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8/14/2019 Theory of Altruism
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Received 02/23/10Revised 08/20/10
Accepted 12/05/10
A n E m e r g e n t T h e o r y o f A l t r u i s ma n d S e l f I n t e r e s t
Stephen V Flyim and Linda L. Black
leliefs about alfruism and self-inferesf of 25 parficipanfs were examined fhrough a grounded fheory mefhodology.
Alfruism was defined as fhe promofion of needs of ofhers and self-inferesf as fhe promofion of needs of self Dafa
sources included inferviews, focus group, journal analysis, arfifacfs, and a m easure of alfruism. The relafionship be-
tween alfruism and self-inferesf emerged and was com posed of 12 fheme s. Them es described a dynam ic fheory thaf
was sysfem ic, values orienfed, and inferacfional.
The person of fhe counselor is af fhe center of counseling
identity. Ethically, cou nselors are no t to allow their needs or
self-interests to im pede the client's grow th (Corey, Corey,
Callanan, 20 07). If counselors allowed their self-interests to
emerge unchecked, if could creafe situations in which the
counselors' needs took precedence over their client's, fhus
creafing a potentially harmflil situation for fhe clienf. Clienf
profecfion and welfare are crifical fo successful fherapeufic
oufcom es; however, fhe mann er in which fhe efhical sfandards
for counselors are proffered may lead some counselors to
conc lude fhaf fhey are required or expecfed fo deny, diminish ,
or acknowledge any professional or personal gains (Ameri-
can Counseling Association [ACA], 2005). The counseling
profession, through its ethical standards, may be sending a
contradictory message (i.e., counselor W ellness is important,
yet clients' needs are superior to counselors' needs). These
ethical codes and values may inadvertently comm unicate that
the work of counselors is primarily steeped in self-sacrifice,
which may lead to counselor bum out.
Ignoring app ropriate self-interest holds a variety of negative
consequences for cou nselors, particularly those who work in
community mental health seffings (Bemard, 2006; Hill, 2004;
Lamb ie, 2007; Myers, 2003; Myers , Sweeney, Whife, 2002).
Examples of these consequences include overriding unselfish
conc em , ignoring on e's stress level, frustration, job dissatisfac-
tion, stress-related health prob lems, lowered work p roductivity,
inability f o cope with occupational stress, interpersonal conftict,
apathy, bumo ut, poor b oundaries, feeling pulled in too many
directions, vicarious trauma, a n d rol ambiguity Bemard, 2006;
Hill, 2004; Lambie, 2007; Myers, 2003; Myers et al., 2002;
Nelson Southem, 2008; Trippany, W hite Kress, Wilcoxon,
2004; Wilkerson Bellini, 2006) and seem t o pervade the field
of counseling. The counseling p rofession h as literature, leader-
ship mandates, and efhiciil codes focused o n fhe alfmisfic values
of pracfifioners (e.g., Chi Sigma Iofa Academ y of Leaders for
Excellence, 1999; Lawson Venarf, 2005 ; Meara, Schmidf,
Day, 1996; Sfevens, 2000), and, wifh fhe excepfion of fhe
construct of Wellness, little emphasis has bee n focused on wha t
constitutes appropriate self-interest.
• A l t r u i s m a n d S e l f in t e r e s t
For centuries, scholars have atfempfed to describe fhe inher-
ent and dynamic fension befween fhe promofion of needs
and wa nts of self (self-inferesf) relafive fo fhe p rom ofion
of needs and wanfs of ofhers (alfruism). Individuals who
seem focused on meefing fhe needs of self have often been
described in negafive and derisive ferms (e.g., egocentric,
hedonistic, selfish), whereas individuals who seem focused
on fhe ne eds of ofhers have often been described in posifive
ferms (e.g., giving, alfruisfic, selñess). The E nglish language
reveals a value-based dichotomy that has im plications for the
counseling profession.
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow believed that human
beings had a tendency toward positive growth that encouraged
hum ans to reach for fuller developm ent. Instead of clarifying
fhe relafionship befween alfruism and self-interest, Rogers's
theories served only fo fiarther fhe debate. Rogers rejected
Freud 's notion of the innate selfish nature o f the individual and
promoted the belief that humans had the capacity for innate
positive growth and self-actualization that involved a sense
of self-preoccupation (Rogers, 1951). According to M ayeroff
(1990), Rogers be lieved fhaf fhe abilify fo he lp ofhers was in -
nafely fied to one's own d evelopment; so to be tmly a ltmistic,
an individual must be somew hat self-focused.
Maslow (1950) researched the behaviors of members of
society who displayed self-actualizing tendencies. He also
focused his study on fhe altmistic traits of the self-actualizing
individuals. Inifially, Maslow recognized his sfudy parfici-
pa nts' human e behavior as self-serving because of their overt
enjoyment following these altmistic deeds. Later, he estab-
lished that the self-actualizing individuals were both altmisfic
and self-interested (Maslow, 197 0). Of importance is fhat this
is one of the firsf insfances in wh ich the related natu re of these
fwo constructs was recognized.
Altmistic values and behavior have been highly prized in
the counseling profession. Corey et al. (2007) posited that a
practitioner's best strategy for maintaining an ethical position is
to put his or her clients' interests before all others. In addition.
Stephen V Flynn Department of Counselor Education and Supervision, University of South Dakota; Linda L. Black Department ofCounselor Education and Supervision, University of Northern Colorado. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressedto Stephen V Fiynn, Department of Counselor Education and Supervision, University of South D akota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermil-
lion, SD 57069 (e-mail: [email protected]).
© 2 0 1 1 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.
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Flynn Blac
the counseling profession promo tes both mandatory and aspi-
rational ethics in which cotinselors are encouraged to surpass
mandatory standards of care (ACA, 2005 ). Stevens (2000 )
described this aspiration poignan tly: As a profession, we hold
a so cial responsibility to model and mentor the highest possible
level of ethical/moral behavior. We are society (p. 178).
