Theoretical Background, SOP, SOS

8/6/2019 Theoretical Background, SOP, SOS

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Theoretical Background

This study is anchored on Garners Information Processing

Model. It is a cognitive perspective that emphasizes thinking

processes, thought, reasoning, the way information is encountered

and stored, and memory functioning. Garner believes in the

significance of perception to learning. In fact, the IPM theory deems

that we are bombarded with things to perceive, and for that reason,

we are selective in what we actually try to understand. The

information processing model suggests that humans develop

increasingly varied, sophisticated, and integrated cognitive structures.

Bombarding stimuli are filtered through these structures; what we

perceive is filtered and processed selectively. The terminology of the

information processing models appears to be a very contemporary

one, emphasizing the significance of the encoding or input of

information, the storage of information and the retrieval or access

of information (Parsons; et al, 2001).

There are four stages in information processing model. The first

stage in the memory process involves paying attention to

environmental stimuli. In the second stage, the information is

processed by the senses. In the third stage, the information is


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transferred and incorporated briefly into short-term memory, after

which it is either disregarded and forgotten or stored in a long-term

memory. The last stage involves the action or response that the

individual makes on the basis of how information was processed and

store (Bastable, 2008). In information-processing theories, human

memory is thought to be composed of three stores: sensory store,

short-term store, and long-term store. Information from the

environment possess sequentially through the stores (McEwen &

Willis, 2007).

There are several major points on the nature of memory

storage. According to Endel Tulying (1985), we store information in

two kinds of long term memory. First is Procedural memory which

includes memories of how to perform behaviors, such as making an

omelette or using a word processor. Declarative memory on the other

hand, includes memories of facts. The brain evolved different

memory systems for storing different kinds of memory into declarative

and procedural memory. There is evidence that brain-wave activity

distinguishes different memory systems (Sdorow & Rickabaugh,

2002).


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As proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, human brains are

perceived to operate analogously to a computer or an information-

processor. Information processing theories were allowed to peer

inside the black box and thus have developed a branch of cognitive

psychology that makes learning possible. Under this paradigm, a

learners mind is perceived to contain components of short-term and

long-term memories, plus a working memory. The assumption is that

learning is about how information is received, processed and stored

in these memory components. Generally, in this model a learner

receives information, stores it in a short-term memory and transfers

information from short-term to long-term memory through a variety of

internal mental activities. Information processing theories are quite

concerned with these internal processes that take place during

learning, and base much of their work on a model of memory and

storage. (Williams, 2000)

This information-processing paradigm has a number of

implications for educators. Information is treated like an object which

is to be transferred into the students head. This knowledge

comprised mostly concrete and abstract concepts, and rules and

procedures. Students are assumed to learn by individually digesting


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information, organizing information and structuring the information

received from the outside world. It is then presumed that when

students have acquired in their heads the knowledge presented by

the teacher or the textbook, then we can say that learning has taken

place. (Williams, 2000)

Atkinson and Shiffrin postulate information processing theory as

the individual learns when the brain takes in information (encoding),

performs operation on it, stores the information (storage), and

retrieves it when needed (retrieved). Learning and information

processing follows certain pattern or sequence. The first sequence is

the sensory register; it receives the big amount of information from

the senses and holds it for a very short time for initial processing for

transfer to the short-term memory. If nothing happens, it is lost and

forgotten. Second is the short-term or working memory. It holds the

limited amount of information paid attention to, organizes it for

storage or for discarding and connecting to other information.

Rehearsal or repetition facilitates holding the information in the short-

term memory for transfer to the long-term memory. Last, the long-

term memory, when you keep information for long period of time and

integrate it through rehearsal, elaboration and organization with


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information that is already known. Executive control monitors and

guides the whole process. (Zulueta, 2006)

Information processing theories can be applied in classroom

teaching such as in: holding learners attention in all cognitive tasks,

assisting learners to assess instructional materials considered most

important to learn, establishing the appreciative basis of new

instructional materials, concentrating on few important and key

concepts and ideas, organizing all information to be learned, limiting

the amount of time consumed in processing rehearsal to few

information at a time, employing interesting rehearsal strategies,

developing skills of learners informing images of information they

meet, checking on the background of experiences of learners to

topics under study and giving corrective feedback. (Zulueta, 2006)

