Theory of International Trade Demo

―Changing Policy

Environment and

International Business‖

Prepared by Vassily K. Dermanov

Some theory of international trade

2

International Trade • Buying and selling goods and services from

other countries

• The purchase of goods and services from abroad

that leads to an outflow of currency from the UK

– Imports (M)

• The sale of goods and services to buyers from

other countries leading to an inflow of currency

to the UK – Exports (X)

3

Labour productivity

and comparative

advantage: the

Ricardian model

4

Why countries are engaged in

international trade?

First, countries trade because they are different from each other.

Second, countries trade to achieve economies of scale in production.

5

The concept

of comparative

advantage

6

The concept of comparative advantage

Is it possible to grow roses in Saint Petersburg?

It is a lot easier to grow roses in the South America.

A given amount of resources used in generator

production yields fewer generators in South

America than in Russia.

7

Opportunity cost and trade-off: the

opportunity cost of roses in terms of

electric generators is the number of

generators that could have been produced

with the resources used to produce a

given number of roses.

The trade-off in South America might be

something like 10 million roses for 100

generators, and 10 million roses for

500 generators in Russia.

8

Roses,

millions

Electric

Generators,

units

Russia 10 -

South America 10 -

Maximum 20 -

National Production

9

Roses,

millions

Electric

Generators,

units

Russia - 500

South America - 100

Maximum - 600

National Production

10

Roses,

millions

Electric

Generators,

units

Russia (50:50)

5 250

South America

(50:50)

5 50

Total (50:50) 10 300

National Production

11

• Let Russia stop growing roses and

devote the resources to produce

generators.

• Let South America grow those roses

instead.

• Look what has happened: Russia

concentrating on generators and South

America concentrating on roses,

increases the size of the world's

economic pie.

12

Roses,

millions

Electric

Generators,

units

Russia - 500

South America 10 -

World total 10 500

Hypothetical Changes in Production

13

• International trade increases world output

because it allows each country to specialise

in producing the good in which it has a

comparative advantage.

• A country has a comparative advantage

in producing a good if the opportunity cost

of producing that good in terms of other

goods is lower in that country than it is in

other countries.

14

Specialisation and Trade

• Different factor endowments mean some countries can

produce goods and services more efficiently than others

– specialisation is therefore possible:

• Absolute Advantage:

– Where one country can produce goods with fewer resources

than another

• Comparative Advantage:

– Where one country can produce goods at a lower opportunity

cost – it sacrifices less resources in production

15

• South America has a comparative advantage in roses and Russia has a comparative advantage in generators.

• The standard of living can be increased in both places if South America produces roses for Russia, while the Russia produces generators for the South America.

So, trade between two countries can benefit both countries if each country exports the

goods in which it has a comparative advantage.

16

The Terms of Trade

• The Terms of Trade looks at the relationship between

the price received for exports and the amount of

imports we are able to buy with that money.

Average Price of Exports

Terms of Trade = ---------------------------------

Average Price of Imports

17

This approach, in which

international trade is solely

based on international

differences in the

productivity of labour, is

known as the Ricardian

model.

18

A One-Factor

Economy

19

A One-Factor Economy

An economy (Home) has only one factor of

production - labour.

Only two goods - wine and cheese - are

produced.

The technology of Home's economy can be

summarised by labour productivity in each

industry, expressed in terms of the unit

labour requirement.

20

A One-Factor Economy

It might require:

- 1 hour of labour to produce a kg of cheese,

- 2 hours to produce a litre of wine.

For future reference, we define:

alw as the unit labour requirements in wine production,

alc as the unit labour requirements in cheese production, respectively.

The economy's total resources are defined as L, the total labour supply.

21

Home wine

production,

Qw, in litres

Home cheese

production,

Qw, in kg

PPF

L/alw

L/alc

Absolute value

of slope equals

opportunity cost

of cheese in

terms of wine

22

L*/a*lw

L*/a*lc

Because Foreign's relative

unit labour requirement in

cheese is higher than Home's

(it needs to give up many

more units of wine to

produce one more unit of

cheese), its production

possibility frontier is steeper.

Foreign wine

production,

Qw, in litres

Foreign cheese

production,

Qw, in kg

PPF

23

RELATIVE PRICES

AND SUPPLY

24

RELATIVE PRICES AND SUPPLY

Let PС and PW be the prices of cheese and

wine, respectively.

Costs:

It takes aLC person-hours to produce a kg of

cheese.

It takes aLW person-hours to produce a litre

of wine.

25

The economy will specialise in the cheese

production if PC /PW > aLC / aLW ;

it will specialise in the production of wine if

PC /PW < aLC / aLW .