The construct of self-interest, as it relates to the co unseling
process, can be com plicated; confounding; and, at times, con-
tradictory. Elemen ts described as usefijl in increasing counselor
effectiveness and helpful in avoiding burnout include effec-
tive boundaries; optimal Wellness; self-advocacy; reciprocity;
positive belief about self, others, and the w orld; self-care; and
the development of self-regulatory systems (Hendricks, 2008;
Hermon Hazier, 1999; Myers Sweeney, 2008; M yers et
al., 2002 ; Osbom , 2004; Trippany et al., 2004). The importance
of counse lor self-interest has b een dem onstrated in the findings
of the aforementioned studies. These findings are at odds w ith
what current researchers depict as negative effects of working
in the mental health field. Lawson and Venart (2005) described
how counselors working in the field are often told indirectly
and directly that they ought to see more clients, work longer
hours, and produ ce effective therap eutic results in a small time
period. This is often an institutionally based request designed
to increase counselor productivity. Skovholt, Grier, and Han-
son (2001) shed m ore light on this systematic comm unication
breakdown by describing high touch (e.g., personal exposure
to client pain and counselor inability to deny client requests)
hazards, which often led to counselor burnout.
The purpose of this study was to investigate how counselors
and counselor educators personally and professionally experiencedaltruism and self-interest and to propose an emetgent theory of
the promotion, initiation, and maintenance of altruism and self-
interest within the counseling profession. Following the tenants of
grounded theory, we collected data from the following sources: the
Self-Report Altruism Scale (SRA; Rushton, Chrisjohn, Fekken,
1981 ); a focus group; sem istnictured individual interviews; a topic
analysis of the 10 previous years of ournal articles in counseling,
counselor education, and marriage and family counseling; partici-
pant artifacts; and participant member checks.
• e tho
According to Strauss and Corbin (1990), a grounded theory
is an analytically o riented schem a of a pro cess. The rationale
for a grounded theory method was twofold. First, we desired
to deeply and broadly examine the potential influences of
the phenomena of altruism and self-interest in the lived
experiences of counselors and counselor educators. Second,
we sought to systematically describe the relationship, if any,
between these constructs.
Researcher as Instrument
The nature of qualitative research req uires that investigators
provide transparency as to their assumptions and biases. This
includes a brief description of each of us, the researche
as instruments, which is intended to provide a contextu
understanding of our perspectives. The first author is in
2nd year as an assistant professor of counselor ed ucation an
supervision at a state university. In addition to his facul
duties, he serves as the director of the co unseling and scho
psychological training center. He has 8 years of experience
a counselor in a variety of settings. Throughout his doctor
training, he encountered mixed messages regarding the ro
of altruism and the importance of service and stewardship
the counseling profession. Some of these messages focuse
on altruistically oriented issues (e.g., pro bono service, v
unteering, and stewardship) as well as cautionary issues (e.g
counselor burnout, vicarious trauma, and low wages). It w
curious to him that his training program provided few co
versations abou t self-interest-oriented topics (e.g., Wellnes
fee structure, and internal/external benefits of coun seling
thus, he concluded that his natural empathie and compasion orientation along with the altruistically oriented natu
of his education could set him up for counselor burnout a
an expectation not to be comp ensated (financially and inte
personally) at a level commensurate with his training. T
second author is a counselor educator and supervisor wi
12 years of experience in higher education. Her profession
background includes 22 years as a counselor in a variety
mental health settings and 10 years experience in the busine
sector. The first and second autho rs often discussed the nee
for balance between an ethic of caring, service, stewardsh
and the manner in which one sought balance with persona
spiritual, and financial well-being.
Criteria for Participation
Crotty (2003) defined criterion sampling as all people e
periencing the construct being studied; therefore, we we
intentional about identifying, recrui t ing, and select in
participants from a variety of counseling settings throug
criterion-based and snowball sampling procedures. Partic
pants were included in the study if they met the followin
criteria: actively providing counseling services or counsel
education and supervision training or scholarship and we
licensed (i.e., licensed professional counselors, licensed mar
riage and family counselors, cou nselor education faculty) were current graduate students (e.g., master's or doctoral)
a counselor education program.
Participants in this study w ere recruited by the first autho
through three processes: (a) an e-mail notice sent to a region
counselor education electronic mailing list to solicit partic
pants for a focus gro up, (b) an in-person gro up invitation, a
(c) an in-person or telephone contact based on the recomm en
dation of another professional (e.g., snowball recruitment)
Participants
Twenty-five p articipants w ere involved in this study, seven wh
were drawn ft-om he focus group and 19 individual interview
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An Emergent Theory of Altruism and Self interest
One member participated in both a focus group and an indi-
vidual interview. The sample was composed of 1 women and
15 men who ranged in age from 25 to 79 years (M = 49.76).
The self-reported ethnicities of participants were Cau casian,
Hispanic, Asian, Native American, Arabian, and Jewish.
With respect to professional identity, seven participants
were professional counselors, 14 were counselor educators,three were marriage and family counselors, and one was a
psychologist who w as licensed as a professional counselor. In
terms o f program affiliation, 16 participants worked at or were
being educated at, a program accred ited by the Council for Ac -
creditation ofCou nseling and Related Educational Programs,
and two participants were affiliated with the Com mission on
Accreditation for Marriage and Family Therapy Education
program. One counselor educator worked at a nonaccredited
program, and six participants described their occupational
status as not involving academ ia.
ProcedurePotential participants were given informed consent forms
regarding the study's intent and purpose. Additionally, par-
ticipants were asked to complete a self-report measure of
altruism (i.e., the SRA), engage in an individual interview
or a focus group, and provide artifacts (digital photographs)
that represented their professionally based self-interest and
altruism. The SRA served as an advanced organizer that would
allow p articipants to con ceptualize and reflect on their altruism
prior to the interview or focus group and served as a point
of triangulation. As a way to protect participant identity and
maintain anon ymity, participants were identified by a single
letter unrelated to the participant's nam e.