Quite a number of models of teaching are designed to increase

students ability to process information more powerfully. These

include methods for presenting information so that students can learn

and retain it more effectively by operating on it more conceptually;

systems that assist memorization and teach students how to organize

information conceptually; and models to teach students to use the


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methods of the disciplines, to engage in causal reasoning, and to

master concepts. (Bruce, 2004)

Information moves back and forth processing in long-term

memory has been compared to the workings of a library. Information

in a library is encoded in materials such as books or magazines,

stored on shelves in a systematic way, retrieved by using cues given

by on-line catalogs, and forgotten when it is misplaced or its

computer record is erased. Similarly, information in long-term

memory is encoded in several ways, stored in an organized manner,

retrieved by using cues, and forgotten due to a failure to store it

adequately or to use appropriate retrieval cues. (Sdorow and

Rickabaugh, 2002)

Short-term memory is typified by ones memory of 7 to 10

numerals in a telephone number (or 7 to 10 other discrete facts) for a

few seconds to a minute at a time but lasting only so long as the

person continues to think about the numbers or facts. Many

physiologists have suggested that this short-term memory is caused

by continual neural activity resulting from nerve signals that travel

around in a temporary memory trace through a circuit of reverberating

neurons. It has not yet been possible to prove this theory. A final


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possibility for explaining short-term memory is synaptic potentiation,

which can enhance synaptic conduction. It can result from the

accumulation of large amounts of calcium ions in the presynaptic

terminals. That is, when a train of impulses passes through a

presynaptic terminal, the amount of calcium ions entering the

presynaptic terminal itself through the presynaptic membrane

increases with each successive action potential. When the amount of

calcium ions becomes greater than the mitochondria and

endoplasmic reticulum can absorb, the excess calcium then causes

prolonged presynaptic release of transmitter substance at the

synapse. Thus, this, too, could be a mechanism for short-term

memory. (Zulueta and Paraso, 2004)

Long-term memory has no real demarcation between the more

prolonged types of intermediate long-term memory and true long-term

memory. The distinction is one of degree. However, long-term

memory is generally believed to result from actual structural changes,

instead of chemical change, at the synapses that enhance or

suppress signal conduction. Again, let us recall experiments in

primitive animals (where the nervous systems are much easier to


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study) that have aided immensely in understanding possible

mechanisms of long-term memory. (Zulueta and Paraso, 2004)

Similarly, we store vast amounts of information in long-term

memory. From our memory storehouse we can retrieve information

into an active working memory, part of which is displayed on our

mental screen as short term memory. And just as a computers screen

saver program blanks the screen after a period of inactivity, activated

human memories rapidly decay unless kept active. Some encoding

occurs automatically. Automatic processing occurs little or no effort,

without our awareness, and without interfering with our thinking about

other things. If such processing requires no special attention, then

asking people to pay special attention to information they encode

automatically should be of little benefit. Other types of information

such as names, rehearsal or conscious repetition, boosts memory.

(Aquino and Miranda, 2003)

The only encoding that happens ins sensory memory is the

transduction of stimuli into the form of neural impulses. But, because

there is a separate sensory register for each sense, each part of

sensory memory contains a different kind of information. The

sensory register for vision is called iconic memory, and it encodes


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light patterns that we see as visual images. Similarly, the sensory

memory for hearing, known as echoic memory, encodes sound

waves. In contrast with a visual image, an echoic image may persist

for several seconds. As brief as the sensory memory are, the last

long enough for the most important sensations to be selected for

further processing in working memory. Generally, the sensations

selected are those that grab our attention, for one reason or another.

They might be specially intense stimuli, stimuli with personal

significance, or perhaps stimuli related to what you were already

thinking about. Sensory memory is, therefore, essential for holding

input just long enough for it to be recognized and passed on for

further processing. As cited by Le Doux 1996, the second stage,

working memory, is where you process conscious experience. It is

the buffer in which you put the new name you have just heard. It is

the momentary storage site for the words at the first part of these

sentences as you read toward the end. Working memory provides a

mental working space where we sort and encode information before

adding it to long term memory. Working memory is the temporary

storage system in which incoming sensory information can be

processed for long term storage. Working memory holds information


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far longer than does sensory memory. Working memories meager

capacity is significantly smaller than that of sensory memory. There

are two important ways of dealing with the limitations of short term

storage: chunking and rehearsal. With the help of these strategies,

information in working memory can be retained and transferred on to

long term memory. In memory, a chunk is any pattern or any

meaningful unit of information. A chunk can be a single letter or

number, group of letters or other items, or even an entire sentence.

