleinthosecommunitiesalreadydisadvantagedbyHIV.Thekeypoint,though,isthataconcerntorightthewrongsofinjusticethatleadtopovertyiswhatdrivesinternationaldevelopmentagenciestoworkinalltheareasrepresentedbythesatellitecircles,andmorebesides,asrepresentedbytheemptycircle.28

Thesamepatterncanbeusedtorepresentthetheological

Corruption

Climatechange

Trade

Tax

Internationaldebt

Food

HIV

Injustice(Poverty)

tradepartners

God–love,peace,justice

TheologicalrelationshipsDevelopmentrelationships

Figure1:Patternsofrelationships

‘No praise of God is serious, or can be taken seriously, if it is apart from or in addition to the commandment: “Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself”’KarlBarth

men

women

rich

poor

us

state

createdworld

us

state

state

14 Theology and international development Theology and human relationships

relationshipsthatarebroughtintoplayininternationaldevelopment.ThecentralrelationshipisbetweenGodandhumanbeingsandischaracterisedbyGod’sjustice(andlove).Christians,whetherindividualsorcommunities(churchesororganisations),willstrivetokeepthatcentralrelationshipingoodrepair,whilerecognisingtheirrepeatedshortcomings.

Thesatellitecirclesnowrepresentthekindsofrelationshipsinwhichhumanbeingsengage,andthemajorobstaclestointernationaldevelopmentare,characteristically,causedbyflawsinoneormoreoftheserelationships.Ineverycase,thejusticethatismeanttobecharacteristicoftherelationshipbetweenGodandpeopleisreplacedbyunjustbehaviourbyhumanbeingstowardsoneanother,inturngivingrisetosomeoftheproblemsdepictedinthemodelofdevelopmentrelationships.

Asbefore,severaltypesofrelationshipmaycontributetooverallinjustice.InthecaseofHIV,forexample,theunjusttreatmentofwomenbymenisakeycauseofthespreadofinfection;butso,too,istheinjusticedonetopoorerpeoplebytherichwithinthecommunity,eitherindenyingthemtreatmentorbyincreasingtheirvulnerability(where,forexample,povertymeansthatpeoplelivingwithHIVcannotaffordthenourishingfoodthattheyneed).Atagloballevel,theunjustrelationshipbetweenhumanbeingsandthecreatedworldhasledtoclimatechange.Butagaintherelationshipbetweenrichandpoorisafactor,asthedisproportionatelevelsofcarbonemissionsfromrichcountrieshaveaparticularlyadverseeffectonthelivesofpeopleinpoorcountries.

Sometypesofrelationshipmaybedifficulttoconceptualise,inparticularthoseinvolvinganentityaslargeasanationstate.Yettheeffectsofinjusticeareclearenough,when,say,adevelopednationrefusesdebtrelieftoapoorone.Andthematteroftaxationcanalsobeseenintermsofrelationships:thatbetweenindividualsandthestate(wheretaxdodgingdeprivesthestateofsomeoftheincomeitneedstoprovidebasicsocialservices);andalsothatbetweenacorporateentityandastate(wherecompaniesavoidpayingafairrateoftaxonthenaturalresourcestheyextract,say,frompoorcountries,deprivingthemofincomethatcouldbringthemoutofpoverty).

Theserelationshipsarefarfromstraightforward.Taxpayers,forexample,mayfeeljustifiedinoptingoutoftheirobligationstothestatebyengagingintaxdodging,outofagenuinebeliefthattheycanputthemoneytobetterphilanthropicusethemselves.Yetwhileitmayseemlaudabletobuildaschoolorhospitalwiththeproceedsoftaxdodging,itis,ultimately,disempowering,asadonor’schoicesremainabovechallengeinthewaythatagovernment’sdonot.Andinthecaseofamultinational’s

negotiationswithapoorstate,thereisalsoanunequalpowerrelationshipinvolved.Internationalcompaniestendtohavesomeofthebestlegalmindsattheirdisposal,whilenegotiatorsfromdevelopingcountriesmaynotbeawareofthevalueoftheresourcestheyareselling.Andwhilesomecorporateplayersmaybehaveperfectlyproperlyandethically,suchasymmetryiseasilyopentoabuse.

Nonetheless,theworkofinternationaldevelopmentistocontributetomendingunjustrelationships,howevercomplex,byallthemeansatitsdisposal,includingadvocacyandcampaigning.Andwiththatgoesaresponsibilitytomonitorhealthyrelationshipstoensuretheycontinuetofunctioneffectively.Sodevelopmentorganisationsarerightlyconcernedwiththemessuchasgender,oraboutanyformofdiscrimination,bothwithintheirownstructuresandinthosewithwhichtheywork.

Addressing the issuesThisbroadtheologicalmodelcanbeappliedtothemajorissuesininternationaldevelopmentbyaskingtwoquestions:first,whataretherightsthatarebeingdeniedorabusedthatresultinafailuretorecogniseGod’simageinotherpeople?And,second,whataretherelationshipsthatareaffectedbythis?

So,forexample,inthecaseofHIV/AIDS,therightsaffectedincludeatleast:

• therighttolifeandtohealth(forexample,accesstotreatmentandtonutritiousfood)

• therighttoeducation(forexample,accesstoinformationaboutprevention)

• therighttofreedomfromdiscrimination(forexample,nostigmatisation).

Brokenrelationshipsincludethosebetweenmenandwomen(wherewomenhavenochoiceaboutengaginginunprotectedsex)andbetweenrichandpoor(wherepoorpeoplehavelittleornoaccesstopreventionandtreatment).Additionally,relationshipswithincommunitiesareaffected,wherepeoplelivingwithHIVandAIDSarestigmatisedbythosewhoarenotinfected.And,arguably,wherestigmatisationisfoundwithinthechurchcommunity,therelationshipbetweenpeopleandGodisaffected,assomemembersarefailingtorecogniseGod’simageinothers.

Itisatthispointthatbiblicalreflectioncomestothefore,aspreachersandothersseeksupportfromtheBibletoadvocatetherestorationofrightsandrelationships.

Theinjusticeofclimatechangemaybeapproachedinasimilarway.Therightsaffectedincludeatleast:

• therighttolifeandhealth(suchasprotectionfrom


extremeweatheranditseffects,aswellasprotectionoffoodcrops)

• therighttocleanwater(forexample,protectionfrompollution)

• therighttoahome(forexample,beingprovidedwithsecurehousingorrehousedafteranaturaldisaster).

Relationshipsthatarepertinentherearethosebetweenhumansandtheenvironment,andbetweenrichandpoor(giventhataspectsrelatingtothelifestyleofthewealthy,suchasrichcountries’carbonemissions,havehadmostimpactonpoorcommunities).Afurtherrelationshiptotakeintoaccountisthatbetweenmenandwomen,sinceithasbeenestablishedthattheconsequencesofglobalwarmingarehavingagreaterimpactonwomeninpoorcommunitiesthanonmen.29

Thedirectionofbiblicalreflectionwilldependontherightsandrelationshipsthatareidentifiedasrelevantineachcase.Inthatofclimatechange,therightsandrelationshipsidentifiedjustifyaprimaryfocusontextsrelatingtoinjusticeratherthanonpassagesrelating,say,tonaturalbeauty.

What about sin?Barthdescribesthechurchasa‘churchofsinners’because,hesays,it‘hasnoknowledgeoftheoriginalrelationsbetweenGodandmanexceptasbrokenrelationships,brokeninthecleavagebetweenGodandman’.30IfthebrokenrelationshipbetweenpeopleandGodconstitutessin,itshouldfollowthatthefracturedrelationshipsbetweenpeoplearealsotobeequatedwithsin.Fromanexplicitlyhumanrightsperspective,Newlandsarguesthatwhathecallsthe‘enemies’ofhumanrights,thatis,violenceandtorture,exemplify‘theactualityofsin’.31Inotherwords,sinliesinthefailuretorecognisetheimageofGodintheother.

Butsindoesn’tliesimplyintherelationshipsbetweenindividuals.Therearemuchbiggerforcesatworkaswell,whichfindexpressionintheideaof‘structuralsin’.Thisconceptisparticularlyrelevantwhenlookingatsuchareasastaxationortheglobaleconomiccrisis.Structuralsinisthewrongbehaviourthatmostofusengageinwithoutnecessarilyadmittingthatit’swrong:weactinacertainwaybecauseeveryoneelsedoes.Whenweceasetoquestionwhetherit’srighttofiddleourtaxreturns,whetherit’srightforbigcompaniestomoveoffshore,wearestilldealingwithrelationships,butmuchbiggerones:thosebetweenusandthestate,orbetweenamultinationalcorporationandastate.IsthisanextensionofourfailuretoseetheimageofGodinothers?Maybeitis,sincetaxdodginginevitablyhamperstheworkthatwe,astaxpayers,entrusttothegovernment:thatofprovidingforthepoor

anddisadvantagedpeopleinoursocietyandelsewhere.Somewherealongthelinethatrunsbetweenstates,governments,andcompanies,therewillberealpeopleinwhomwehavefailedtorecogniseGod’simage.

Accountable governanceThetheologicalmodeloutlinedabove,togetherwiththefactorofstructuralsin,meansthataccountablegovernanceworkisparticularlyimportant.Thishelpscommunitiestolearnabouttheirrightsandhowtoclaimthemandgovernmentstoservetheirpeopleeffectively.Oncepeopleunderstandtheirrights,theunjustrelationshipsthathavecausedthemtobeabusedareexposed.Andsomeofthoseabuseswillbedowntostructuralsin:wrongbehaviourthathasbeenallowedtocontinueunquestioned.OneexamplemightbediscriminationagainstDalit,AdivasiandMuslimminoritiesinIndia,whichcontributesdirectlytotheirpovertyandvulnerability.AsChristianAidhasnoted,casteandreligion-baseddiscriminationinIndiaisentrenched,andhasledtoafailuretosharetherewardsofrapideconomicgrowthequally.32In-countryaccountablegovernanceprogrammesenablethisstructuralsintobechallengedandthebrokenrelationshipsbetweenpeopleofdifferentcastesandreligionstobeexposedandaddressed.

16 Theology and international development Other theologies

Relationaltheologyisjustonewayofarticulatingatheologyofinternationaldevelopment,andtherewillcertainlybeotherequallyvalidwaysofdoingthis.Twoalternativeapproaches–liberationtheologyandcontextualtheology–arediscussedbrieflybelow,andsomeoftheirinsightsareincorporatedintotherelationalmodelalreadydescribed.Ontheotherhand,sometheologieswillunderminedevelopmentratherthansupportit.Twokeyareaswheretheologycanbeseentobedoingmoreharmthangoodrelate,first,tohowsomepeoplehaveunderstoodthenatureofGod,and,second,tosomespecificinterpretationsoftheBible.

What kind of God?UnderlyingseveralapproachestotheologythatclearlyhavedetrimentaleffectsistheideathatGodintervenesinhumanhistoryorwiththeworkingsofcreationinordertopunishhispeople.WhilethisreflectstheviewofsomeoftheOldTestamentwriterswhoseekexplanationsfortheinexplicable(extremeforcesofnature,incurableillnessandsoon)itfailstotakeaccountofeitherGod’spromisetoNoah,‘Iwillneveragaincursethegroundbecauseofhumankind’(Genesis8:21)orthegradualrevelationofGod’snaturethroughhisSonandthroughtheHolySpirit.NordoesitreflecttheNewTestamentviewofGod,whoisrevealedthroughJesus:

‘Love your enemies, do good, and lend, expecting nothing in return. Your reward will be great, and you will be children of the Most High; for he is kind to the ungrateful and the wicked. Be merciful, just as your Father is merciful’ (Luke 6:35-36).