The focus gro up and all individual interview sessions were
franscribed by the first author and subsequently subjected to
member checking. Simultaneous to the interviews, the first
author cond ucted a review of the previous 1 years of oum al
articles to examine the presence and relevance of these two
constructs in the field of counseling. The individual inter-
views and the focus group were used to explore participants'
perceptions of altmism and self-interest. The artifacts (digital
photos) provided a bridge between the philosophical nature
of altruism-self-interest and a real-life example of the rela-
tionship. The jou ma l analysis was used to determine w hether
the counseling profession addressed issues of altruism andself-interest (e.g., Wellness, bumout, vicarious trauma, ethical
violations) in the previous d ecade. Finally, the mem ber check
was conducted as part of a rigorous trustworthiness process.
The second author served as the auditor for the researcher
epoché, three levels of coding , the thematic analysis, and the
emergent theory.
Trustworthiness Procedures
The following procedures were undertaken to ensure trust-
worthiness: researcher epoché, prolonged engagement with
the data, reflexivity, res earch er jou rna l or field notes, depend-
ability and confirmability audits (audit trail), triangulation,
member checks, thick and rich descript ions, nominated
sample, and negative case analysis (Crotty, 2003; Merriam,
1998; Schwandt, 2001). In the researcher epoché, the first
author bracketed and rebracketed his beliefs, opinions, and
assumptions prior to the start of the study. These data, along
with the researcher jour nal, were exam ined at three points inthe data analysis process by the second author to further en sure
credibility and prevent an overly biased analysis or writing
from an opinionated standpoint. Confirmability and trustwor-
thiness were further en sured through triangulation of the data
and by examining information from multiple perspectives
and data p oints. To ensure transferability of the data, the first
author asked participants open-ended questions that evoked
a detailed narrative. This process prov ided the m aterial for a
thick description of distinct yet related, categories that were
then distilled into emergent themes. All themes were delib-
erately written to include nuances o f the them es; subthem es;
and, where warranted, pictorial d escriptions.
To improve the dependability and confirmability of the
findings, the second author conducted an audit to determine
whether the thoughts, procedu res, and sfrategies on particular
themes w ere both verifiable and dependable. As a way to refine
and contextualize the analysis, a negative case analysis was
used. This involved searching for and discussing elem ents of
the data that did not support, or seemed to contradict, pat-
tems or explanations that emerged from data analysis. This
additional analysis allowed for revising, broadening, and
confirming the pattems emerging from data analysis.
Data AnalysisData (i.e., quantitative m easure, focus g roup transcript, indi-
vidual interview franscripts artifact pictures/descriptions, and
jou ma l analysis) were combined and analyzed for all signifi-
cant themes or p attem s. First, data were analyzed h olistically
through open coding (Merriam, 1998). Memos were written
that identified the directions, impressions, and thoug hts of the
first author. Next, the memos were analyzed in conjunction
with the interviews and field notes. The causal conditions,
strategies, intervening conditions, and consequences were
examined and con textualized in order to form an axial coding
paradigm (Strauss Corbin, 1997).
Axial coding was used to uncover the core phenomena
of the investigation. The first author ascertained the causal
conditions and linked them conceptually to the overarching
sfrategies. These overarching strategies were the main p atterns
that emerged as a result of the open coding procedure. The
intervening conditions were isolated to determine which on es
were mo st likely to influence th e strategies. The consequences
of the strategies were distinguished in the final aspect of this
process. Finally, a selective coding method was used as the
third step in the analysis. Propositions about data w ere written
in narrative form in order to describe the interrelationships of
the emergent categories and, thus, the foundation of groun ded
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Flynn Black
theory. Data was examined using foundational rules for inclu-
sion or exclusion. The second author contrasted the codes with
the first author's field notes, jour nal en tries, and feedback from
the member checking proc ess. Data (i.e., proposed theo ry), in
their final form, were represented in a series of propositions
(Creswell, 200 7; Strauss Corbin, 1990) and submitted for
a final audit.
• esu l t s
Self-Report Measure of Altruism
All 25 participants completed the SRA, a brief measure
of personal altruism. Although the SRA is a quantitative
measure, the scores from this measure were not used in any
formal statistical analysis but were used to generally describe
the sample. The overall SRA scores for all participants in
the study were between 29 and 6 6, with a mean of 48.88 and
a standard deviation of 11.61. In comparison with Rushton
et al.'s (1981) original study on the SRA, the scores in the
present sample were similar in terms of means and standard
deviations. Thus, the measure was deemed to be a credible
introduction to the evaluation of personal altruism for par-
ticipants in this study.
Focus Group and Individual Interviews
A focus group was conducted at an Association of Counselor
Education and Supervision regional conference in 2008 . The
only criterion for the focus group was that all participants
must self-identify as a professional counselor. The focus
group process allowed for exchanges, uncovering, and pro-
duction of thoughts on the relationship between altruism and
self-interest within the counseling and counselor education
professions. The focus group (n = 7), which lasted ap proxi-
mately 65 minutes, was composed of three women and four
men. Nineteen individual interviews were conducted, and the
group of interviewees was composed of eight women and 11
men, ranging in age from 25 to 79 years.
Journal Analysis and Participants'Artifacts
A topic analysis was conducted on articles published in the
Journal of Counseling Development (JCD), Counselor
Education and Supervision (CES), and The Family Journal(FJ) for the 10-year period of 1998 to 2008. Both JCD and
CES were selected as relevant journals because of their sa-
lience in the counseling profession. FJ was chosen because
of the systemic nature in which many participants described
the altruism-self-interest phenomenon. The goal of analysis
was to identify the nature and ex tent of profession al literature
dedicated to counselor altruism or self-interest. The keywords
used in the search process included altruism, self-interest,
counselor role, burno ut, Wellness, and counselor iden tity. Th e
journal analysis identified 19 journal articles during the es-
tablished time frame that described or discussed the concepts
of counselor altruism and/or self-interest. The content of the
articles was openly coded and produ ced a total of 238 codes,
which were synthesized into 12 main themes.