The process of encoding separates items of information into a single

pattern is called chunking. Maintenance rehearsal serves well in

maintaining information temporarily in working memory. Maintenance

rehearsal not only keeps informing fresh in working memory, but it

prevents competing inputs form crowding it out, however, it is not an

efficient way to transfer information to long term memory. Although it

is a strategy commonly used for this purpose by people who dont

know how memory operates. A better strategy for getting information

into long term memory involves elaborate rehearsal. With this

method, information is not merely repeated but it is actively

connected to knowledge already stored. Verbal patterns in working

memory often take as acoustic (sound) form, even when they come


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through an individuals eyes rather than ears. As a result, when

subjects are asked to recall lists of letters they have just seen the

errors they make tend to involve confusions of letters that have a

similar sound. (Zimbardo et.al 2003)

The more connections you can make with new information

while it is in working memory, the more likely you are to remember it

later. This obviously requires an interaction between working memory

and long-term memory. According to the levels of processing theory

proposed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart deeper processing

establishing more connections with long-term memories makes new

information more meaningful and more memorable. (Zimbardo et.al

2003)

Mental directions, or procedures, for how things are done are

stored in procedural memory. The other major division of LTM,

declarative memory, stores specific information, such as facts and

events. Recalling the directions for driving to a specific location

requires declarative memory (although knowing how to drive a car

depends on procedural memory). In contrast with procedural

memory, declarative memory more often requires some conscious

mental effort. Episodic memory is the portion of declarative memory


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that stores personal information. It stores temporal coding (or time

tags) to identify when the event occurred as context coding that

indicates where it took place. Semantic memory is the other division

of declarative memory. It stored the basic meanings of words and

concepts. Usually, semantic memory reads no information about the

time and place its contents were acquired. Anything stored in LTM

must be filed according to its pattern or meaning, accordingly, the

best way to add material to long-term memory is to associate it in

some way with material already stored there, a process that we have

called elaborative rehearsal. Encoding many such connections gives

you more ways of accessing the information. (Zimbardo et.al 2003)

The information processing required for you to recognize a

friend waving hello from across the street and to return the greeting.

The process begins at the bottom with sensory input. In this case,

your friend waves from across the street. This input must be attended

to if processing is to proceed. If you do not notice your friend waving,

information processing will not proceed. In the next stage, information

stored in memory is retrieved and used to interpret the stimulus. This

stored information includes your friends name and appearance.

Language skills are required to understand what your friend saying


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and to produce a suitable reply friend saying and to produce a

suitable reply. Higher order planning skills may also come into play

(telling you that g order planning skills may also come into play

(telling you that greetings should be returned), and motor skills are

required for you to wave back. Brain damage at any stage in the

information flow may produce behavioral defects. An inability to

retrieve information from memory may manifest itself in an inability to

remember your friends name. A language deficit may make you

unable to reply correctly. The goal of neuropsychological testing is to

look alike a deficit to one of this formation processing stages and then

to associate these processing stages with specific brain sites. A

deficit in sensory input, for example, implies damage to the sensory

cortex. A difficulty in language processing implies damage to one of

the left hemisphere areas that control language in most people.

(Schwartz, 2000)

Maintenance rehearsal works best for maintaining or keeping

information longer in short-term memory, such as remembering a

phone number for a few seconds while dialing it. However, if you

want to remember the phone number later, maintenance rehearsal is

not good encoding process because it does not include a system for


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keeping track of how and where that particular phone number will be

stored. If you need to remember a phone number for a long period of

time and avoid having to keep looking it up, youll need to use

another form of effortful encoding called elaborative rehearsal. The

levels-of-processing theory says that remembering depends on how

information is encoded. If you encode by paying attention only to

basic features (length of phone number), information is encoded at a

shallow level and results in poor recall. If you encode by making new

associations, this information will be encoded at a deeper level, which

results in better recall. (Wadsworth, 2006)

The first step in memory system is to get sensory information

(sight, sound, etc.) into a form that the brain can use, a process

called encoding. Encoding is the set of mental operations that people

perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form

that is usable in the brains storage system. For example, when

people hear a sound, their ears turned vibrations in the air into neural

messages from the auditory nerve, which makes it possible for the

brain to interpret that sound. The next step in memory is to hold on to

the information for some period of time, a process called storage.