TheideaofGodinflictingpunishmentwasprevalentbackinthe1980s,whenHIVwaswidelyassociatedwithsexualbehavioursofwhichthechurchdisapproves.Itsidentification,inwesternEuropeandNorthAmerica,withhomosexualmenand,elsewhere,withfemalesexworkersledtoaswiftresponsefrommanychurches:AIDSwasapunishmentfromGod,akintotheplaguesinflictedondisobedientcommunitiesinOldTestamenttimes.

Asisnowwellknown,thisattitudewasdisastrousandfueledthefiresoftheepidemic.Fearingthewrathoftheirpriestsandrejectionbytheircongregations,ChristianswhobecameinfectedwithHIVsimplykeptquiet.Thesilencesurroundingthevirusdeepenedandstigmatisationofthepeopleaffectedbecamemoredeeplyrooted.Withpeople’signoranceofhowitspreadleftunaddressed,HIVreachedepidemicproportionsallthemorequickly.

ThingschangedrapidlyoncethechurchesunderstoodthatHIVwasintheirmidstandaffectingso-called‘innocent’

people:faithfulmarriedwomen,babiesandchildren.ButbythetimethechurcheshadchangedtheirmessagefromtheideaofaGodwhopunishestoonewholoves,muchdamagehadbeendone.ThethenArchbishopofCapeTown,NjongonkuluNdungane,saidin2004,‘thechurchistoblameforthestigmaandthespreadofHIV/AIDS’becauseadestructivetheologylinkedsexwithsin,guiltandpunishment.33

Whenitcomestotheeffectsofclimatechange,itmayappearthatthelinkwithhumansinfulnessishardertomake.Whilethereisplentytobesaidaboutthenatureofhumansinthathasledtothedestructionattributabletounrestrainedcarbonemissions,theologianshavenot,generally,linkedthatsintootherkindsofhumanbehaviour.NotsoinBangladesh,wherethepoorestcommunitiesaresufferingfloodingandlossoflivesandlivelihoodsasaresultofincreasinglyfrequentandferociouscyclones.Inruralareas,someChristianpastorsaretellingpeoplethatthisisentirelytheirfault,theresultoftheir(generally,sexual)sin.

Whileclearlywrong,thisteachingaboutaGodwhousesnaturetopunishhispeoplemaynotseemasdamagingasitwasinthecaseofHIV.Thereis,however,aseriousoutcome.IfGodisinflictingpunishment,thenpeopleseenopointinstrengtheningtheirhousesandtakingothermeasurestoprotectthemselvesagainstfuturedisasters.Inotherwords,theologyisabletoundoatastrokealltheprogressmadehithertointheareaofdisasterriskreduction.

Interpreting the Bible

Rejecting the Old TestamentMarcionismwasasecond-centuryheresythatrejectedtheOldTestamentasastumblingblocktoChristianity,alongwithpassagesintheNewTestamentthatreflectedtheJewishScriptures.Unsurprisingly,notmuchoftheBibleremained:justaneditedformofStLuke’sGospeland10Paulineepistles.Theresult,inMarcion’sview,wasa‘pure’NewTestamentchurch.

Thereisnowamodern-dayMarcionismtobefoundincreasinglyintheoccupiedPalestinianterritorythatsimilarlyseekstorejecttheOldTestament,butforratherdifferentreasonsfromthoseoftheoriginalMarcion,whoarguedthattheGodoftheOldTestamentwassecondarytotheGodoftheNew.Instead,ithasitsoriginsinIsrael’suseofScripturetojustifyitspolicyofseizingPalestinianland,anddespitethebesteffortsofchurchleadersandacademics,themessagethattheOldTestamentmustbereadinitstotalityandinthelightoftheNewTestamentisonethatsomePalestinianChristiansandtheologystudentsfindverydifficulttoaccept.

ChapTer Three oTher Theologies

17Theology and international development Other theologies

AMarcionitetendencyisalsocreepingintosomePalestinianchurcheswhichcanbe,seen,forexample,intheavoidanceofthetraditionalreadingofthestoryoftheExodusonEasterSaturday.

Inamuchlessformalway,partsoftheOldTestamentare,attheveryleast,asourceofpain(and,therefore,againtobeavoided)becauseofmodernassociations–forexample,thosethatmentionShiloh,whichisreveredbecauseofGod’sappearancesthere,particularly,hiscalltoSamuel(1Samuel3:21).Today,ShilohisassociatedwithveryaggressiveIsraelisettlers.InthewordsofaleadingRomanCatholictheologianatBethlehemUniversity,FrJamalKhader:‘Theyarestealingourreligiousheritage.’34

TheformerLatinPatriarchofJerusalem,PatriarchMichelSabbah,whoretiredfromofficein2008,wasanimportantadvocateforpeaceandjusticeinhisnativeHolyLand.HeaddressedtheproblemofthemisinterpretationofScripture(whichishowthewholesalerejectionoftheOldTestamentmustbeviewed)inhisfourthPastoralLetter,datedNovember1993,entitledReading the Bible in the Land of the Bible.35

InemphasisingGod’sprogressiverevelationthroughouttheBible,thePatriarchsimultaneouslyconfrontedtherejectionoftheOldTestamentbysomePalestinianChristiansandthelandclaimsofmodernIsraelis,remindingthemoftheparticularstatusofthelandintheBible,thatitbelongstoGod(see,forexample,Leviticus25:23).‘Israel…couldnotbecometheabsoluteowneroftheland:itwasonlyGod’sguest.TheworstpossiblethingthatcouldbefallIsraelwouldbetoforgetthistruth,tosettlethisland,andtosubstituteitforGodinitsworshipandvaluessystem.’36

Clearly,thereismuchmoretobesaidonthejusticeissuesthatbesetIsraelandtheoccupiedPalestinianterritory.Theologically,though,therelationshipsthatarechallengedbythesituationtodayarenotonlythosebetweenpeopleinconflict,butbetweenpeopleandGod.ItmightwellbearguedthatabiblicaltheologythatrejectsOldTestamentrevelationontheonehandandthatappealstoaparticularunderstandingofthelandontheother,isaffectingtherelationshipoftwodistinctpeoplesandtheirGod.

Whatdoesthishavetodowithdevelopment?Ataminimum,theseconflicting(andunorthodox)attitudestoScripturecreateastumblingblockfordialoguebetweendifferentfaithcommunities.Atworst,theyhaveledtoviolenceandde-development.

Selective readings of ScriptureThesituationofIsraelandtheoccupiedPalestinianterritoryappearstobeuniqueindevelopmenttermsinthatinthis,theBibleitselfcreatesconflict,aswellasbeingusedto

justifyit.Morecommonly,itistheselectiveuseofcertainpassagesintheBiblethathasledtoincreasedsufferingratherthanthereliefofsuffering.Inonesense,thisselectivityisinevitable.ThemostintractableproblemsthataffectinternationaldevelopmenttodaydonotfeatureintheBible,sopeopletendtolookforbiblicalpassagesthattheythinkdealwiththenearestequivalent.YettheHIV/AIDSepidemic–whenconsideringitscausesandeffects–isverydifferentfromthekindofmaladiesthatwerethesubjectofJesus’shealingmiracles;andthecausesandeffectsofclimatechangearemuchmorewide-reachingthantheconsequencesofnotfollowingthedeuteronomicpreceptsaboutcaringfortheearth.

UsingtheBibleinthisway,withoutthesafeguardofawidertheologicalapproach,isbothpoorexegesis–theoriginalcontextisalltoooftendisregardedinadesiretomakeapassage‘relevant’tocontemporaryconcerns–and,potentially,extremelydamaging.Herearetwoexamples.

‘Dominion’ over the earthIntheearlydaysoftheclimatechangedebate,oneargumentthatwasparticularlyassociatedwithconservativeevangelicalsintheUnitedStateswasderivedfromGenesis,inwhichGodcreateshumanbeingsandsays‘letthemhavedominion…overeverycreepingthingthatcreepsupontheearth’(1:26).Thisisfollowedbyafurtherinstruction:‘Befruitfulandmultiply,andfilltheearthandsubdueit’(1:28).Theargumentthatisderivedfromthisisthatnatureisourstocontrolandexploitforourownbenefit–whetherthisisintheunrestrainedexploitationofminerals,thecuttingdownoftrees,oranyotheractivitiesthatincreasethegreenhousegasemissionsthatresultindevastatingclimatechangeinpoorcountries.

ThisinterpretationofScriptureisnotanacademicpoint.TheseversesinGenesisareusedtojustifyawayoflifethatsomeindustrialistshavenointentionofchanging.TheyhavealsobeenquotedinconjunctionwithversesfromRevelationsuchas8:7(‘athirdoftheearthwasburnedup,andathirdofthetreeswereburnedup,andallgreengrasswasburnedup’),theimplicationbeingthattheeffectsofclimatechangeareasignoftheendtimes,andare,therefore,tobeencouraged.

ManytheologiansconcernedwiththeecologicalcrisishavechallengedthereadingofGenesis1:26-28aslegitimisingaggressivehumandominationoftheearth.Yetitcannotbeexplainedawayas‘reallymeaning’stewardship.AsDavidHorrellsays,inhisreviewofThe Green Bible,‘thelanguageofGen1.26-28(whichdoesnotmentionstewardship,assuch)cannotbesoeasilysoftenedandredeemed’,whichmakesitallthemoreimportantthatthesebiblicalversesshouldbeexaminedintheiroriginalcontext,andnotripped

18 Theology and international development Other theologies

outofitinordertosatisfyaparticulartheologyandtojustifyaparticularlifestyle.37

‘The poor are always with you’AlthoughpovertyeradicationhaslongbeentheobjectiveofChristianAidandotherorganisations,talkingaboutpovertybeingovercanprovokeadversecommentfromsomeChristians.ThefirstisthesuggestionthatJesushimselfruledouttheverypossibility.

ThreeofthegospelstellthestoryofJesusbeinganointedwithexpensiveointment,possiblybyMaryofBethany.Whenheractionsarecriticisedonthegroundsthatthemoneywouldhavebeenbetterspentonthepoor,Jesusreplies:‘Youalwayshavethepoorwithyou,butyouwillnotalwayshaveme’(Matthew26:11).Thecontextualmeaningisclear:withJesus’sdeathimminentnothingelsematters.Therewillbeplentyofopportunitiestocareforthepoorlater.SoratherthanunderstandJesus’swordsasaresignedstatementofdefeat,weshouldseetheminsteadasanencouragementtoeradicatepovertyinhiskingdomonearth.ToseeapermanentdivisionbetweenrichandpoorassomehowbeingGod’swillisnotaChristianoption.

Thisargumentiscounteredbyafurtherobjectionfromthosewhobelievethatpovertywillnotbeendeduntiltheendofthepresentage,andthishastodowithourunderstandingof‘kingdom’.

Withoutgoingintothedetailsofcontroversiesaroundmillennialism,itisworthreiteratingthebeliefthatthecomingofthekingdomofGodbeganwithJesusChrist,andiscontinuedbyhisfollowers.Challengingthestructuresthatcausepovertyispartofthatongoingwork,asarethemendingofrelationshipsandthemonitoringofthemoncetheyarerestored.Whilewecannothopetoreplicateinthislifetheunimaginableblessingsofthelifetocome,thatisnoreasonnottodoallthatwecantoputanendtothepovertythatafflictssomanyoftheworld’spopulationbytacklingitsveryhumancauses.