Eighteen of the 19 participants sent photographs of arti-
facts that represented their altruistic and self-interest sides
The artifacts were discussed with the participants and their
derived meanings incorporated into the 12 emerging themes.
The self-interest-oriented artifacts ranged fiom p hotog raphs ofhigh perfonna nce vehicles to exercise clothing. The altruistic
artifacts ranged fi om photograp hs of meaningful letters from
past clientele to pictures of Cod and Buddha.
Synthesis of Data
After gathering all the data from the six data collection poin ts,
we combined all transcribed data and conducted a combined
analysis of the findings. The focus group and individual in-
terview transcripts were coded and analyzed directly. Next,
all participants described their felt experience w ith com plet-
ing the SRA and their rationale for choice in artifact. These
experiences were transcribed and coded for the focus group
and individual interviews. Last, the SR A sco res, physical pic-
tures of the artifacts, coded quo tes within the journa l an alysis
and information gleaned through the member check were all
included in the combined final analysis.
The emergent them es from this study are reported in a for-
mat consistent with Strauss and Corbin's (1990) model. This
model identifies the following structure: causal conditions,
intervening conditions, contextual conditions, action/inter-
actions/routines, and consequences. The conditions, actions,
and consequences derived from this study were independent
of one another and interrelated on a number of levels (see
Figure 1). The causal con ditions were events that led to the
identification of a dynamic relationship between altruism and
self-interest. Contextual and intervening conditions referred
to the particular sets of conditions that intervened with the
causal condition—a broader set of conditions. Action/interac-
tion/routine strategies referred to the actions and responses
that occurred as the result of the phenomenon, context, and
intervening cond itions. Finally, the outcomes, both intended
and unintended, of these actions and responses were labeled
consequences.
• a u s a l ConditionsC onflicting Beliefs and Perceptions
Participants repeatedly expressed confiicting beliefs and
perceptions regarding the altruism-self-interest ph enom enon.
Participan ts' beliefs w ere defined as aspects of life that they
learned about through values, morals, and culture, whereas
perceptions w ere defined as actions the pariicipants eng aged
in related to their beliefs. Participants as well as their beliefs
and perceptions w ere, at times, in confiict.
The greatest sense of discord between and among par-
ticipants' actions, perceptions, and speech w as the manner in
which they perceived that the coun seling profession promoted
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An Emergent Theory of Altruism and Self-interest
CausaiConditions
1 . Conflictingbeliefs andperceptions
2. Covertvalues andattitudes
3. A richer viewof self-interest
Causal Conditions
r
ContextuaiConditions
1 . Gender2. Professionai
tenure3. Cultural
expectations4. Economy
5. Overt/covertmessages
6. Counselingsubprofessions
interveningConditions
1 . Mixedmessages
2. Career choice3. Status and
competition
\ ^̂̂Intervening ConditionsAction/interactions/RoutinesConsequences
Pictorial i
Consequences
1 . Benefits ofcaring
2. Negativeconsequencesof caring
3. Professionalmistrust
4. Varyingdescriptions
of counseling
Actionsinteractions
Routines
1 . Competing
definitions ofaltruism andseif-interest
2. The processand action ofaltruism andself-interest
FIGURE 1
Representation of Grounded Theory
ote Theory of the promotion initiation and maintenance of the
relationship between altruism and self-interest within the counsel-
ing profession.
al t ruism as a require d frai t or act ion amo ng cou nselors . E ight
part ic ipants s ta ted that the counsel ing profess ion was very
al t ruis t ic , whereas four others bel ieved that the profess ion
was not a l t ruis t ic enough. This percept ion is i l lus t ra ted by
Part ic ipant S in her descript ion of her dismay with the p rofes-
s ion's lack of an a l tmis t ic tendency. She remarked.
W e l l . . . longpaiisé I don't hear therapists .. . contributing
at a comm unity level. I . . . I think that's very limited. . . .
Secondly, I don't hear many therapists having a very mind-
ful practice around pro bono clients. Thirdly, I hear a lot of
people in my profession . . . which pains m e actually to be
very oriented around private pay, because they don't want to
... do billing for insurance.
In contras t . Part ic ipant F bel ieved that the counse l ing p rofes-
s ion was more a l t ruis t ic . Speaking of counselor educators ,
she said.
Most of my colleagues are very professionally and perso nally
altruistic. For example, one of my colleagues does trem endous
research and service related to suicide and suicide prevention
and has grants, does presentations all over the state, all over
this region of the country in suicide gatekeeper training, col-
lects money in terms of organizing w alks, teams for walking
to raise money for suicide prevention and awareness. . . . Imean, she is altruism from start to finish.
Covert Values and A ttitudes
Part ic ipants repeatedly expressed covert values and at t i tudes
within the counsel ing profess ion. Covert values were those
uniqu e rules that me mb ers of the coun sel ing profess ion (edu-
cators , supervisors , peers) presented and promoted yet were
not prom inent ly co mm tinicated in the profess ional l i tera ttu-e.
A covert atti tude may represent a meaningfiil or superficial be-
l ief or behavior that was not widely doct imented o r researched .
Five part ic ipants noted covert values and at t i tudes re la tedto counse lors ' a l tmism b ecause they be l ieved tha t counse lors
ma ke a quiet di fference in the l ives of c l ients and should not
be grand iose abou t thei r successes . Part ic ipant S spoke to this
covert expectat ion:
u know, I think that people in our profession d o . . . not have
much grandiosity. You know, we're silent in our successes
. . . because of confidentiality, which, of course, is by nature
part of the work, we don't get to . . . celebrate in a big way
about the work. You know, like, we did this, or this, or t h is .. .
maybe with a family or individual. But it's qu ie t. .. it 's quiet.