This period of time will actually be of different lengths, depending on


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the stage of memory being used. For example, in one stage on

memory people hold on to information just long enough to work with

it, about 20 seconds or so. In another stage of memory, people hold

on to information more or less permanently. The biggest problem

many people have is retrieval, getting the information they know they

have out of storage. Have you ever handed in an essay test ad then

remembered several other things you could have said? (Ciccarelli &

Meyer, 2007)

Information processing is an approach that focuses on the way

information is process, or handled, through 3 different stages of

memory. The process of encoding, storage, and retrieval are seen as

part of this model. The information-processing model assumes that

how long a memory will be remembered depends on the stage of

memory in which it is stored. Other researchers have proposed that

how long a memory will be remembered depends on the depth (i.e.,

the effort made to understand the meaning) to which the information

is processed. If the word BALL is flashed on a screen, for example,

and people are asked to report whether the word was in capital letters

or in lower case, the word itself thus not have to be processed very

much at all only its visual characteristics need enter into conscious


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attention. Information-processing theory, which looks at how thought

processes such as memory work, uses as its model for human

thought the way that a computer functions. Data are encoded in a

way that the computer can understand and use. The computer stores

that information on a disk, hard drive, or a memory stick, and then the

data are retrieved out of storage as needed. It was also information-

processing theorist who first proposed that there are 3 stages or

types of memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory,

long-term memory. (Ciccarelli & Meyer, 2007)

Sensory memory is the first stage of memory, the point at which

the information enters the nervous systems through the sensory

systems: eyes, ears, and so on. Think of it as door that is open for a

brief time. Looking through the door, one can see many people and

objects, that only some of them will actually make it through the door

itself. Sensory memory is a kind of door onto the world. Information is

encoded into sensory memory as neural messages in the nervous

system. As long as those neural messages are travelling through the

system, it can be said people have a memory for that information

that can be accessed if needed. For example, say Elaina is driving

down the street, looking at the people and cars on either side of her


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vehicle. All of a sudden she thinks What? Was that man wearing any

pants? and she looks back to check. How did she know to look

back? Her eyes had already moved past the possible pants-less

person, but some part of her brain must have just processed what

she saw (most likely the reticular formation, which notices new and

important information). This is called a double take and can only be

explained by the presence, however brief, of a memory for what she

saw. There are two kinds of sensory memory that have been studied

extensively. They are the iconic (visual) and echoic (hearing) sensory

memories. ((Ciccarelli & Meyer, 2007)

THE PROBLEM

Statement of the Problem

The study determines the information processing among level

III Student Nurses of University of - Cebu Banilad Campus. The

findings of the study would then serve as a basis for a proposed

action plan.


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Specifically the researchers seek to answer the following

question:

1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:

1.1 Age;

1.2 Gender;

1.3 Civil Status; and

1.4 Category: ( ) irregular student ( ) regular student

2. How they store data as part of information processing may it be in

the:

2.1 Sensory memory

2.2 Short-term memory

2.3 Long-term memory

3. Is there a significant relationship between the respondents profile

and their information processing ability?

4. Based on the findings of the study, what action plan may be

proposed?

Statement of the Null Hypothesis:


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HO: There is no significant relationship between the profile of

the respondents and the information processing ability among level III

student nurses of University of Cebu Banilad Campus.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study aims to have significance to the following:

Student Nurses

The study will help the students to recognize their information

processing ability and enhance their knowledge and skills, thus it will

make them effective nurses in the future.

Clinical Instructors

The clinical instructors will be able to use the findings of the

study for them to know the ways on how to help students in

processing information effectively.

Dean and Administrators of the College of Nursing

The research findings of the study serve as a basis for her

supervisory plans to facilitate the information processing ability

among level III student nurses.


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Level Chairperson

The level chairperson will be guided on what to focus eventually

leading them to make effective objectives for each nursing lesson.

Parents

The study will be able to give awareness to the parents

regarding their childrens information processing ability thus allowing

them to have full understanding and continued moral, emotional and

financial support.

Guidance office

The study will help the Guidance office for providing the contact

and help needed by students in the school on a personal level. It will

help them develop in ways that enable them to make full use of their

abilities in order that they will achieve their goals and live a

meaningful and productive life.

Students Affair Office

Commission on Higher Education (CHED)

This study will give the institution information about the

information processing ability among level III student nurses to

promote quality education.