Only when PC /PW is equal aLC / aLW , will

both goods be produced.

RELATIVE PRICES AND SUPPLY

26

The economy will specialise in

the production of cheese if the

relative price of cheese exceeds

its opportunity cost.

It will specialise in the production

of wine if the relative price of

cheese is less than its opportunity

cost.

27

• In the absence of international trade,

Home would have to produce both

goods for itself. But it will produce

both goods only if the relative price of

cheese is just equal to its opportunity

cost.

• In the absence of international trade,

the relative prices of goods are equal to

their relative unit labor requirements.

28

Trade in a

One-Factor World

29

Suppose that there are two countries: Home and Foreign.

We denote Home's labor force by L and Home's unit labor

requirements in wine and cheese production by aLW and aLC,

respectively.

We denote Foreign's labor force L*; Foreign's unit labor

requirements in wine and cheese will be denoted by a*LW

and a*LC , respectively.

• Let as assume that:

aLC /aLW < a*LC / a*LW

• or, equivalently, that

aLC / a*LC < aLW / a*LW .

30

Wine

production,

Qw, in litres

Cheese production, Qc, in kg

L/alw

PF

L/alc

Home Wine

production,

QW*, in litres

Cheese

production,

Qc, in kg

PF*

L*/a*lc

L*/a*lw

Foreign

31

• Home's relative productivity in cheese is higher than it is in wine.

Home has a

comparative

advantage in

cheese.

• Foreign's relative productivity in wine is higher than it is in cheese.

• Foreign has a comparative advantage in wine.

32

When one country can produce a unit of

a good with less labor than another

country, we say that the first country

has an absolute advantage.

One of the most important sources of

error in discussing international

trade is to confuse comparative

advantage with absolute advantage.

33

In the absence of foreign trade the

relative prices in each country would

be determined by the relative unit labor

requirements.

In case of international trade prices

will no longer be determined purely by

domestic considerations.

34

The World

Relative Supply

and Demand

35

World Relative Supply and Demand

Pc/Рw

aLC / aLW

a*LC / a*LW

RS

RD

L / аLC

L* / а*LW

Relative quantity

of cheese

Qc + Qc*

Qw + Qw*

Relative prices

of cheese

36


Pc/Рw

aLC / aLW

a*LC / a*LW

RS

RD

L / аLC

L* / а*LW

Relative quantity

of cheese

Qc + Qc*

Qw + Qw*

Relative prices

of cheese

There will be no world cheese

production and no world supply of

cheese if the world price drops below

аLC /аLW.

Home and Foreign will produce wine

only whenever Pc/Pw < аLC /аLW .

37


Pc/Рw

aLC / aLW

a*LC / a*LW

RS

RD

L / аLC

L* / а*LW

Relative quantity

of cheese

Qc + Qc*

Qw + Qw*

Relative prices

of cheese

When the relative price of cheese,

Pc/Pw, is exactly аLC /аLW, workers

in Home can earn exactly the same

amount making either cheese or

wine. So Home will be willing to

supply any relative amount of the

two goods, producing a flat section

to the supply curve.

Foreign will produce wine whenever

Pc/Pw < а*LC /а*LW .

38


Pc/Рw

aLC / aLW

a*LC / a*LW

RS

RD

L / аLC

L* / а*LW

Relative quantity

of cheese

Qc + Qc*

Qw + Qw*

Relative prices

of cheese

If Pc/Pw is above аLC /аLW

Home will specialize in the

production of cheese. As long as

Pc/Pw < а*LC /а*LW , however.

Foreign will continue to

specialize in producing wine.

39


Pc/Рw

aLC / aLW

a*LC / a*LW

RS

RD

L / аLC

L* / а*LW

Relative quantity

of cheese

Qc + Qc*

Qw + Qw*

Relative prices

of cheese

At Pc Pw = а*LC /а*LW,

Foreign workers are

indifferent between

producing cheese and wine.

Thus here we again have a

flat section of the supply

curve.

40


Pc/Рw

aLC / aLW

a*LC / a*LW

RS

RD

L / аLC

L* / а*LW

Relative quantity

of cheese

Qc + Qc*

Qw + Qw*

Relative prices

of cheese

Finally, for Pc/Pw > а*LC

/а*LW, both Home and

Foreign will specialize in

cheese production. There

will be no wine production,

so that the relative supply

of cheese will become

infinite.