A R icher View of S elf-interest
Part ic ipants frequent ly exp ressed a r icher view of sel f- interes t
(i .e., helping myself a l lows me to help others) as opposed
to narrow vis ion of sel f- interes t ( i .e . , helping myself i s a
purely sel f ish endeavor) . Part ic ipants who proudly accepted
their se l f- interes t voiced that they did not appreciate many
of the i r p rofes s iona l co l l eagues ' mi sunders t anding of wha t
appro pria te sel f- interest me ant . A r icher view of sel f- interes t
mean t expanding the concept beyond wha t some m ay de f ine
as meet ing one 's own needs (e .g. , a focus on Wellness) .
Fif teen part ic ipants described how an adherence to thei r
heal th and Wellness was an appropria te use of thei r self
interes t . Part ic ipant Z reported on the pass ion she puts into
teaching appropria te boundaries and Wellness . She described,
I think I work hard and train students in ethics and related
course work on good self -c are ... and taking time to instill in
them the idea that self-interest in modest amounts is healthy
and that they wouldn't want their clients or their loved ones
taking up 24/7 and so, learning to say no, learning to set
boundaries, and learning to tune in to some of the other
definitions of self-interest besides just feeling really good
about oneself
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Flynn Black
• i n t e r v e n i n g C o n d i t i o n s
Mixed Messages
Participants consistently expressed experiencing mixed
messages within the counseling profession as related to
the articulation of altruism-self-interest. Furthermore, the
theme of mixed messages refers to confiicting or different
overi messages received by pariicipants. These messages dif-
fered from the confiicting beliefs and perceptions discussed
earlier in that they were viewed as less personal and seem ed
to emanate from a source external to the participa nts. There
i s however, some overlap insofar as pariicipants' expecta-
tions were violated.
Fifteen of the 19 individuals interviewed demonstrated
conflicting perspectives as to whether counselors ought to
engage in enterprising behaviors. Several participants w ho
identified enterprising in counseling as appropriate would
later reject certain aspects of the very same behavior(s).
For example. Participant S highlighted the nature of the
mixed message of helping (al truism) and self-interest
(enterprising) when discussing whether counseling was
or was not a business:
Counseling as a business sits funny. See now, I recognize if
I were in private practice, I would agree w ith that statement.
But I've never been in private practice. I've always been em-
ployed by universities and school districts. And .. . because
back as a young professional in the early '80s , I worked for
a small business college . . . a privately owned business col-
lege. And the profit motive ofthat organization I found to bevery distasteful and very contrary to my own value system.
This quotation represents a mixed message. The individual
who made this comm ent described the confusion that many
other pariicipants reflected in their statements. Specifically,
this pariicipant found some of the institutions (e.g., schools
and universities) eschew a business orientation, whereas other
organizations (e.g., private practice and private college) are
centrally organized around a business mo del.
Career Choice
Participants reported that counseling, as a career choice, wasrelated to personal values and an expected set of behaviors
developed b y counselors who occupy t h e profession. Although
the choice in becoming a counselor was affected by a num-
ber of circumstances, on the macrolevel, participants noted
that counselors seem to exhibit an internal decision-making
component about becom ing or being a counselor and an ex-
ternal presentation regarding what a coimselor should look
like (e.g., expected behaviors and ways of being). Seventeen
participants believed that the choice of counseling as a career
was a deep and meaningful exp erience. Participant F described
that her choice to become a counselor was dependent on a
calling and love for the work:
Y ou know, people g o into this work [counseling an d counselor
education] because they love the work and they feel a calling
to it, not because they'll ever b e . . . I mean, hopefully people
will be able to make ends meet. But, I . . . I know certainly
as a counselor educator [the financial compensation] is not
commensurate with contribution in the world, it just isn't, so
you do it because it's the right thing to do.
Status and Competition
Pariicipants frequently expressed a sense of com petition and
status within the counseling profession and among allied
helping professions. Status was interpreted as how counsel-
ors view themselves, how other mental health professions
viewed counselors, and how counselor status compared w ith
all professions.
Five pariicipants reporied that counselors have lost status
because counselor education programs are overproducing
counselors. Pariicipant W described this dim ension;
Our field has lost status, horribly I think, and i t . . . but it's
become a different world. We've created this group of, and
I hate to say it when it's been used in other literature, we've
sometimes been called drones. A n d I'm talking master's-level
people.
Eight pariicipants saw the counseling profession as having
lower status when compared with other mental health profes-
sions, pariicularly psychologists. Pariicipant S described her
awareness of counselor identity and the mental health hier-
archy; I think counseling, as far as couns elor identity, we'redefinitely struggling with that. It seems like, we absolutely
aren't looked at as highly as a psychologist or a psychiatrist
or another profession.
• A c t io n s In t e r a c t io n s R o u t i n e s
Competing Definitions of Altruism and Self-interest
Pariicipants seemed to struggle when defining altruism and
self-interest. Sixteen participants described the terms in rela-
tion to each other and noted the discordant nature of their nar-
rative. For exam ple, in attemp ting to define altruism and self
interest as a process, Pariicipant K suggested the following:
oing things that ar e of m y heart a n d a r e generous for n o other
reason... simply because I want an authentic connection with
another human being T o m e it's funny. I mean, that would
b e m y definition of it, whereas others may see it as a selfless-
ness. I don't experience it as a selflessness. I experience it as
a give/give [as opposed to give/take].
Most participants' descriptions involved the significance of
giving t o others and a n inconsequentiality of receiving personal
or monetary benefits. Personal dissonance em erged within and
among na rratives when altruism was linked to self-sacrifice.
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An Emergent Theory of Altruism and Self Interest
The Process and Action of Altruism
and Self interest
Participants expressed a process and action within the al-
truism-self-interest phenomenon. This theme centered on
particip ants' conceptualization of alfruism-self-interest as a
psychologically based process.
Ten participants described altruism and self-interest as
an interrelated and dynamic phenomenon. This was often
related to a variety of counseling behaviors and tasks that
had at their core m utual interest for all involved. Participant
J described the phenom enon's n onstatic, interrelated, holistic
nature. He reported.