Future Researchers


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The research serves as an essential reference for them and

adds further information of the topic. This will give the researchers a

better understanding on the information processing ability among

level III student nurses.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The researchers utilized the descriptive- correlational research

design. A quantitative design which involved numeric information that

resulted from some type of formal measurement and is analyzed with

statistical procedures with the use of researcher-made questionnaire.

The study had determined the significant relationship between

respondents profile and the information processing abilities of BSN

level III students of UC Banilad for school year 2010-2011.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Prop

osed

Action

Plan

Profile

InformationprocessingamongBSNlevelIIIstudent on

professional

descriptive correlationalresearchdesign usingresearcher-madequestionnaire

datagathering

dataprocessing

data analysis

data

interpretation


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Fig.1. Research Flow

Research Environment

The study will be conducted at University of Cebu Banilad

Campus College of Nursing located at the center of a residential cum

business district in Cebu City. The said university is situated at

Archbishop Reyes Avenue, Banilad, and Cebu City. The University of

Cebu is the fastest growing university, if not the most dynamic,

among all the universities in the city of Cebu. Previously known as

the Cebu College of Commerce when it opened its door in 1964, it

became the Cebu Central Colleges in 1972. Then, in 1992, it

changed its name and status to the University of Cebu as a testament

of its desire to provide with the best education. In the year 2002, UC

Banilad opened with curricular offerings in Bachelor of Law,

Bachelor of Science in Commerce, Bachelor of Science in


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Accountancy, Bachelor of Science in Information Technology,

Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering and Bachelor of

Science in Electronics and Communication Engineering. The same

year, the College of Nursing was transferred to UC-Banilad. The

nursing department is being raised by the dean with a Nursing

education and a designated Chairperson for each year level.


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Fig 2. Research Environment

Research Respondents

The respondents of the study are the Bachelor of Science in

nursing level III students of the University of Cebu, Banilad Campus.

The junior class has 14 sections for regular students and 4 sections

for irregular students. Using the Stratified Random Sampling, the

sample size was obtained.


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Research Instrument

The researchers utilized a 20-item structured questionnaire in

which possible answers are provided and the respondents have to

select from the presented options. Part I of the questionnaire

described the profile of the respondents in terms of their age and

gender. Part II pertained to the learning needs of BSN Level 3

students on professional subjects which is evaluated using the

following parameters; Strongly Agree means that the respondents are

completely in favor with the statement. Agree would indicate that the

respondents are in favor with the statement. Undecided refers to the

respondents who cannot decide whether agree or disagree. Disagree

is not in favor with the statement. Strongly Disagree describe that the

respondent is fully not in favor with the statement. The respondents

were given and freely to choose their answers and express and what

they feels in the questionnaires. In this way to reduce their anxiety,

feel comfortable and trusting their selves.

Research Procedure

Data-gathering: Prior to the actual data gathering procedure,

the researchers will process a letter for approval from the Dean


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College of Nursing to ask an authority to conduct the study. Research

tools will be consulted and validated by the researchers group of

advisers and directives. The researchers will also process transmittal

letters to the persons concerned for consent purposes. The research

tool shall also be distributed to the BSN level 3 students of the

University of Cebu, Banilad Campus.

Treatment of Data

The following statistical treatment will be utilized in this study:

Slovens Formula will be used to determine the sample size.

n= N/(1+Ne2)

Where: n = sample size

N = Total number of population

e2 = margin of error (0.05)

Simple Percentage will be used to determine the profile of the

respondents demographic characteristics. The formula is stated

below

P= ( f /N) x 100

Where: P = Percentage

f= Frequency


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N = Total number of population

The weighted mean will be used to determine the extent of

implementation of the survey. In order to determine the common

needs of the students, the mean range was computed. The interval

was obtained by dividing the difference of the highest and lowest

scale with the total number of scales. The formula is stated below.

X=

Where: X = weighted mean or average

F = number of each statement

N = number of respondents

The Chi Square will be used to determine the significant

relationship between the respondents profile and the learning needs

of the BSN level III students of UC-Banilad.

Where: Fo = observed frequency

Fe = expected frequency


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DEFINITION OF TERMS

The following terms are operationally defined in this study to

avoid ambiguity and aid clarity.

Level III Nursing Students. The respondent of this study who

are currently enrolled in University of Cebu - Banilad Campus, School

year 2010-2011.

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Theoretical Background, SOP, SOS

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