41

Russia and Germany: mutual trade

Oil

Map courtesy of http://www.theodora.com

case

42

Russia and Germany: Relative Supply

and Demand in oil and cars

Pc/Рoil

aruLC / a

ruLoil

agerLC / a

gerLoil

RS

RD

Lru / аruLC

Lger / аgerLoil

Relative quantity

of cars

Qruc + Qcger

Qruoil + Qoilger

Relative prices

of cars

43

The Gains

From Trade

44

THE GAINS FROM TRADE

Trade as an indirect method of production

Home could produce wine directly, but

trade with Foreign allows it to "produce"

wine by producing cheese and then

trading the cheese for wine.

This indirect method of "producing" wine

is a more efficient method than direct

production.

45

Trade affects each country's possibilities

for consumption.

In the absence of trade, consumption

possibilities are the same as production

possibilities.

Once trade is allowed, however, each

economy can consume a different mix of

cheese and wine from the mix it produces.

Trade makes residents of each country

better off.

Resources and

Trade: The

Heckscher-Ohlin

Model

47

Introduction

• Comparative advantage could arise because of

international:

– differences in labor productivity;

– differences in countries' resources.

• Canada exports forest products to the United

States because Canada has more forested land

per capita than the United States.

48

• Labor is important, but what about of

other factors of production (such as land,

capital, and mineral resources)?

• We will examine a model in which

resource differences are the only source

of trade.

• This model shows that comparative

advantage is influenced by the interaction

between nations' resources and the

technology of production.

What does it

mean

efficiency?

49

• Developed by two Swedish economists, Eli

Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin (Nobel Prize in

economics in 1977), the theory is often referred to

as the Heckscher-Ohlin theory (H-O theory).

• H-O theory emphasises the interplay between the

proportions in which different factors of

production are available in different countries and

the proportions in which they are used in

producing different goods. Due to it is also

referred to as the factor-proportions theory.

50

A Model of a Two-factor

Economy

• The model is in many ways very similar to the

specific factors model.

• It is assumed that each economy is able to

produce two goods and that production of each

good requires the use of two factors of

production.

• The same two factors are used in both sectors.

(It is a more difficult model, but with some new insights.

51

Assumptions of the Model

• The economy we are analyzing can produce two goods:

cloth and food.

• Production of these goods requires two inputs that are

in limited supply: labor and land. Let us define the

following expressions:

• aTC = acres of land used to produce one m2 of cloth

• aLC = hours of labor used to produce one m2 of cloth

• aTF = acres of land used to produce one calorie of food

• aLF = hours of labor used to produce one calorie of food

• L = economy's supply of labor

• Т = economy's supply of land

52

• Notice that we speak in these definitions

of the quantity of land or labor used to

produce a given amount of food or cloth,

rather than the amount required to produce

that amount.

• The reason is that in a two-factor economy

there may be some room for choice in the

use of inputs.

53

Input Possibilities in Food

Production Unit land input aTF ,

in acres per calorie

Unit labor input, aLF ,

in hours per calorie

Input combinations that

produce one calorie of food

I I

54

• What input choice will producers actually

make? It depends on the relative cost of land

and labor.

• If land rents are high and wages low, farmers

will choose to produce using relatively little

land and a lot of labor.

• If rents are low and wages high, they will

save on labor and use a lot of land.

55

Factor Prices and Input Choice

Wage-rental

ratio, w/r

Land-labor

ratio, T/L

FF

In each sector, the ratio of land to labor used in

production depends on the cost of labor relative to

the cost of land, w/r. The curve FF shows the land-

labor ratio choices in food production, the curve CC

the corresponding choices in cloth production.

At any given wage-rental ratio, food

production uses a higher land-labor

ratio; so, food production is land-

intensive and that cloth production is

labor-intensive.

w/r

СС

w - is the wage rate

per hour of labor;

r - the cost of one

acre of land,

56

Factor Prices and Goods Prices

• Suppose that the economy produces both cloth and

food.

• Then competition among producers in each sector

will ensure that the price of each good equals its

cost of production.

• The cost of producing a good depends on factor

prices: If the rental rate on land is higher, then

other things equal the price of any good whose

production involves land input will also have to be

higher.

57

Factor Prices and Goods Prices

Relative price of

cloth, PC/PF

Wage-rental

ratio, w/r

SS

Because cloth production

is labor-intensive there is

a one-to-one relationship

between the factor price

ratio w/r and the relative

price of cloth PC/PF .

The higher the relative

cost of labor, the higher

must be the relative price

of the labor-intensive

good.

58

Let us put previous figures together. In combined

figure the SS curve will be turned on its side,

while the right panel reproduces figure with ―Factor

prices and Input Choice‖.