Because when I give freely a n d I c a n b e of service to somebody
... which... y ou know, a n a c t of service ca n boost m y immune
system. A n a c t of service creates some really cool endorphins
in the brain, that I think as a social human being, I'm wired
to be a ltruistic at least part of the time and if I can see that asa part of m y self-interest and I can then look at self-interest
and say, If I'm the best therapist that I can be and the most
ethical therapist I can b e , that's in m y self-interest t o d o that
. . . then, I will also probably be more helpful to my clients.
So I see them as . . . two sides of the same coin.
• o n t e x t u a l o n d it io n s
Following are the contextual conditions that served as an-
tecedents for the emergence of the altruism-self-interest
pheno men on: cotm selors' gender, professional tenure and ex-
perience, culttiral expectations, the economy, overt and covert
messages within the counseling profession related to altruism
and self-interest, and allegiance to counseling subprofessions
(e.g., couples and family counselors, group co unselors, career
counselors, and counselor educators).
In general, the contextual factors of gender, cultural
expectations, overt and covert messages related to altru-
ism and self-interest, and the economy were factors over
which participants exp ressed that they had no control; how-
ever, participants believed that these factors did affect the
counseling profession. All participants were significantly
affected by the cultural expectation that caring or h elping
was to be done for the greater good and not for any form
of remunerat ion.
The contextual variables that were viewed as somewhat
within the participa nts' confrol were professional tenure and
experience and allegiance to counseling subp rofessions. Pro-
fessional tenure and exp erience were usually related to issues
of bumout, working with professionals who are impaired,
adherence to the expectation of a substandard wage or vow
of poverty, being stretched thin, feeling used by counseling
organizations or professors, and establishing professional
boundaries. These experiences encouraged participants to
move toward altruistic intentions or self-interest. For exam ple,
many participants mentioned an experience of being on the
verge of, or actually experiencing, bumout and reacted with
an increase adherence to self-interest (e.g., Wellness).
• o n s e q u e n c e s
Benefits of Caring
Participants repeatedly acknowledged the benefits of caringwithin the counseling profession. Participants mentioned a
variety of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards from being in the
counseling profession.
Six participants mentioned an intrinsic deep satisfaction
in seeing clients grow and b egin to take control o f their life.
Participant Z described this deep satisfaction as lucky:
Because our work is so directly with people that we know,
well I hope, w e know we're making a difference and, getting
to be part of someone s change and growth. So I think that's
th e experience I have a t conferences o r hanging o u t with other
counselor educators.
Negative Consequences of Caring
Participants consistently articulated the consequen ces of car-
iiig within the cotmseling profession. Participants experienced
these co nsequences intrinsically as well as extrinsically. The
term onsequen e in this context refers to a negative happen -
ing, which was a direct result from being a member of the
counseling profession. P articipant W described the reality of
the professional expectations for a vow of poverty and the
tolerance or expectation of bumo ut within the counseling pro -
fession. Thirteen participants described the tolerance within
the context of private practice, agency work, and training
settings, as well as in casual conversations w ith other pro fes-
sionals. Participant W stated.
W e d o another disservice in saying, You need t o have social
justice and advocacy. I told my class the other night, I said,
That's a really absurd thought, thinking you're all going to
go work for an agency and make, you know, $15 to $20 an
hour, like you're gonna have a bunch of extra time to go out
and d o that [social justice work] o n t o p of it , when you're be-
ing pumped to w o rk ... in the agencies .. . long hours, back
to back, it's exhausting work with difficult clients. And then
you wanna go advocate for them? Back to altruism versus
self-interest... You re gonna advocate for yourself i n t h e end.
Eight participants described their struggle in dealing with
insurance companies. Participant L stated.
W e work i n organizations o r systems that a r e , u m , exhausting
and, uh, sometimes can take away from why we all got into
this profession in the irst place. And, um, you know, o r just
dealing with insurance agencies, and, you know, insurance if
you're a private practice. There's just a lot of things out there
that, structurally, are, um, consume a lot of energy.
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Flynn Black
Professional Mistrust
Participants continually expressed a sense of professional
mistrust. The theme professional mistrust referred to the
lack of safety felt by participants while talking about
one's self-interest or altruistic sides with other counsel-
ing professionals. Professional mistrust was expressed
as a concern for 11 participants who noted that they did
not typically talk about their personal needs, wants, and
desires to other professionals because of a lack of trust.
Participant K noted.
Just to be totally.honest there's been a couple of times that
I felt I may have opened up a little side of myself and the
person didn 't keep it confidential and in fact kind of used it,
I thought, against m e a little b i t . Y o u know, y o u think I don't
know if I can really trust a lot of people [other counselors to
talk about m y personal needs .''
It seemed that describing self-interested behaviors ex-
posed som e part icipants to the judgm ent or cri ticism of
their peers.
Varying Descriptions of Counseling
Pariicipants repeatedly offered varying descriptions of what
counseling is. Five pariicipants described the main purpose
of counseling as an act of charity or as a way to give back to
the comm unity. Pariicipant Y described counseling as helping
others and the comm,unity:
There's a l o t , just hearing, just being able to see progress in
people, see people grow. I think that's rewarding. I think it's
. . . there is reward in making a difference in t h e community
. . . the impact you can have on people, as a supervisor . . .
and as a co un selo r... an educator.
Counseling was alternatively viewed as a business and
an interpersonal transaction. Eight participants expressed
pride in how counseling is a business and not a service to
be given away freely. Participant J commented,
Yeal}, I'm not here as a nonprofit thing to help the [hisconimunity] or [nearby community] community. . . . I'm
here to do work that I love, to give freely as I do that work.
. . . I give 100%, I try to be as present as possible with
my clients during sessions. . . . I try to do the best work
, that I can for them. But, yeah, if your check bounces, we
' have a problem.
A dynamic tension between and among participants seemed
to exist and center on whether counseling was service to a
group (a verb) or service provided to a group (a noun).
This same tension w as reflected in the descriptions of altru-
ism and self-interest.