The ‘prosperity’ gospelFinally,awordontheso-called‘prosperity’gospel,alsoknownasthe‘healthandwealth’gospel.Thisteaching,whichismoreofaheresythanatheology,holdsthatbelievershavearighttomaterialprosperity.ItcouldbeseenasstemmingfromtheancientJewishbeliefthatrichesareasignofGod’sfavour,butithasbeendevelopedthroughtheselectionofafewversesfromtheNewTestament,suchasJohn10:10(‘Icamethattheymayhavelife,andhaveitabundantly’)or3John2(‘Ipray…thatyoumaybeingoodhealth,justasitiswellwithyoursoul’).SomeofthisthinkingisalsosurprisinglyinsidiouswithinpopularwesternChristiandiscoursewithgoodfortuneunhelpfullylinkedtoGod’sblessing.

Muchoftheobjectiontothisteaching,whichhasitsoriginsinNorthAmericanPentecostalism,isfocusedonhowithasledtofinancialexcessesonthepartofsomechurchleadersandthecorrespondingexploitationoftheircongregations.Indevelopingcountries,though,wherethethinkinghasbeenexported,thereistheriskthatpeoplewillseetheirpovertyasaresultofGod’sdispleasure,andwillbeunwillingtoengagewitheffortstoimprovetheirsituation.

SelectivereadingofScripturecanbedangerouslymisleadingand,inthecontextofdevelopment,itmayevenbelife-threatening,asexemplifiedbytheargumentsofthosewhoseetheirimmoderateexploitationoftheearth’sresourcesasconformingtoGod’swill,andthosewhotaketheviewthatpovertyeradicationisimpossibleandsomehowcontrarytowhatGodintends.Theseareextremeexamples,butanyonewhoseekstojustifyanargument,howeverworthy,withtheunsystematic,evenrandom,useofscripturalquotationsrisksseeingitundermined.

Liberation theologies‘A theology of liberation… is a theology which does not stop with reflecting on the world, but rather tries to be part of the process through which the world is transformed.’ Gustavo Gutiérrez 38

WhiletheemergenceofliberationtheologyisassociatedfirstandforemostwiththegreatLatinAmericantheologiansofthe1970sand1980s,thereistodayaproliferationofliberationtheologies,someofwhichrelatetoreligionsotherthanChristianity.Whattheyallhaveincommon,though,istheconceptofa‘preferentialoption’for(orbiastowards)thepoor,anditisthisthatmotivatesmuchoftheworkofChristiandevelopmentorganisationsandgrass-rootsgroupsintheglobalSouth.

Liberationtheologyspringsfromsomeverypracticalconcernsandsomehardquestions:howcanwetalkaboutGodaslovetopeoplewhoarecaughtupinpovertyandoppression?HowcanwebelieveinajustGodinasituationwherepeoplearedyingunjustly?AndwhatdoestheBiblehavetosaytopoorandmarginalisedpeople?

Almostbydefinition,liberationtheologyiscontextdependent,andsoappearsunsystematic.OneofitsmajorcontributionshasbeentoencouragepoorcommunitiestoreadtheBiblefromtheirownperspective.ForpoorwomentounderstandMary,themotherofJesus,notasaremotefigurebutassomeonesharingtheirownsituationisimmensely‘liberating’–settingthemfree,inasense,toreadandunderstandthebiblicalstoryintheirownwayandtoapplyitsmeaningtothemselves.Differentcontextsthereforeproducedifferentinsights.Oneofthemostimaginative

19Theology and international development Other theologies

readingsofOldTestamenthistorycomesfromHaitiwherelocalcommunitiesreaditthroughthelensofHaitianhistory,withitsowncaptivityanditsown‘exodus’toindependence.

Doesthismeanthatliberationtheologyisincompatiblewithrelationaltheology?Gutiérrezdescribesawayoftheologisingthathasthesamestartingpoint:loveforGodandourneighbour:

‘Liberation theology argues that in order to speak of God, one must first contemplate God’s love and then put into practice the commandment to love our neighbours. Together, worship and commitment to others comprise the first act, the praxis. After, and only after, praxis are we able to theologize. This is the second act, the reflection on praxis in the light of the word of God.’ 39

Inrelationaltheology,theextendedcovenantalrelationshipbetweenGodandhumanbeingsimpelsustotranslateourloveforourneighbourintoaction.Liberationtheologyreversesthis:fromshowingactiveloveforourneighbourwemayreflectonthenatureofGodandourrelationshipwithhim.

Becausetherelationalmodel,asdepictedgraphicallyinthepreviouschapter,isdescriptiveratherthanhistorical,thisdifferenceinorderoftheserelationshipsappearsimmaterial.Whatitdoesnottakeaccountof,though,isthebiastowardsthepoorinthoserelationshipsthatfeaturesinliberationtheologyandthemodelcouldwellberedrawntoreflectthisemphasis.Andtheoutcomeshouldbethesame:onlywithrestoredrelationshipscantherebetrueliberationofthepoor.

Contextual theologyLiberationtheologyis,itself,anexampleofcontextualtheology.Asthenamesuggests,contextualtheologydemandsathoroughgoinganalysisofpeople’ssituation,andonequestionthatarisesfromthisiswhethersuchananalysis–cultural,historical,psycho-socialandsoon–is,infact,possibleatallandwillalmostinevitablybesubjectivetosomedegree.Thereisalsoaquestionastotheextentofthecontextinwhichtheologisingtakesplace.ThelateProfessorStevedeGruchywasprobablySouthAfrica’sleadingtheologianinthisareaandsomeofhisworkreflectsthisconcern.

‘What is clear from the perspective of rural Africa is that much of what passes as ”contextual” African theology is hardly contextual for much of Africa at all. By this I mean that theology is taught in urban contexts, the larger churches are in urban areas… and it is to be expected that the brighter and more articulate theologians and clergy will move to the cities. Here they will endeavour to do contextual theology

– but in its very claim to speak on behalf of Africa it has assumed a universality that is just not true.

‘If theology in Africa is to be done contextually, then it also has to be done rurally… and the experience of life in the rural areas has to shape theological reflection.’ 40

Attheotherendofthescale,therearesomeconcernsabouttheroleofcontextualtheologywhenitisappliedinternationally:

‘Some Third World theologians claim that in light of the global nature of contemporary challenges to life, contextual theologies, no matter how well developed and essential for the context, are inadequate to inspire liberative action that must also be global.’ 41

Nonetheless,inrelationaltheology,contextisimportantinthatitspecifieswhichrelationshipsareinneedofattentionandhowtheymaybeappropriatelyaddressed,whetherthatcontextisnationalorlocal.

Conclusion FormulatingatheologicalunderpinningforinternationaldevelopmentdoesmorethansimplyjustifytheworkofaChristianorganisation.Itallowsustoevaluatecompetingtheologies.Sowhileliberationtheologyandcontextualtheologyremainviablealternativestotherelationaltheologyoutlinedinchaptertwo,anytheologythatinsiststhatGodusesnatureorsicknesstopunishhumankindisinvalidated,inthatitdamagesmorerelationships(betweenGodandhumansandthenaturalworld)thanitrestores.

‘Much of what passes as contextual African theology is hardly contextual for much of Africa at all’StevedeGruchy

20 Theology and international development The role of Christians and the church

SincebiblicalteachingandChristiantheologysupporttheviewthatcaringforthepoorisanintegralpartofindividualChristianbehaviour,whatistheroleoftheChristianchurchincaringforpoorpeopleinthedevelopingworld?AscommunitiesofChristianindividuals,itfollowsthatchurchesshouldsimilarlybeconcernedwithinternationaldevelopment,notleastbecausecommunitiesaremoreeffectivethanindividuals.Butisthereanadditionalroleforthechurches?ShouldtheChristianchurchbecauseofitsverynatureasaninstitution(ratherthanjustacollectionofindividuals)beparticularlyinvolvedininternationaldevelopment?Andifso,how?

Thestructuralmodelofrelationaltheologyasdescribedinchaptertwocanalsobeseenasamodelofthechurchitself.AstheWorldCouncilofChurches’Costly Unityreportputit:

‘The Trinity is experienced as an image for human community and the basis for social doctrine and ecclesial reality… The church not only has, but is, a social ethic…’ 42

Inotherwords,thechurchisnotsimplyengagedwiththerelationshipsbetweenhumanbeingsandcommunities(asaninternationaldevelopmentagencymightbe):itisequally–anduniquely–involvedintherelationshipsbetweenthosecommunitiesandGod.Sothechurchbearsanadditionalresponsibilitywhenitcomestochallengingandrestoringhumanrelationships.AlkireandNewellsumupthechurch’scallinglikethis:

‘to participate with God in mending the brokenness of creation and healing the rift between humanity, nature and God’.43

ButtheseauthorsarequicktopointoutthatdespitethisroleofsharingwithGodinthemissionofreconciliation,redemptionandsalvation,thechurchdoesnotnecessarilyhaveexclusiverightstosuchparticipation:cooperationwithpeopleofotherfaithsmayalsobeafactor.Furthermore,wecannotescapethefactthatthechurchofGodisachurchofsinners.Asalreadynotedinchaptertwo,Barthsuggestedthatthechurchknowsonlybrokenrelationships.Yethopefortheredemptionofthechurchliesinthewaysinwhich‘thechurchmustmakeGod’sgoodness,hisfriendshipformen,visibletoitselfandtotheworld’,44thatis,inrestoringandrenewingthesebrokenandimperfectrelationships.

The church and the world ‘The Church of Jesus Christ is not called to be a bastion of caution and moderation. The Church should challenge, inspire and motivate people.’ The Kairos document45

Sohowdoesthechurchengageintheserelationships?Andhowdoesitsworkrelatetointernationaldevelopment?What,forexample,istheappropriateresponseofChristiancommunitiestotheinjusticeofclimatechange?Atalocallevel,howdochurchcommunitiesrelatetoothercommunities?Andatanationalandinternationallevel,howdoes‘thechurch’(itselfacollectionofcommunities)relatetoothernationalandinternationalbodies,tosecularcommunitiesandotherfaithcommunities,andtothecreatedworld?

Partoftheanswerliesinhowweregardthechurchwithrespecttotheworld.Essentially,thechurchisacommunitythatentersintoarelationshipwithothercommunities,whetherinternationallyorlocally.John’sgospelteachesusthatChristians,andthereforethechurch,arein,butnotof,theworld(John15:18-19)butthisdoesnotmeanthatwearetoholdourselvesalooffromtheworld.Itisbythenatureofourrelationshipswiththeworldthatwearetobejudged.Thisassumesthatthechurchisadistinctentity:ifitwerenot–if,forexample,itallowedethicaldifferencestobecomeblurred–itwouldbegintomergeintotheworldandbeincapableofaclearlydefinablerelationshipwithit.

StanleyHauerwasseestherelationshipbetweenchurchandworldasamutuallydependentone:‘theworldhasnowayofknowingthatitisworldwithoutthechurchpointingtotherealityofGod’skingdom’.Sohedescribesthechurchandtheworldas‘relationalconcepts–neitherisintelligiblewithouttheother.Theyarecompanionsonajourneythatmakesitimpossibleforonetosurvivewithouttheother,thougheachconstantlyseekstodoso’.HauerwasbasesthisassertiononthebeliefthatGodhasredeemedtheworldeveniftheworldrefusestoacknowledgeitsredemption.SothechurchcannotabandontheworldtohopelessnessonaccountofitsrejectionofGod.Theworldhasthefreedom‘notyettobelieve’.46

Thismeansthatthechurchisrequiredtodomorethanholdtheworldtoaccount:itcannotchallengetheworld’svaluesandactionswithoutstatingitsownvaluesandwithoutitselftakingaction.Achievingjustice,say,demandsthatthechurchentersintocooperativerelationshipswithcommunitiesoutsideit.Visser’tHooftsuggested(in1968)thatracismandapartheidwerethe‘ethicalequivalentofheresy’,andhearguedthatchurchescouldfailasChristianchurchesiftheydidnotdefendhumandignityinsuchsituations.47

Responding to suffering Majornaturaldisasters,suchastheAsiantsunamiin2006ortheHaitiearthquakeinJanuary2010,wherethereissufferingonanalmostunimaginablescale,haveledmany

ChapTer four The role of ChrisTians and The ChurCh

21Theology and international development The role of Christians and the church

peopletoquestionthenatureandpurposesofGodand,indeed,theveryexistenceofGod.Lesseasilyfixedintime,butleadingtomuchgreaterlossoflifeandwidespreadsuffering,theHIV/AIDSepidemichas,similarly,ledsomepeopletoreflectonwhetherthelife-givingorderofcreationhasgivenwaytodeath-dealingchaos.