Relative price

of cloth, PC/PF

Wage-rental

ratio, w/r

SS

Wage-rental

ratio, w/r

Land-labor

ratio, T/L

FF

w/r

СС

59

From Goods Prices to Input Choices

Relative

price of

cloth, PC/PF

Land-labor

ratio, T/L

FF

СС

w/r1

w/r2

SS

PC/P 2F PC/P1F

TC/L1C TC/L2

C TF/L1F TF/L2

F

Increasing Increasing

By putting these diagrams together, we see a surprising linkage of the

prices of goods to the ratio of land to labor used in the production of

each good. Wage-rental

ratio, w/r

60

From Goods Prices to Input Choices

Relative

price of

cloth, PC/PF

Wage-rental

ratio, w/r

Land-labor

ratio, T/L

FF

СС

w/r1

w/r2

SS

PC/P 2F PC/P1F

TC/L1C TC/L2

C TF/L1F TF/L2

F

Increasing Increasing

61

Resources and Output

• Let us describe the relationship between

goods prices, factor supplies, and output.

• Suppose that we take the relative price of

cloth as given.

• Relative price of cloth determines the

wage-rental ratio w/r, and thus the ratio of

land to labor used in the production of both

cloth and food.

62

The Allocation of Resources

Increasing

Increasing L

an

d u

sed in

foo

d p

rod

uctio

n

Labor used in cloth production

Labor used in food production

Lan

d u

sed

in

clo

th p

rod

uct

ion

In

creasin

g

Incr

easi

ng

63


Increasing

Increasing L

an

d u

sed in

foo

d p

rod

uctio

n



Lan

d u

sed

in

clo

th p

rod

uct

ion

In

creasin

g

Incr

easi

ng

The

height of

the box

represent

s total

supply of

land.

64


Increasing

Increasing L

an

d u

sed in

foo

d p

rod

uctio

n



Lan

d u

sed

in

clo

th p

rod

uct

ion

In

creasin

g

Incr

easi

ng

The width of the box represents the

economy's total supply of labor.

65


Increasing

Increasing L

an

d u

sed in

foo

d p

rod

uctio

n



Lan

d u

sed

in

clo

th p

rod

uct

ion

In

creasin

g

Incr

easi

ng

OF

LF

LC

TF TC

OC

C

F

1

66


Increasing

Increasing L

an

d u

sed in

foo

d p

rod

uctio

n



Lan

d u

sed

in

clo

th p

rod

uct

ion

In

creasin

g

Incr

easi

ng

OF

LF

LC

TF TC

OC

C

F

1

Thus at point 1 OCLC

is the labor used in

cloth production and

OCTC is the land used

in cloth production.

We measure the use of labor

and land in the cloth sector

as the horizontal and vertical

distances of such a point

from OC .

Thus at point 1 OCLC

is the labor used in

cloth production and

OCTC is the land used

in cloth production.

67


Increasing

Increasing L

an

d u

sed in

foo

d p

rod

uctio

n



Lan

d u

sed

in

clo

th p

rod

uct

ion

In

creasin

g

Incr

easi

ng

OF

LF

LC

TF TC

OC

C

F

1

We measure inputs into

the food sector starting

from the opposite comer:

OFLF is the labor, OFTF

the land used in food

production.

OF

68

The question is what

happens when the

economy's supply of land

is increased, holding both

goods prices and the labor

supply fixed.

69

Increasing

Increasing L

an

d u

sed in

foo

d p

rod

uctio

n



La

nd

use

d i

n c

loth

pro

du

ctio

n

Increa

sing

In

crea

sin

g

O1F

L1C

T1C

OC

C

F1

1

An Increase in the Supply of Land

O2F

F2

2 T2C

L2C

70

Increasing

Increasing L

an

d u

sed in

foo

d p

rod

uctio

n



La

nd

use

d i

n c

loth

pro

du

ctio

n

Increa

sing

In

crea

sin

g

O1F

L1C

T1C

OC

C

F1

1

An Increase in the Supply of Land

O2F

F2

2 T2C

L2C

Thus an increase in the

economy's supply of land

will, holding prices constant,

lead to a fall in the output of

the labor-intensive good.

71

Output of

food, QF

Output of cloth, QC

Q2F

Q2C

2

TT1

Q1F

1

Q1C

An increase in the supply of

land shifts the economy's

production possibility frontier

outward from TT1 to TT2, but

does so disproportionately in

the direction of food

production. The result is that

at an unchanged relative price

of cloth (indicated by the

slope -PС/PF), cloth

production actually declines

from Q1C to Q2

C.