• T h e E m e r g e n t T h e o r y o f A l tr u i s m a n dS e i f i n t e r e s t in C o u n s e l in g
The theory of th e promo tion, initiation, and maintenance o
the relationship between altruism and self-interest within the
counseling profession has been depicted in a pictorial repre
sentation (see Figure 1). The double-ended arrow between
causal conditions and intervening conditions represent the
interaction of th e themes depicted within each category and
fiinctions as a theoretical starting place. The double-ended ar
row connecting intervening conditions and consequences por-
trays the connection and interaction between the antecedents
of the theory and its consequences. The double-ended arrows
cormecting contextual conditions and actions/interactions
routines to both intervening conditions and consequences
represent factors that interacted and were interdependent with
all levels of t h e grounded theory.
This grounded theory represents a multidimensional andrecursive phenomenon that is affected by perceptions of self
others, and the profession. The altruism-self-interest phe-
nomenon was initiated by causal, intervening, and contextual
conditions. Causal and intervening con ditions set the stage for
the theory of altruism and self-interest. For example, the cov er
profession-directed value of solely rewarding altruism was a
causal subtheme, which interacted w ith t h e theme career choice
because participants believed that the counseling profession
typically drew individuals who were inclined to be altruistic
The contextual conditions were assessed a s antecedents to othe
conditions because they were irmate to the individual (e.g.,
gender), environmental (e.g., economy and cultural expecta-tions), a n d the profession (overt/covert messages and counseling
subprofessions), and thus did not follow a particular condition
These contextual conditions were also salient in maintaining the
altruism-self-interest phenomenon. For example, the economy
maintains a certain level of reimburseme nt for counseling ser-
vices and, as such, remains a factor in how counselors identify
their own altruism and self-interest.
Current and historical factors contributed to a prom otion
of the altruism-self-interest phenomenon; however, none
punctuated the rift between altruism and self-interest more
than the historical dichotomy between academia and business.
Pariicipants' expressed conflict related to the degree counsel-ing ought to be considered a business, there was ambiguity
associated between the professional roles of a counselor and
the business world, participants' frequently disagreed on
the importance and appropriateness of blending the roles of
counselor and entrepreneur, and there was conflict over the
purity of academic pursuits. For example, Pariicipant I's (a
coimselor educator) statement reflects this internal conflict:
It s true [counseling i s a business i n t h e sense that a n y profes-
sion has a business aspect. It's untrue in tbe sense that a lot
of the people who get into counseling truly are dedicated to
helping others. And they would do it for free.
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An Emergent Theory of Altruism and Self interest
This information seem s to indicate that cotmselors experience
altruism and self-interest as a single tmifying phenomenon.
Thus, we have nam ed this interrelated set of intervening and
contextual conditions the altmism-self-interest phenomenon.
The dash between altm ism and self-interest demonsfrates the
interrelatedness of the traditionally dichotomous happenings.
• i s u s s i o n
Counselor Educators
The present investigation into the altruism-self-interest rela-
tionship within the cotmseling profession revealed three points
of discussion for cotmselor educators. First, what constitutes
appropriate professional altruism-self-interest among counsel-
ors and counselor educators? Although participants described
positive reactions (i.e., support or em otional recogtiition from
altruistically oriented colleagues), they simultaneously de-
scribed covert mandates they believed encouraged counselors
to remain htimble and silent about their successes. Counseloreducators and the professional literattire seemed to focus on
cotmselor ellness a s the primary professional practice related
to appropriate self-interest. Participants' cotnments reflected
this as well because they stated that this type of self-interest
involved creating effective boundaries, achieving optimal well-
ness, a n d maintaining a positive belief system (Hendricks, 20 08;
Hermon & H azier, 1999; Myers & Sweeney, 2008 ; Myers et
a l . 2002; Osbom , 200 4; Trippany et al., 2004).
A second point of discussion centers on the importance of
tmst and acceptance between and among cotmselor educators.
Participants either admitted to having their tms t breached or
encotmtered derogatory comments related to other profes-
sionals'perc eptions of colleagues' inappropriate self-interest.
Antecedents to this breach of tmst centered on befrayals of
tmst, privacy, and apparent professional jealousy. F o r example,
participants often disparaged certain enterprising practices
(e.g., frequent and repeated updating of textbook editions)
of those with whom they were not acquainted or whom they
deemed to be overly self-interested. Moreover, these same
participants spoke as if they knew the enterprising profes-
sional personally (when they did not) and continued to assail
the enfrepreneur's character, intent, or behavior. Faculty can
model acceptance, authenticity, appreciation, and appropriate
criticism of enterprising individuals in the same way they ac-
cept the impoverished clients for whom they often advocate.
The final discussion point centers on curriculum, intem-
ship, and course work that could enrich and strengthen
students' tmderstanding of basic professional business skills
(e.g., fee sfructtire, consulting, and marketing). Counseling
is an art and a scienc e and, at its core, is a service provided to
clients. The om ission of business course work in professional
fraining is curious by its absence. Cotmselor educators may
unwittingly be consigning future generations of coimselors to
life in the mill (mental health clinics) without recognition
that counselors are also being fr ined for independent practice.
Most of th e student participants admitted that they received
very little information within their fraining that would help
them tinderstand a basic business stmcture, counseling's place
in the economy, or how to market/advertise a service. In ad-
dition, ntmierous participants noted that counselor educators
seemed quick to state that people don 't get into cotmseling
for the money, counselors are sfretched thin, or you musthear a calling in this profession . However, particip ants were
concem ed that their faculty held no conversations related to
addressing these concems via social advocacy or the cur-
riculum. Counselor education curricula should reflect the
mu ltiple roles that profession als w ill enter, including those of
educators, scholars, supervisors, advanced c linicians, program
managers, consultants, and leaders (Bemard, 2006).