Insuchcircumstances,relationaltheologyenablesustoaffirmthatGod’srelationshipwithhumankindisindestructible.Andwhilethismaybeoflittlecomfortincircumstanceswheresufferingobscuresreason,theprincipleofGod’scovenantalrelationshipwithhispeopleisseeninitsfullrealityinthesufferingofthecrucifiedJesus:‘MyGod,myGod,whyhaveyouforsakenme?’(Matthew27:46).Thisisthepointatwhich,paradoxically,GodhimselfexperiencesthatseparationfromGodthatmarksthedepthofhumansuffering.48

ForChristians,therefore,themostimmediateresponsetodisasters,whatevertheirscale,andtoothercausesofsufferinginthedevelopingworld,hastobeaninitialimpulsetosharethatpain.ThebiblicaltraditionoflamentationisnotonewhichiscommoninthemainstreamchurchesintheglobalNorth,yetitisonewhichisahelpfulmodelforacknowledgingpainunreservedlyandforcallingonGodforjustice.InAfricanandCaribbeanPentecostaltraditions,lamentationisafamiliarresponse–likefastingandprayer–thatseeksthewillofGodinbringingrelieftohumansuffering.ThisisnotinorderthatChristiansmightsomehowfeelbetterabouttheillsoftheworld:itisafirststeptoaction,tochallengingthesocialstructuresthatarearootcauseofsuffering.

Thischallengeisessential,evenwheresuchsufferingseems,onthefaceofit,tobeattributabletoforcesbeyondhumancontrol.Theeffectsofthe2010earthquakeinHaiti,forexample,wereverymuchworsethantheymighthavebeenbecauseoftheeconomicdeprivationsufferedbythecountry(whichwasdirectlyattributabletoavarietyofhumancauses,suchaspoliticalcorruptionandInternationalMonetaryFundandUSAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentconditionalities)andtheconsequentlackofinvestmentinsafebuildingsandinfrastructure.Inshort,povertyincreasespeople’svulnerabilitytonaturaldisasters,aswellastoHIV/AIDS,malariaandsoon,andtheirsufferinghastobecloselyconnectedtothebehaviouroftherich.

Insuchasituation,repentanceisakeypartoflamentation,althoughthisisratherdifferentfromviewinganearthquakeasdivinepunishment.InaNew York Times article,publishedrightaftertheearthquakeinHaiti,ayoungmanisquotedassaying:‘Youcan’tblameGod.Iblameman.Godgaveusnature,andweHaitians,andourgovernments,abusedtheland.Youcannotgetaway[withthis]without[suffering]consequences.’49

Itisnotablethatwherethechurchhasbeenmosteffectiveinthepastinchallenginginjusticethathasledtosuffering,thishasbegunwithbeingpartofthatsuffering–anexamplewouldbetheresponseofmanyAfricanchurchestotheHIV/AIDSepidemic–orwithmakingaconsciousefforttotakeonthepainofothers,assurelyhappenedwiththemovementtoendapartheidinSouthAfrica.In2003,agroupoftheologiansmeetinginNamibiatodiscusstheologyandHIVproducedthisstatement:

‘Lament offers us language which names the suffering, questions power structures, calls for justice and recounts to God that the human situation should be otherwise. Lament also expresses hope and trust in God’s compassion and willingness to deliver us from suffering. It is both an individual and a communal activity.’ 50

Prophetic voicesProphecyisnotanactivityconfinedtoindividuals.Speakingouttochallengesocietyanditsinstitutions,whetherlocal,nationalorglobal,isthecallingofChristianchurchesandofChristianorganisations.Thegreatstrengthofthesecommunitiesliesintheirnumbersandintherespectfortheirethosthatisshownevenbythosewhodonotshareit.Sowhatdoesitmeanforadevelopmentorganisationtospeakprophetically?Andwhatarethosewhorespondtoacalltoactionmeanttodo?

Lovingone’sneighbourhastoincludespeakingoutonhisorherbehalf.AsthewriterofProverbsputsit,‘Speakoutforthosethatcannotspeakfortherightsofallthedestitute’(Proverbs31:8).Butthisisnotsimplyaquestionofarticulatingpeople’sneedsforthem.Apropheticvoiceisonethatreflectsanunderstandingofwhattheconditionofthedestituteshouldbecome,andhowthatchangeistobeeffected.Initssimplestterms,thisisthestyleofprophecyofMary’ssong:

‘He has brought down the powerful from their thrones,and has lifted up the lowly;he has filled the hungry with good things,and sent the rich away empty’ (Luke 2:52-53).

Whatisparticularlydistinctiveaboutapropheticvoiceisthatitisdiscomfiting.Sowhilemanydevelopmentorganisationsmaysetouttodisturbuswithimagesofsuffering,forexample,aChristianorganisationtakesthatdiscomfortastagefurtherbysettingthatsufferingalongsideareminderofwhattheGodofjusticedemandsofhispeople.Whenitcomestospeakingoutonbehalfofothers,aChristianpropheticvoiceisonethatisnotafraidtochallengewhathasgoneunchallenged,ortosaythingswhichmightmakepeopleuncomfortable.

‘The Church of Jesus Christ is not called to be a bastion of caution and moderation’Kairos document


Apropheticorganisationisalsoonethatthinkscreatively,withoutbeingimpededbyconventionalconstraints.Itisnotafraidtoadvocateextremesolutionsthatmaychallengesomeverybasicsocialassumptions.TheJubileeDebtCampaign,forexample,inwhichchurchesandChristianorganisationsplayedakeyrole,wasonethatmanyconsideredunworkable.Peoplethoughtitinconceivablethatstateswouldgiveuptheirincomefrominternationaldebt,andtheywereprovedgloriouslywrong.Similarly,apropheticorganisationisnotafraidtoalignitselfwithotherswhomaynotbeconsideredtobeitsnaturalbedfellowsif,together,theirthinkingandpotentialforactionisabletobringaboutthedesiredresult.

Havingatrulypropheticvoice,therefore,meansmorethanjustspeakingoutonaparticularmessage.Apropheticmessagehastoberootedinanunderstandingofthecausesoftheproblemthatisbeingmadepublicandasolutionproposed.ThisisacommonpatterninOldTestamentprophecy.InthebookofAmos,forexample,God,speakingthroughtheprophet,liststhecausesofIsrael’sdownfall:

‘they… trample the head of the poor into the dust of the earth, and push the afflicted out of the way; father and son go in to the same girl, so that my holy name is profaned’ (Amos 2:7).

Theprophet’sresponseisoneoflamentation(‘Fallen,nomoretorise,ismaidenIsrael’,5.1)andthewayaheadisproclaimed:

‘For thus says the Lord to the house of Israel: Seek me and live; but do not seek Bethel, and do not enter into Gilgal or cross over to Beer-sheba; for Gilgal shall surely go into exile, and Bethel shall come to nothing’ (Amos 5:4-5).

Sotheactofbeingprophetichasthreecomponents:knowledgeofthecauses,articulationoftheproblemandaradicalsolution.

Theeconomiccrisisof2008-9demandedmorethanjusthand-wringingovertheinadequacyofglobalfinancialregulation:itdemonstratedtheneedforarethinkofcertaindeep-rootedeconomicassumptions:

‘The economic crisis presents us with a unique opportunity to invest in change. To sweep away the short-term thinking that has plagued society for decades. To replace it with considered policy-making capable of addressing the enormous challenges of tackling climate change, delivering a lasting prosperity.’ 51

CallingforandengagingwithradicalchangeofthisnaturearepropheticactsthatChristiansconcernedwithinternationaldevelopmentwillneedtoperformiftheworld’spoorestpeoplearenotsimplytosurvivebuttoflourish.

The importance of advocacy and campaigning‘Campaigning… is a way of living a belief in the possibility of change.’ 52

CampaigningisaformidableinstrumentwhenindividualChristiansandChristiancommunitiesseektoplaytheirpartinaddressingrelationshipsthattheywouldotherwisehavenomeansofrepairing.Muchofitsstrengthliesinthefactthatitbringsrelativelypowerlessindividualstogetherintoanextremelypotentforcethatdemandsthatinjusticeberectified.Equally,campaigningtranscendsgeographicalandpoliticalboundaries.Soalocalornationalchurchisenabledtorediscoveritsidentityaspartoftheworldwidechurchandcommunitiesthathavebecomeisolatedfromoneothermaybebroughttogetherinacommonquestforjustice.

AreportcompiledbyChristianAidin2004fortheGeneralSynodoftheChurchofEnglandhighlightedthesignificanceofcampaigningforindividualsandforthechurch:

‘Through campaigning, every person has a contribution to make and takes responsibility for bringing about [the] transformation [of the world]. It is one way in which those who are often relatively powerless can reclaim their power and dignity under God.’ 53

Anditwentontolinkcampaigningactionwithprayer:

‘As people whose life together is driven by prayer, Christian campaigners need to follow the advice often attributed to St Ignatius of Loyola: “Pray as if everything depended on God; work as if everything depended on you.” Prayer that is passionate, real and demanding will align our will with God’s will and bring together the urgent needs of the world with our willingness to be God’s agents for change. It will lead us to live lives that are tireless in working for justice.’ 54

Consequently,campaigningisanessentialpartoftheworkofaChristianorganisationseekingtoeradicatepovertyaswellasofthechurchesthemselves.Andwhilesecularorganisationsmaybedeliveringanidenticalmessage,thisdoesnotmeanthatthereisanythingun-Christianaboutcampaigning:Christianscampaignoutofagospel-basedconvictionastothejusticeoftheircause,ratherthanfromaconcernforjusticealone.

Similarly,achurchorotherChristianinstitutionmay,legitimately,betheobjectofChristiancampaigning.In2000,asuccessfulcampaignbyCampaignAgainstArmsTrade,anorganisationwithaChristianwing,persuadedtheChurchofEngland’schurchcommissionerstodisinvestinakeyUKarmsmanufacturer.Inthiscase,anallianceofpeopleinsideandoutsidethechurcheffectivelyencouragedtheChurchof

23Theology and international development The role of Christians and the church

England,throughitsEthicalInvestmentAdvisoryGroup,toformulateatighterpolicyoninvestmentsinsuchcompanies.

Itisinanorganisation’scampaigningasmuchasinitsreliefworkthat‘goodnewstothepoor’(Luke4:18)maybefound.Anditisincampaigningthatthechurches’historiccalltospeakpropheticallymayberealised.

Enabling advocacy and campaigning to happenItfollowsfromthisthatanequallyimportantroleforadevelopmentorganisationistoenablecommunitiesinthedevelopingworldtocampaignontheirownaccount.While,clearly,itisnotappropriateforanoverseasbodytotrytointerveneinthebusinessofothercountries,supportinglocalorganisationswithanadvocacyroleisalegitimatedevelopmentactivity.

WherethoseorganisationsarechurchesorChristiangroups,helpingthemtodevelopcampaigningtoolsisnothinglessthanenablingthemtofindandusetheirpropheticvoice.Thisisaboutmorethantraining,importantthoughthatis.ForaChristiangrouptoknowthatithasthesupportofanotherpartoftheworldwidebodyofChristinwhatitisdoingisavitalingredientinitssuccess.

Churchesinrelationshipwithoneanother,withotherlobbyistsandwithgroupsofpeoplewhoarewillingtoshare

theirexpertiseare,therefore,tobeunderstoodasavitalforceinenablingpoorcommunitiestoachievedevelopmentgoals.

Partnerships and networksItfollowsfromtheabovethatwhileChristianspartneringwithotherChristiansinordertoachievechangeisimportantandsignificant,itisnotnecessarilysufficient.Thismaybeahardlessontolearnforchurchesthathaveacalltospeakpropheticallytotheworld.Buttherealityisthattheirpropheticvoiceismoreeffectivewhenitisbasedonknowledgeandexperienceofotherinterestedpartiesandwhenitworksincooperationwithothercampaigningbodies.

Inshort,networkingactivitiesbetweengroups,whethertheseinvolveChristiancommunitiesandorganisations,seculargroupsorotherfaith-basedcommunities,isrelationaltheologyinaction.Andtheeffectivenessofsuchnetworkinghastobemeasuredintermsofitspositiveimpactonthevariousimpairedrelationshipsthatarecausinginjusticeandpoverty.

Thedistinctivecharacterofthechurchisinnowaycompromisedbysuchpartnerships.Ifitis,thenthesemustbereviewed.Onthecontrary,acalltothechurchtosetasideitstendencytowardsindividualismandtojoinwithotherstoachieveacommongoalmaybeexactlythepropheticmessagethatitneedstohear.

suzanne matale, general secretary of the Council of Churches in Zambia, explains how Zambian churches became involved with a campaign calling for the renegotiation of government deals with overseas investors so that the Zambian people could benefit from just mining taxes:

‘The price of copper hit the roof. We got interested because we are aware that copper is a resource that belongs to us in Zambia. And if anyone was going to make money, we had to share in the proceeds and revenues.

‘It was important for us to get together and lobby the

government for change in the agreements. Because we knew and we understood that they were making a lot of money that was being externalised, that was not coming back to Zambia to help Zambians lead a decent life and help our social services. It was incumbent on those of us who have platforms to advocate, to start to agitate for a change in policy.

‘We’re not interested in stifling the operation of the mines. We’re only saying, let’s share what’s due to us and what we’re entitled to.’

With the success of the campaign came a concern that tax revenues should

be used appropriately. matale continues:

‘One worry that we have is that I don’t believe this money forms part of the budget that we have now. So how are these taxes going to be utilised? It is incumbent on the government to explain to the nation how this money is going to be utilised, how they are going to ensure it flows into health and education. There are very high levels of poverty here. And the people on the ground must benefit – it’s their money. And the church will always stand with the poor, the marginalised, the discriminated against. These are the people we stand for. So the challenge is how

the money will be channelled into services, where more Zambians can benefit.’

all this is seen by matale as being fully in keeping with the Christian gospel: ‘as a Christian, i believe that god has put these resources there to enable us to live an abundant life like the scriptures tell us.’

Crucially, though, the support of others is vital. ‘We, as church and as civil society, would never be able to do what we are doing without the financial and moral support of our partners overseas, in europe, in the West,’ she concludes.

Campaigning for just taxes in Zambia


The eucharistic communityFormostChristians,ourrelationshipwithGodandwithoneanotherfindsitsfocusinasharedmeal,theEucharist.Yetthesymbolismofthismealshouldnotbetreatedastakingitsmeaningsolelyfromthespiritualactionsandbeliefsofthoseparticipating.Thebreadandthewinearethefruitofhumaninteractionwithnatureandhumancreativeprocessesandtheyareofferedtorichandpooralike.Thisisparticularlypoignantinlightoftheworseningglobalfoodcrisis.TheJesuittheologianGustaveMarteletobservesthat:‘Asthebreadandwinebringtothetablethesymbolicloadingoftheworld’sculture,sowemustacceptthattheyevoke,too,theworld’sdistress.’55

Inotherwords,attheheartofthechurch’slifethereisnotonlyareminderthatrichandpoorareunitedinthesacrament,butalsoanimpliedimperativetoensurethattheinequitybetweenusisremoved.WhenwesetthisalongsideBarth’sviewthattheChristiancommunityisdefinedbyitswillingnesstoactoutofloveforone’sneighbour,wehaveapotentmix.

25Theology and international development Theology and the organisation

Introduction ThefrequentlystatedambitionofChristianAid’sstaffistoputthemselvesoutofbusiness.ThatiswhatliesbehindPovertyOver:thedesirethatatimewillcomewhenChristianAidwillhaveachieveditsambitiontoeradicatepoverty.Therewillsurelybearoleforafutureorganisationtoensurethatstructurescontinuetofunctionwell,andtoholdtoaccountthosewhoareresponsiblefortheirfunctioning,butthatwillnotbeinternationaldevelopmentasweknowitnow.

Yettheambitiontoeradicatepovertyisfarfrombeingone-sided.Ifwebelievethatweenjoyourrightsthroughbeingingoodrelationshipwithothers,itisimportantthatthisrelationshipshouldnotbeconsideredsolelyinthoseplaceswheretheabuseofrightsisalltooevident.Weneedtolookatourown(rights-based)relationshipswithothercommunitieswithwhomwework,includingsupporters,overseaspartnersandthecommunitieswithinwhichtheywork,churchesandotherfaithcommunities,aswellasbodiesthatareobjectsofourcampaigning.And,crucially,weneedtolookatourrelationshipswithintheorganisation.Wehavetolookatourselves,notleastinorderthatwemayaddresstheissueoftrust:supportersneedtobeabletotrustuswiththeirmoney;churchesneedtobeabletotrustustocarryoutworkontheirbehalf;overseaspartnersneedtobeabletotrustustorespecttheirknowledgeandneeds;otherfaiths(and,indeed,otherinternationalorganisations)needtobeabletotrustusnottotrespassontheirterritory.

ChristianAid’schoicetoworkthroughpartnersratherthantobedirectlyoperationalreflectstheimportanceofrelationships.Itisbasedonabeliefthatrelationshipswithcommunitiesofpoorandmarginalisedpeoplearebestestablishedthroughlocalorganisations,whicharebestplacedtorespondappropriatelytothosepeople’sneedsandhelpthemclaimtheirrights.

Asalreadysuggestedinchaptertwo,aclearlyarticulatedaccountablegovernancestrategyiskeytothis.Itrecognisestheneedtoenableoverseaspartnerstobuildtheirpolicyknowledgeandadvocacyskillsinordertoholdtheirowngovernmentsandcivilsocietyorganisationstoaccount.Andthereisanecessarycommitment‘toaddressingaccountablegovernancefromtheperspectivesofgenderanalysis,diversityandgroupinequality’.56Butwecannotaskotherstochangeinorderthatweourselvescanremainthesame;andweneedtoexaminecarefullyourownworkingcommunityifwearetomaintainourintegritywhenweengagewithpeoplewhoserightsandfreedomshavebeencompromised.

ForaChristianorganisation,itisimportanttobeexplicitaboutthetheologicalimperativethatunderliesthiscorporateideal,recognisingthatweareallmadeinthe

imageofGod.Thisisthebaseline:thelikenessofGodthatwesharecreatesareciprocalrelationshipbetweenallofus.Anditisapermanentrelationship:itisnotonethatwecanoptinandoutofaswechoose.Inthisview,discriminationmakesnosense.Thedifferencesbetweenus(gender,age,raceandsoon)whichcanbemetwithvariousformsofdiscriminationaretrivialbycomparisonwithwhatweshare.Soreciprocitybecomeskeyinissuesofgovernance.Itisrightandproperthatweshouldbeanswerabletooutsidebodies.Butwearealsoanswerabletooneanother,whichisinseparablefrombeingalsoaccountabletoGod.

Rights-based relationships within the organisationJustasthetheologicalmodelofdevelopmentoutlinedinchaptertwocanserveasamodelforthechurchitself,itmayalsomodelthestructureofaChristianorganisation.ThereisthesameimperativetoloveGodandloveourneighbour,although,aswiththechurch,justrelationshipswithintheorganisationarevital.Theseincludepersonalrelationshipsthatarefreefromdiscrimination,aswellasrelationshipsthathavetodowithcorporategovernance,suchasemploymentrightsandsoon.

Thisdoesnotmean,though,thatadevelopmentorganisationis,ineveryrespect,amini-church.Inordertobuildupandmaintaintrustwithitsdonors,supportersandbeneficiariesitneedstooperatetothehighestprofessionalstandardsrecognisedbyitsnon-Christiancounterparts.Followinggoodmanagementpracticeisnotaninsidiousformofsecularisation.Lovingone’sneighbourinbothaglobalandacorporatecontextisfarmorecomplexthanthosefamiliarwordsmightsuggest,andanorganisation’swillingnesstoacceptthechallengesofmanagementisinitselfameasureofitsChristiancredentialsanditsseriousnessincombatingpoverty.Thiswillbereflectedinhowstaffaretreatedandenabledtoflourish,throughsuchthingsasfairpaystructuresandinvestmentintraining.57

Infact,thechurchandtheChristiandevelopmentorganisationarecomplementary.Itistheworkofthechurch,andnotprimarilyofadevelopmentagency,tohelpandsupportitsmembersinlearningtoloveGod.Conversely,though,aChristiandevelopmentagencyiswellplacedtodrawtheattentionofthechurchtoitsglobalneighboursandthecontextinwhichtheylive,aswellastodemonstratenewwaysofshowinglovetothoseneighboursinneed.

Building trustThelastdecadeorsohasseenanincreasingemphasisontheneedforNGOs,bothbigandsmall,toself-regulate,58

ChapTer five Theology and The organisaTion

26 Theology and international development Theology and the organisation

aswellasthegrowthofself-appointedcharitywatchdogs.AndalthoughoneofthestatedaimsoftheUKgovernmentinadoptingtheCharitiesAct2006was‘todevelopgreateraccountabilityandtransparencytobuildpublictrustandconfidence’,thereremainsomeissuesoftrustthatgobeyondlegalcompliance.

CentraltothedebateonNGOgovernanceandaccountabilityistheconceptoflegitimacy.Forexample,inthecaseofenvironmentalorganisationFriendsoftheEarth,legitimacyhasbeendefinedasitsabilitytodemonstratethreethings:thatitlivesbyitsidealsthroughnotacceptingmoneyfromthecorporationswhosepoweritchallenges;thatthereisagroundswellofpeople(notjusttheexperts)whowantchange;andthatitsgovernancestructuremakesleadersaccountabletotheirmembership.59

ForaChristiandevelopmentagency,livingbyitsidealsiscrucialinestablishingitslegitimacyand,therefore,inbuildingtrustwithsupporters.Thismaybeamatterofpolicy.Forexample,incampaigningonclimatechange,itisimportantthattheorganisationshoulddemonstratehowitis,itself,makingsignificantcutsinitscarbonemissions.And,moregenerally,goodstewardshipofresources,whetherintheformofgiftsfromthepublicorgrantsfromgovernment,isvital.

Whenitcomestoclaimingagospelbasisforourwork,weneedtoensurethatthisisclearlyandconsistentlysetout.Andwhileopinionsmaydifferastohowthisisbestdone,weneedtobeclearthatitshouldbedonesystematically.Itistooeasytothrowintoadiscussionorpublicationacoupleofapparentlyappositebiblicalverses,andallowittobeassumedthatthisprovesourChristiancredentials.Itdoesnot,anymorethanthechoiceofperhapsequallysuitablequotationsfromtheQu’ranwouldmakeusacceptabletoaMuslimaudience.Ifwearetohonourthetrustplacedinusbythechurchestoactontheirbehalfindevelopmentmatters,itisimperativethattheChristianbasisforourworkisinplaceandappropriatelyapplied.