Clinicians
At the core of the altruism-self-interest relationship is a
deeper, more accurate understanding of practice-based is-
sues in regard to the conflicted relationship between optimal
Wellness and burnout. Participants who were counseling
practitioners stated that they felt called to give themselves in
a primarily altmistic m anner to clients and comm unities. This,
in their words, often led to bumout. The Wellness mandate
embedded within the notion of self-interest instmcts clini-
cians to attend to their physical, mental, and spiritual health
on a regular basis. This Wellness mandate seems somewhat
hollow when confrasted with the many conflicting messages
in the counseling literature (e.g., expectation of low pay [i.e.,
vow of poverty] and excessive workloads) and a counselor's
natural sense of compassion and empathy (Baker & Baker,
1 9 9 9 ; Ben-Dror, 1994; Hill, 200 4; Osbo m, 2004; Rohland,2000; Trippany et a l, 2004).
Counselors need to be aware of how their assumptions
and beliefs related to status, power, access, and worth may
create a reality that is not conducive to the promotion of
counseling as a profession. Numerous participants com-
mented on how counseling was perceived as a profession
of low status, including voicing concems that clinicians did
not achieve a financial compensation commensurate with
their education and training. To participa nts, this seemed to
be a self-fulfilling prophecy. This finding is consistent with
the professional literature that describes a lack of clinical
marketplace, not being compensated in a manner comm en-
surate with training, reluctance of J D editors to publish
counseling research, lack of uniform licensing standards,
lack of parity in insurance reimbursement, and overlapping
mental health services (Bernard, 2006; Hendricks, 2008;
Hill, 2004; Lambie, 2007; Myers et al., 2002; Nelson &
Jackson, 2003; Osbom, 2004; Weinrach, Thomas, & Chan,
2 0 0 1 ; Wilkerson & Bellini, 2006). Counselors need to be
intentional about advocating for themselves and the pro-
fession and demonstrating a positive outlook on counselor
status and influence, or practitioners may follow a negative
trajectory into professional irrelevance.
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Flynn Blac
Finally, participants who were clinicians continually de-
scribed the negative consequences of working w ith insurance
companies. The tedious and bureaucratic nature of working
with third-party comp ensation caused several participants to
start all-cash practices. Clinicians would benefit from models
of self-advocacy related to the financial compensation aspects
of their practice. Clinicians will be better compensated andhave a more effective relationship with insurance compan ies
if clinicians become actively involved in legislative efforts
at the national and state levels for mental health pay parity.
• L i m i t a t i o n s o f th e S t u d y
Three potential l imitat ions should be considered when
examining the findings of this research. First, altruism
and self-interest are rich and expansive concepts that have
been reviewed and analyzed by ancient and contemporary
philosophers alike. Although the present research has shed
some contemporary light on the current social and personal xp ri n s of hese particular philosophical stances, t h e altruism-
self-interest phenomen on warrants much m ore attention. The
emergent theory presented here is only a beginning.
A second limitation of this research was the taboo nature o f
self-interest talk in the coun seling profession, w hich may have
caused participan ts to be reluctant to express their experiences
or to downplay their thoughts and feelings about self-interest,
or may have caused them to present in an ideal mann er in order
to reduce the likelihood of negative self-evaluation. Because
authenticity is a salient feature of qualitative research and for
this research in particular, it was essential to set a comfortable
and accepting atmosphere during individual interviews andthe focus group. This atmosphere demonstrated a profound
openness and acceptance of all points of view. Although this
atmosphere encouraged openness, along with maintaining the
participants' anonymity, there w as no guarantee p articipants felt
the necessary conditions t o fii y disclose their o w n self-interest.
A third potential limitation to the present investigation wa s
the relative homogeneity of the sample. We recognize that
qualitative research paradigm s primarily focus on the transfer-
ability rather than generalizability of results and acknowledge
that this sample of participants was unba lanced with respect to
participa nts' ethnicity and gender. Despite the representation
from six self-identified ethnicities, it is plausible tbat a morebalanced sample may have yielded different results given
that the constructs of altruism and self-interest seem to have
a cultural component.
• r e a s fo r F u r th e r R e s e a rc h
This investigation into the promo tion, initiation, and m ainte-
nance of the relationship between altruism and self-interest
within the counseling profession begins to provide some un -
derstanding for a relatively new q uery into the foundation of
the counseling field's philosophy and meaning. Through this
inquiry, a number of areas for further research have em erged.
Up to this point, much of what has been discussed and in
vestigated in the areas of altruism and self-interest h as sough
to isolate the two factors w hile at the same time suggesting a
inherent overlap. Indeed, this investigation is unique in tha
participants fotrnd botb altm ism an d self-interest to be a singl
interactive phenomenon. Conducting research to empiricall
support this finding could help counselors and counselo
educators alike begin to understand so me of the amb ivalenc
they may be experiencing in terms of appropriate bou ndaries
Wellness, and otber effective forms of self-interest.
The next areas warranting ftirther empirical support ar
the impact of a counselor's multicultural background (e.g
race, gender, socioeconomic status, sexuality, country of o r
gin) on the altmism-self-interest phenomenon, the need fo
more business-oriented training and internship in counselo
education, and the need for an empirical measure related t
the altmism-self-interest phenomenon. This research coul
add understanding to multicultural issues related to the client
counselors serve, demystify the false dichotomy betwee
business and academia, and create a potential instrument t
protect cotmselors from burnout and compassion fatigue.
• C o n c l u s i o n
This research represents a first attempt to develop an emergen
theory that explains the prom otion, initiation, and m aintenanc
of the phenomenon of altmism and self-interest within th
counseling profession. The results of all six data collection
points revealed a false dichotom ization of the words altruism
and self-interest. Specifically, botb altruism and self-intere
were found to be two parts of the same whole. This wholfionctions as a single, self-sustaining p henomen on. The prese
research represents an initial step in the reduction of th e u
spoken double bind that seems foundational to such ailment
as counselor bumout, impairment, and compassion fatigue
Our hop e is that this theory w ill inspire counselors to achiev
Wellness so that they can effectively help others.
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