Whentrustbetweenanorganisationanditssupportersbreaksdown,theunwelcomemonetaryconsequencesareobvious.Butbesidesbeingfinanciallydesirable,itistheologicallynecessarythatthisrelationshipisconstantlyreviewedandseentobeinahealthystateiftheorganisationistoenableotherrelationships,suchasthosebetweenrichandpoor,tobeestablishedorimproved(thatis,undertakingworkonbehalfofitssupporters).Whilethelegitimacyofasecularorganisationiscalledintoquestionifitfailstomaintainthetrustofitssupporters,Christianorganisationsneedtogofurther.TheirlegitimacyisalsoquestionableiftheycannotofferatheologicaljustificationfortheirworkoroperateinaccordancewiththeirdistinctiveChristianvalues.Anditisthedutyoftheirsupporterstocallthemtoaccount

ifthosevaluesareneitherexplicitnorapparentintheirwork.Thelabel‘Christian’(orthelabel‘church’,forthatmatter)isnotsufficienttoconferlegitimacy,anditshouldnotbeabovechallenge.

Accountability and transparencyAccountabilityistodowithmaintainingtrust.TheUKCharityCommissiondefinesitas‘acharity’sresponsetothelegitimateinformationneedsofitsstakeholders’.60Again,intermsofrelationaltheology,thismeansmonitoringrelationships.Ininternationaldevelopment,however,itisnotsimplyarelationshipbetweentheorganisationanditssupportersthatisatissue.AttheheartofChristianAid’srelationshipwithitspartnersoverseasanditsotherstakeholdersismutualaccountabilityandtransparency.61

A three-way relationshipTrust,foranorganisationsuchasChristianAid,dependsonthreerelationships.Twoofthemaredirectrelationships:thatbetweentheorganisationanditssupporters,wheredonorstrusttheorganisationtousetheirmoneyappropriately;andthatbetweenChristianAidanditspartnerorganisationsoverseas,amorecomplexrelationshipthatisunderpinnedbyvariousformalaccountabilityrequirements,but,nevertheless,onewheretrustispresent.

Thethirdrelationshipisanimpliedone,butonethatis,nonetheless,cruciallyimportant:thatbetweensupportersandbeneficiaries,whichismediatedandnurturedbytheorganisationanditspartners.Theincreasingdemandbysupportersfordirectcontactwithspecificprojects,whetherintheformofletters(orothercommunications)orvisits,isareflectionoftherealityofthisrelationship.Thisshouldnotbeseenasreflectinganylackoftrustonthepartofthedonorsbutratherasadesireforclosercontactwiththepeopletheyaresupporting.Atbest,movingsucharelationshipfromtheimpliedtotherealwillstrengthenoverallrelationshipsbetweenrichandpoor.Arguably,arichchurch,say,inBritainorIreland,willreceivemuchfromthefinanciallypoorerchurchoverseas,forexample,insightsintodifferentformsofspiritualityorwaysofworshipping.This,then,standsalongsidethematerialsupportthatthepoorchurchreceivesfromitsrichneighbour.

Suchrelationshipsdoneedtobemonitoredtoensurethattheydonotbecomeonesofdependencyorintimacymasqueradingasdevelopment.Directrelationshipsbetweendonorsandcommunitiestoooftenlackthecapacitytomovebeyondlower-levelinterventionsintopovertyandinjustice.Theorganisation’sinvolvementaddsthecapacityforscale,genuinesustainabilityandfinancialandpolicyleveragerarelyachievablebyindividualsorchurchesactingalone.

27Theology and international development Theology and the organisation

Evidencing changeEvidencingchangehastodowithshowinglinksbetweenworkundertakenandthechangethatthiswashopedorintendedtobringabout.Itisimportantfortworeasons:todemonstratetheeffectivestewardshipoftheorganisation’sresources,andtoindicatewhereimprovementsmustbemade.Thechangeinquestionmaybeatarelativelyhigh‘impact’level,andtheorganisationmaybeonlyoneofmanycontributorstothis.Atalowerlevel,thischangewillrelatetotheresultsofspecificprojects.Foroverseasprojects,suchevaluationwillbedoneeitherlocallyoracrossawholeregion,orinrelationtoaspecificthemeorsector.Inallcases,theorganisationshouldbescrupulousinexaminingtheefficiencyandeffectivenessofitsworkifitistobesustainableandimproved.

Inworkingforsustainablechange,weareprogressingtowardsthatvisionofrestoredrelationshipsthatisexpressedinRevelationas‘anewearth’where‘mourningandcryingandpainwillbenomore’(Revelation21:1-4).Andsinceweenvisagethischangeashappeninginthisworld,notthenext,themeasurementandmonitoringofchangeisanimportantcheckonthehealthinessofthoserestoredrelationshipsandameansofimprovingthem.62

Individuals and communitiesBiblicalstoriesoftransformationfocus,aboveall,ontheindividualbutwithconsequencesforthewholecommunity.Forexample,thestoryofJesushealing10lepers(Luke17:12-19)isaboutrestoringthemtotheircommunity.Withthehealing,therelationshipbetweenthoseindividualsandothersinthecommunityisrepaired.(Thereis,however,onlyoneleperwhoserelationshipwithGodisalsohealed–theonewhoreturnedtoJesus,praisingGod.)OtherhealingmiraclesofJesushaveasimilareffect.Whenawidow’sdeadsonisbroughtbacktolife(Luke7:12-16),thewidowregainsherplaceinsocietyandtheonlookersfromhercommunityglorifyGod.

Arguably,theseepisodesofferameasureofeffectivechange,whichliesnotjustintheindividualbutinthecommunity’sresponsetohisorhertransformation.Similarly,sincerelationshipsareatwo-wayprocess,ourresponsetohumanrightsissuescanneverbeamatterforindividualsalone.

Impacts of changeEffectivenessdependsonaproportionateresponsetoaproblem.AfurtherillustrationfromthemiraclesofJesusmightbetheblindmanwhosehealingputsanendtohisprecariouslifeasaroadsidebeggar(Luke19:35ff),ortheinvalidbythepoolofBethzatha(John5:5ff)whosefruitless

waitforhelpover38yearsisbroughttoanendbyamoreeffectiveresponsefromJesuswhohealshim.Inotherwords,actiontomendrelationshipshastobeproportionatetothedegreeofbreakdown.

Indevelopmentterms,ChristianAid’sclimatechangecampaignisacaseinpoint:aglobalcrisishastobeaddressedwitharesponsethattacklesnationalandinternationalstructures.Changesofbehaviourbyindividualsatalocallevelmaybelaudablebuttheywillnotaffectglobalwarminginanymaterialway.

InthegospelstoriesofthemiraclesofJesus,thetrueimpactofchangeistobefeltnotatanindividuallevel(althoughthatisclearlyimportant)butatacommunitylevel.Theyareallsignsofamuchbiggerproject:thespreadofGod’skingdom.ForthefutureChristiancommunity,theevaluationoftheiractionsintermsofcontinuingtheworkofJesuswouldbecrucialtotheirsurvival.TheletterstothesevenchurchesinRevelation2and3areafineexampleofthis.

Measuringboththeimpactofhowtheorganisationanditspartnersareworkingandwhattheyhaveachievedfitswellwithinarelationalmodelthatalsoengageswithrightsissues.InthemiraclesofJesus,wecanseeevidenceoftheimmediateeffectandalsothelonger-termpurposeofnewrelationships.ThevariouswritingsfromtheearlychurchwhichfeaturelaterintheNewTestamentalsoconstituteverypracticalexamplesofhowitsinternalrelationshipsareconstantlyunderreviewanditsexternalonesmonitored.

ConclusionOrganisationsthatcallthemselvesChristianwilldifferwidelyinhowtheyputtheirreligiousbeliefsintopractice.Therewillbesomewhowishtoseetheorganisationassomehowreflectinginitsexternalappearancethespirituallifeoftheindividual:beginningeverymeetingwithprayer,forexample,oremployingonlypractisingChristians.

Whatthischapterhastriedtodemonstrateisthatanorganisation’s‘Christianbehaviour’hasvariouscomponents.Therewillbeitsexternalappearance,certainly,reflectedparticularlyinitsengagementwiththelifeoftheChristianchurchesandintheopportunitiesforChristianswithintheorganisationtoputtheirfaithintoaction.Inaddition,though,therearecrucialworkingpractices,particularly,accountabilityandtransparency,withoutwhichwecouldnotclaimtobebehavinginawaythatiscompatiblewithourChristianbeliefs.And,finally,thereistheunseen:thestructuresandrelationshipsthatshouldstanduptotheologicalscrutinywithoutimposingparticularbeliefsorfaithpracticesonallthepeoplewhocomprisetheorganisation.

‘We will use our resources wisely ensuring everything we do is grounded in our essential purpose of eradicating poverty and social injustice’ChristianAid,Turning Hope into Action

28 Theology and international development Eradicating poverty

Must the poor be always with us? Itcannotbethecasethatanorganisationwhoseambitionitistotacklepovertyshouldwanttostopshortofsayingitwantstoabolishitabsolutely.Quiteobviously,oneagencycanneverhopetoeradicatethisalone.However,workingtogetherwithothers–notjustNGOsandtheirpartnerorganisationsworldwide,butwithchurches,governments,nationalandinternationalbodies–ithastobepossibletoremodelthesocialandeconomicstructuresthatkeeppeoplepoor.

Asalreadymentioned(inchapterthree),somepeoplehavearguedthatJesus’suseofthesaying‘thepoorarealwayswithus’meansthattoaspiretoendingpovertyisasecularandutopianvision,becausepovertywillonlyreallyendwiththecomingofGod’skingdom.Yetifwefailtoaddresspovertyonthatbasiswhilewaitingforthekingdom,wearehardlybeingtruetoourChristiancalling.Andifandwhenthestructuresthatkeeppeoplepoorarechanged,thisisnottheendofthematter,becausestructureshavetobemonitored–constantly.

Itis,however,onlyrelativelyrecentlythattheideathatpovertycouldbeendedbyundertakingspecificmeasureswithinhumancontrolcametobeseenasarealpossibility.Soitisnotsurprisingthat,inthepast,theologianshavenomoreventuredtochallengetheassumptionofaperpetualrich-poordividethandidthewritersofthePentateuch.Yetthemorewelearnaboutthecausesofpoverty,themoreuntenablebecomestheconceptofsomekindofdivineordinancethatdividesrichandpoor.

Norshouldweequatematerial‘poverty’withspiritual‘riches’,exceptperhapsinthecaseofJesushimself.Earthlywealth(orlackofit)isaveryminorconsiderationincomparisonwiththevoluntarysurrenderofthe‘riches’ofkingshipinheavenwhichiswhatJesus’s‘self-emptying’(Philippians2:7)isallabout.Wemayindeedallbegreatlypoverty-strickenincomparisonwiththerichesofthekingdom,butthatisnoexcusefornottryingtoremovematerialpovertyfrompeople’slivesinthisworld.Wedothepooragreatinjusticeifweassumethatincreasingtheirmaterialprosperitywillsomehowreducetheirspiritualwealth.

Spiritualpovertyandmaterialwealtharenotcoextensive.JesusfrequentlychallengestheancientJewishunderstandingthatmaterialrichesareasignofGod’sfavourbyhighlightingcasesofthespiritualpovertyoftherich.Sothepoorareblessed,insofarastheydonothavethedistractionofwealthcomingbetweenthemandGod.Butotherbarriersremain,asmightbeillustratedbytheinfirmmanwithanattitudeproblematthepoolofBethzatha,whomJesusasks‘Doyou[really]wanttobemadewell?’(John5:6).

Therehabilitationofthepoorinthe20thcentury,whichbeganwiththesocialgospelanddevelopedintoliberationtheology,is,ofcourse,tobewelcomedasbeingverymuchinlinewithgospelteaching.Butthismayhavecomeatacost,whichisthespiritualmarginalisationofthenon-poor.ThisisnottheteachingoftheNewTestament.JesuswelcomesZacchaeus(andthereisnoindicationthatZacchaeusdidnotcontinuetobeataxcollector,albeitnolongeracorruptone)andfeelsgreatsympathywiththerichyoungman(andwedonotknowwhathappenedtohim,either).AndtheapostlePaulandmanyotherearlyChristiansareabletopursuetheirministriespreciselybecauseoftheirindependentmeans.ItwouldbeinterestingtoseeareappraisaloftherichintheBiblewithout,ofcourse,losingsightofthecomplicationscausedbywealthandtheresponsibilitiesowedtothepoor.Foritispreciselybecauseofthoseresponsibilitiesthatweshouldsetourselvestheformidabletargetofputtinganendtopoverty.

Tackling corruptionInordertoendpovertysomebigissuesmustbeaddressed.Onesuchissueisthatofcorruption.

Theperceptionthatallgovernmentsindevelopingcountriesarecorrupt(andtheerroneousimplicationthatsomehowthoseindevelopedcountriesarenot)isprobablythemostcitedreasonforpeoplenotgivingtointernationaldevelopmentcharities.Alternatively,somewillarguethatbecauseofthecorruptionproblemtheyonlygivemoneytochurchesoverseas,withoutapparentlybeingawarethatthechurchitselfisnotimmunefromcorruption,particularlyincountrieswherethisisawayoflife.

Encouragingandequippingpeopleindevelopingcountriestochallengeofficialcorruptionisvitalifpovertyistobeeradicated.Economically,corruptioninhibitsthedevelopmentofahealthymarketplace,andis,atheart,ajusticeissue.

‘[Corruption] distorts economic and social development and nowhere with greater damage than in developing countries. Too often, corruption means that the world’s poorest must pay for the corruption of their own officials and of companies from developed countries, although they are least able to afford its costs.’ 63

ThecorruptionofIsrael’sleadersdescribedin1Samuel8wasexplicitlylinkedtoinjusticeandledtoaseachangeinthenation’sgovernance.

‘When Samuel became old, he made his sons judges [rulers] over Israel… Yet his sons did not follow in his ways, but turned aside after gain; they took bribes and perverted justice. Then all the elders of Israel gathered together and

ChapTer six eradiCaTing poverTy

29Theology and international development Eradicating poverty

came to Samuel at Ramah, and said to him, ”You are old and your sons do not follow in your ways; appoint for us, then, a king, to govern us, like other nations“’ (1 Samuel 8:1, 3-4).

Theinjusticeinvolvedincorruptionsuggests,then,thatitcannotbetreatedsimplyasbreakingtheeighthcommandment(‘Youshallnotsteal’,Exodus20:15)becausethisdoesnotacknowledgethefactthatthepoorestalwayssuffermost.Inthecaseofpettycorruption,whereindividualshavetopayforroutineservicesthataretheirsbyright,thepoorestpeoplespendmoreoftheirincomeonbribesinrelativetermsthandothebetteroff.Iftheycannotaffordtodothis,thenpovertyisperpetuatedsincepeoplewillnotgettheservicestheyneed.Itisworthbearinginmind,though,thatpettycorruptionisnotallaboutgreed.Theofficialswhodemandbribesmaybedoingsobecausethey,inturn,arenotbeingpaidanadequatewage.

So-called‘grand’corruptionisaboutexertingundueinfluenceondecision-makersatahighlevel,and,atworst,willdestroynations.64Ithasasupplysideaswellasademandside.Sochallengingcorruptionalsomeanschallengingthosewhofacilitateit:governmentsintheNorththatfailtopunishcompanieswhoseinternationaloperationsinvolvebribery;andthosecompaniesthatfailtoactethicallyandtransparently.

Corruptionisaddressedmosteffectivelythroughin-countryadvocacy.AndthisisjustifiedtheologicallybytheChristianimperativetospeakoutaboutinjusticeinordertoputrighttherelationshipsbetweenthepowerfulandthepowerless,betweenrichandpoor.

Hope for the poorest of the worldThegospelsshowusthatJesuswas,indeed,deeplyconcernedforpeoplewhowerepoororinsomewayonthefringesofsociety.Heassociatedfreelyandoftenwiththemarginalised–‘taxcollectorsandsinners’–andwelcomedthecompanyofwomenandchildrenandothersheldinlowesteeminthecultureofhisday.Suchpeopleweretheobjectofmanyofhishealingmiracles,andtheytooktheirplaceamonghisfollowers.

ThemanyactionsofJesusthatareinthemselves‘goodnewsforthepoor’are,ofcourse,examplesthattherelationaltheologydescribedinthispaperdemandsthatChristiansfollowasbesttheycan.AndtheprophecythathereadintheNazarethsynagogueisanearlyindicationofwhatthatmightmean:

‘Jesus unrolled the scroll and found the place where it was written:“The Spirit of the Lord is upon me,

because he has anointed me to bring good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to let the oppressed go free, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour”’ (Luke 4:17-19 quoting Isaiah 61:1-2).

TheversesquotedfromIsaiahareacentralpartofso-called‘Trito-(orThird)Isaiah’–chapters56to65oftheOldTestamentbookweknowsimplyasIsaiah–writtenintheyearsfollowingthereturnofasmallnumberofJewishexilesfromBabylon.Andtheyareareminderthatthishomecomingwasnotthegreatmomentofsalvationthatpeoplehadhopedfor.

Thefirstreturneeswereawretchedbunch.Allthatawaitedthemwasdevastation:noinfrastructure,nosocial,politicalorreligiousstructures.Furthermore,theyweredisillusionedandguilt-ridden,theirpredicamentadirectresultoftheirforebears’unfaithfulnesstotheGodofIsrael.SothetaskofThirdIsaiahistoaddressademoralisedpeopleandtoreassurethemofsalvationinthefuture.AndthatistheChristiancallingaswell:notonlytocareforpeoplewhoareclearlysuffering,physicallyormentally,butalsotoaddresstheunderlyingneedsofthosewho,likethereturningexiles,aresimplydisillusioned,thevictimsofotherpeople’sactions.

Isaiah61alsodemonstratesthattheprophethimselfisamouthpiece,amediatorofGod’sword,bringinggoodnewstothepoor.Itisnottheprophetwhosetsthecaptivesfreeandbindsupthebroken-hearted.Thatfallstothepeoplewhohearandrespondtothepropheticvoice.SoJesusfulfilsIsaiah’sprophecyinhisteaching(hispropheticvoice),callinghisfollowerstoserveactivelythoseinneedandfollowhisownunparalleledexampleofcompassionandhealingforpeoplewhoareinanykindofneed,whethervisibleornot.

Theology in actionThemessageofIsaiah61,renewedbyJesusinLuke4,isacalltoallwhohearittoaddresssufferingandoppression,andtorecognisethatthesemaytakemanydifferentforms.Yetarealisticresponsetopoverty,whetherinfirst-centuryPalestineorintoday’s‘globalvillage’,cannotbebasedonanindividualist,piecemealapproach.ThatwasnotthewayofJesus,whocommandedhisdisciplestogoandmakedisciplesofthenations:notjusthereandthere,butallnations.Arealisticapproachtotacklingpovertyisnottomaskthesymptoms:itdependsonuncoveringitscauses.And,asthispaperhasargued,whenweconsiderthesufferingofpoorpeopleinthefaceofHIVandAIDS,climatechange,civilwarorevennaturaldisasters,identifyingand

‘If one member suffers, all suffer together with it’(1 Corinthians 12:26)

30 Theology and international development Eradicating poverty

remedyingtheunderlyinginjusticeisvitallyimportantiftherelationshipsthatcausepovertyaretoberebuilteffectively.

IfthemessageofIsaiah61andLuke4isoneofhopeforpeoplewhohaveexperiencedstigmatisationbecauseofHIV,lossoflivelihoods,climatechange,andsoon,whatexactlycantheyhopefor?

Respondingtosufferingeffectivelyisnotanoptionalextraforthechurch.StPaul’spicturein1Corinthians12:26ofthechurchasthebodyofChristbringsthisveryclosetohome:‘ifonemembersuffers,allsuffertogetherwithit’.Inotherwords,howeverremotetheneedmayappear,itisnonethelessownedbyeveryChristianandeveryChristiancommunity,andanappropriateresponseisdemanded.Backin2000,SouthAfricanchurchesweredistributingbadgesthatread:‘ThebodyofChristhasAIDS’–apainfulmessage,andonethatisstillnotwellunderstoodinmanypartsofthatworldwidebody.Yethopeforthepoorestdependsoneverypartofthechurchfeelingtheirsuffering,makingthatsufferingtheirown,andrespondingaccordingly.

Hopeforthepoorestpeople,then,liesinourtakingontheirsufferingasifitwereourownorthatofthosedearesttous,livingouttothefullthecommandtoloveourneighbourasourselves.Atthemostelementarylevel,theworkofaChristiandevelopmentagencyinthiscontextistwofold:toshowpeoplejustwhotheirneighbouris,andtoadvocateanappropriateresponsetothatneighbour’sneeds.

AChristianresponsetothesufferingoftheworld’spoorestpeople,whetheraschurchesorasindividuals,hastomeetsomebasiccriteria:itmustbecompassionate,proportionateandeffective.ThinkofJesusmiraculouslyfeedingthecrowdswhohadgatheredtolistentohim.Itallbeganbecausehehadcompassiononthemafterthreedayswithnothingtoeat(Mark8:2).Hisresponsewasinkeepingwiththesizeoftheproblem:heprovidedfoodforallofthem.Anditwaseffective–somuchsothattherewere12basketsoffoodleftover.Weseethesamepatterninhishealingmiracles:theybeginwithJesus’scompassionandtherearenohalfmeasuresinhowherespondstopeople’sneeds.Furthermore,andimportantly,Jesus’sresponsewasprophetic.Thegivingoffoodafterthreedayspointstothecrossandresurrection:apromiseofnewlifetocome.

ConclusionWhileBarth’stheologyhasbeencitedfrequentlyinthispaper,Church Dogmaticsdoesnotreferexplicitlytopoverty.YetthroughouthisworkitisclearthatChristianbeliefisnottobesomehowkeptseparatefromtheneedsoftheworld.

‘Since Jesus Christ is a Servant, looking to Him cannot mean looking away from the world, from men, from life, or,

as is often said, from oneself. It cannot mean looking away into some distance or height…’ 65

Andsoweneedtoaskourselves:wheredowelookinordertolooktoJesus?Andwhere,asBarthalsoputsit,doweseeGodlooking,particularlyintheNewTestament?Yes,helooksatthepoor,butnotalwayswithunqualifiedapproval;yes,helooksattherich,butnotalwayswithunqualifiedcondemnation;and,yes,helooksathowrichandpoorworktogetherintheearlyChristiancommunity.ThroughStPaul’swritingsweseethatGodisnottobedetachedfrompoliticalandsocialstructures,andinworkingforsocialjusticetoday,wecannotlookawayfromthem.Nottoseektochangethestructuresthatkeeppoorpeopleinpoverty–believingthatapermanentdivisionbetweenrichandpoorisGod’swill–isnotaChristianoption.

ThispaperhasattemptedtosetoutsystematicallythetheologicalbasisforChristianAid’sworkinchallengingthosestructures.Asmentionedintheintroduction,thisisnottheendofthematter.Therewillbeotherinsightstotakeintoaccountandothertheologiestoconsider,as,togetherwithoursupporters,ourpartnersandourfriendsinglobalalliances,weseeknewwaysofexposingthescandalofpovertyandofgivingpropheticexpressiontothebiblicalvisionofanewearth.

31Theology and international development Endnotes

1 ValpyFitzgerald,‘Theeconomicsofliberationtheology’,inChristopherRowland(ed.)Cambridge Companion to Liberation Theology,CambridgeUniversityPress,1999,248-264,p262.

2 Ibid,p260.

3 Ibid,p260.

4 IntheUK,thepovertylineisdefinedasanincomeof60percentofmedianUKincomeafterhousingcostshavebeenpaid.Belowthisline,ahouseholdissaidtobe‘livinginincomepoverty’.Thevalueofthe60percentthresholdin£sperweekvariesaccordingtothenumberofadultsandchildreninthehousehold.In2007/2008,itwassetat£115perweekforasinglepersonand£199foracouple,withothervaluesvaryingaccordingtothenumberandageofanychildren.Sources:JosephRowntreeFoundation,ChildPovertyActionGroup.

5 SarahWhiteandRomyTiongco,Doing Theology and Development: Meeting the Challenge of Poverty,StAndrewsPress,1997,p37.

6 Ibid,pp44-45.

7 AprodevRightsandDevelopmentGroup,‘Rights-baseddevelopmentfromafaith-basedperspective’,Joint Position Paper,June2008,p8.

8 Seenote5,p63.

9 G.Gutiérrez,‘Thetaskandcontentofliberationtheology’(trans.JudithCondor)inChristopherRowland(ed.),Cambridge Companion to Liberation Theology,CambridgeUniversityPress,1999,19-38,p25.

10 DefinedinSabinaAlkire,Valuing Freedoms: Sen’s Capability Approach and Poverty Reduction,OxfordUniversityPress,2002,p156.

11 Capabilitydoesnotherehaveitsusualmeaningofskillsorabilities.Gasperdefinesitas‘asetoflife-pathsattainableforagivenperson’.SeeDesGasper,‘IsSen’scapabilityapproachanadequatebasisforconsideringhumandevelopment?’Institute of Social Studies Working Paper Series,no.360,TheHague,February2002,p14.

12 Seefurther,J2P: What Change?

Doing Justice to Poverty,ChristianAid,2009,p5.’Theabsenceofimportantcapabilities,whichdooften,butnotalways,manifestthemselvesinmaterialdeprivation,isthedeepscarofpoverty‘.Paperavailableatwww.christianaid.org.uk/images/poverty-position-paper.pdf

13 Seenote11,p28.

14 DesGasper,‘Nussbaum’scapabilitiesapproachinperspective:purposes,methodsandsourcesforanethicsofhumandevelopment’,Institute of Social Studies Working Paper Series no. 379,TheHague,July2003,p26.

15 Ibid,p17.

16 RogerRuston,Human Rights and the Image of God,SCMPress,London,2004,p43.

17 GeorgeNewlands,Christ and Human Rights: the Transformative Engagement,Ashgate,2006,p41.

18 BrianTierney,The Idea of Natural Rights,ScholarsPress,Atlanta,Georgia,1997,p70.

19 ThusPoverty Over(ChristianAid,July2009,p8)stressestheimportanceofempowerment:‘Theupholdingofhumandignity,thebasisofhumanrights,meansthatpeopleshouldhavepowerovertheirlives,andbeabletolivefreefrompoverty.Statesandindividualsshouldrespect,protectandfulfilhumanrightstocontributetothisempowerment.’

20 In‘Strengthinnumbers’,RSA Journal,autumn2009,p27.

21 The Ten Commandments and Human Rights,FortressPress,Philadelphia,1980,p135.Thenegativecommandmentnottobearfalsewitnesscanreadilybeequatedwiththepositiverighttoafairtrial.Theothertwohavesomesimilaritieswiththerighttopersonalenjoymentofpossessions,andsoon,althoughtheydonotimplyapropertyright,perse.

22 UzukwuE.Elochukwu,‘Alisteningchurch:autonomyandcommunionintheAfricanChurch’,quotedinEmmanuelChukwuemekaUmeh,The Promotion of Human Rights and Social Justice: a Call to

Liberation Theology for the Church in Nigeria,PeterLangGmbH,FrankfurtamMain2004,p73.

23 NewYearmessage,31December2006.

24 EncyclicalLetterofHisHolinessBenedictXVI,Caritas in Veritate,availableatwww.vatican.ca/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals

25 ‘InthelanguageoftheBible,freedomisnotsomethingmanhasforhimself,butsomethinghehasforothers…Freedomisarelationshipbetweentwopersons,’Creation and Temptation,lecturesdeliveredattheUniversityofBerlin,1932-33,London,SCMPress,1966,p36.

26 KarlBarth,Church Dogmatics I,2 The Doctrine of the Word of God,trans.G.T.ThomsonandHaroldKnight,T&TClark,Edinburgh,1955,pp401-402.

27 1Corinthians12:12-26.

28 SeeJTP,note12,andespeciallythediscussionofpowerrelationships,inthesection‘ChristianAid’sanalysisofpoverty’(pp8-10).

29 See,forexample:ActionAid,‘Weknowwhatweneed:SouthAsianwomenspeakoutonclimatechangeadaptation’,InstituteofDevelopmentStudies,UniversityofSussex,November2007.

30 ‘Churchandculture’(1926lecture)inTheology and Church:Shorter Writings 1920-28,London:SCMPress,1962,p341.

31 GeorgeNewlands,Christ and Human Rights: the Transformative Engagement,Ashgate,2006,p14.

32 SeeChristianAid,‘Accountable Peer Reviews 2008-2009 ’(internalpaper,February2010).

33 QuotedinChurch of England Newspaper,5August2004.

34 Privateconversation,August2009.

35 ReprintedinMichelSabbah,Faithful Witness: On Reconciliation and Peace in the Holy Land,NewYork:NewCityPress,2009,pp23–60.

36 Ibid,p50.

37 DavidHorrell,‘TheGreenBible:atimelyideadeeplyflawed’,

Expository Times,121,4,January2010,p183.

38 GustavoGutiérrez,A Theology of Liberation,1971,revisedversion,1988,London:SCMPress,p12.

39 GustavoGutiérrez,‘LatinAmericanLiberationTheology’,The SCM Dictionary of Third World Theologies(ed.VirginiaFabellaandR.S.Sugirtharajah)London:SCMPress,2003,p132.

40 StevedeGruchy,‘DoingTheologyintheKalahari’,Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 99,November1997,p60.

41 VirginiaFabella,‘Contextualisation’,inThe SCM Dictionary of Third World Theologies,p59.

42 ThomasF.BestandWesleyGranberg-Michaelson(eds)Costly Unity – Presentations and Reports from WCC Consultation,Geneva1993,p87.

43 SabinaAlkireandEdmundNewell,What Can One Person Do? Faith to Heal a Broken World,London:Darton,LongmanandTodd,2005,pp51-52.

44 Seenote30,p344.

45 Challenge to the Church: a Theological Comment on the Political Crisis in South Africa (the Kairos document),Braamfontein,KairosTheologians,1985.

46 StanleyHauerwas,The Peaceable Kingdom: a Primer in Christian Ethics,UniversityofNotreDamePress,Indiana,1983,pp100-101.

47 QuotedbyPeterLodberg,‘Thehistoryofecumenicalworkonecclesiologyandethics’in(eds)ThomasBestandMartinRobra,Ecclesiology and Ethics: Costly Commitment,WorldCouncilofChurches,Geneva,1994,p7.

48 Thisargumentisdevelopedmorefullyinchapter3ofChristianAid’sreportTheology and the HIV/AIDS Epidemic,2004.

49 DeborahSontag,‘Amidrubble,seekingarefugeinfaith’,New York Times,18January2010.

50 ‘HIV and AIDS Related Stigma:

Endnotes

32 Theology and international development Endnotes

a Framework for Theological Reflection’,Windhoek,2003.

51 TimJackson,Prosperity Without Growth: Economics for a Finite Planet,LondonandSterling,VA:Earthscan,2009,p172.

52 ChristianAid,Trade Justice: a Christian Response to Global Poverty,ChurchHousePublishing,2004,p36.

53 Ibid,p36.

54 Ibid,p37.

55 GustaveMartelet,The Risen Christ and the Eucharistic World(1972)Englishtranslation,Collins,1976,p36.

56 WordingfromanindependentreportonChristianAid’saccountablegovernancestrategy,September2009.

57 Seefurther,‘Listening and Responding to our Stakeholders: Christian Aid’s Accountability’,November2009,availableatwww.christianaid.org.uk/aboutus/index/stakeholder-report.aspx

58 Foranearlycallforself-regulationbysmalldevelopmentNGOsindevelopingcountries,seeMikeMooreandSheelaghStewart,‘CorporategovernanceforNGOs?’Development in Practice,8,1998,pp335-342.

59 AccordingtoTonyJuniper,quotedinPaulJepson,‘GovernanceandaccountabilityofenvironmentalNGOs’,Environmental Science & Policy 41,2005,p519.

60 CharityCommissionforEnglandandWales,Transparency and Accountability (2004)quotedinJepson,p521.

61 Forfulldetailssee‘Listening and responding to our stakeholders: Christian Aid’s accountability’(November2009),availableatwww.christianaid.org.uk/aboutus/index/stakeholder-report.aspx

Since 2006,ChristianAidhasbeenamemberoftheHumanitarianAccountabilityPartnership(HAP)andwearecommittedtoimprovingouraccountabilityandqualitymanagementaccordingtotheHAPstandardandactivelysupportingourpartnersindoingthesame.

62 KeyprinciplesrelatingtoChristianAid’sroleinbringingaboutchangearesetoutinCharlesAbugreandPaulValentin’s,‘No Small Change: Christian Aid’s Understanding of how Change Happens’,ChristianAid,December2007,pp13-14,availableatwww.christianaid.org.uk/images/no-small-change.pdf

63 JeremyPope,Combating Corruption – the Domestic Front. The Holistic Approach to Containing Corruption,1998,conferencepaperavailableatwww.21stcenturytrust.org/domestic.doc

64 SeeGeorgeMoody-Stuart,Corruption and its Victims: Introductory Paper(1998conferencepaper)availableatwww.21stcenturytrust.org/corrupt.doc

65 Church DogmaticsIV/4(trans.Bromiley)(edsG.W.BromileyandT.F.Torrance)Edinburgh:T&TClark,1969,p150.

Acknowledgements

TheScripturequotationscontainedhereinarefromTheNewRevisedStandardVersionoftheBible,AnglicizedEdition,copyright©1989,1995bytheDivisionofChristianEducationoftheNationalCounciloftheChurchesofChristintheUnitedStatesofAmerica,andareusedbypermission.Allrightsreserved.

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The Christian Aid name and logo are trademarks of Christian Aid; Poverty Over is a trademark of Christian Aid.© Christian Aid April 2010.

Christian Aid is a Christian organisation that insists the world can and must be swiftly changed to one where everyone can live a full life, free from poverty.

We work globally for profound change that eradicates the causes of poverty, striving to achieve equality, dignity and freedom for all, regardless of faith or nationality. We are part of a wider movement for social justice.

We provide urgent, practical and effective assistance where need is great, tackling the effects of poverty as well as its root causes.

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