Resources and Production Possibilities

TT2

Slope = - PM / PF

Slope = - PC / PF

72

Output of

energy, QE

Output of machinery, QM

Q2E

Q2M

2

TT1

Q1E

1

Q1M

An increase in the supply

of energy shifts the

economy's production

possibility frontier outward

from TT1 to TT2. The result

is that at an unchanged

relative price of machinery

(indicated by the slope -PM

/PE), machinery

production actually

declines from Q1M to Q2

M.

Russia: resources and Production

Possibilities

TT2

Slope = - PM / PE

Slope = - PM / PE

case

73

• The biased effect of increases in resources on

production possibilities is the key to

understanding how differences in resources give

rise to international trade.

• An increase in the supply of land expands

production possibilities disproportionately in the

direction of food production, while an increase in

the supply of labor expands them

disproportionately in the direction of cloth

production.

74

Abundance and Intensity

The resource of which a country has a

relatively large supply is the abundant

factor in that country, and the resource

of which it has a relatively small supply

(land in Home, labor in Foreign) is the

scarce factor.

75


Example:

If America has 80 million workers and 200 million acres

(a labor-to-land ratio of 1: 2.5), while Britain has 20

million workers and 20 million acres (a labor-to-land ratio

of 1:1) we consider Britain to be labor-abundant even

though it has less total labor than America.

• Since Home has a higher ratio of labor to

land than Foreign, Home is labor-

abundant and Foreign is land-abundant.

76


• So, "abundance" is always defined in relative

terms, by comparing the ratio of labor to land in

the two countries.

• Thus, no country is abundant in everything.

• Since cloth is the labor-intensive good, Home's

production possibility frontier relative to

Foreign's is shifted out more in the direction of

cloth than in the direction of food.

77

Thus an economy with a high ratio of land

to labor will be relatively better at

producing food than an economy with a low

ratio of land to labor.

Generally, an economy will tend to be

relatively effective at producing goods

that are intensive in the factors with

which the country is relatively well-

endowed.

78

Effects Of International Trade Between

Two-Factor Economies

• What happens when two such economies, Home

and Foreign, trade.

• Home and Foreign are similar along many

dimensions:

– the same tastes,

– identical relative demands for food and cloth,

– the same technology: a given amount of land and labor

yields the same output of either cloth or food in the two

countries.

79

Effects Of International Trade Between

Two-Factor Economies

The only difference between the

countries is in their resources: Home

has a higher ratio of labor to land than

Foreign does.

80

• That means that Home will have a

larger relative supply of cloth.

• Home's relative supply curve, then,

lies to the right of Foreign's.

• The relative supply schedules of

Home (RS) and Foreign (RS*) are

illustrated in the next figure.

81

RS

RS*

RSWORLD

RDWORLD

(PC/PF)*

(PC/PF)

(PC/PF)W

Relative quantity

of cloth,

Relative price

of cloth, PC/PF

Trade Leads to a Convergence of Relative

Prices

Qc + Qc*

QF + QF*

1

2

3

In the absence of trade, Home's

equilibrium would be at point 1,

where domestic relative supply

RS intersects the relative demand

curve RD.

In the absence of trade, Foreign's

equilibrium would be at point 3.,

where Foreign relative supply

RS* intersects the relative demand

curve RD.

Trade leads to a world

relative price that lies

between the pretrade prices,

e.g., at point 2.

The

standard

trade model

83

In spite of the differences in their details,

our models share a number of

features.

1. The productive capacity of an economy can be

summarized by its production possibility frontier.

2. Production possibilities determine a country's

relative supply schedule.

3. World equilibrium is determined by world

relative demand and a world relative supply.

84

• The models may be viewed as special

cases of a more general model of a

trading world economy.

• So, let‘s develop a standard model of

a trading world economy to

understand how a variety of changes in

basic parameters affect the world

economy.

85

A STANDARD MODEL OF A

TRADING ECONOMY

The standard trade model is built on four key relationships:

• the relationship between the production possibility frontier and the relative supply curve;

• the relationship between relative prices and relative demand;

• the determination of world equilibrium by world relative supply and world relative demand,

• and the effect of the terms of trade on a nation's welfare.

86

PRODUCTION POSSIBILITIES

AND RELATIVE SUPPLY

• Let‘s assume that each country

produces

– two goods, food (F) and cloth (C),

– country's production possibility

frontier is a smooth curve.

87

Relative Prices Determine the

Economy's Output

Food

production, QF

Cloth production, QС

The point on PPF at which an

economy actually produces

depends on the price of cloth

relative to food, PC/PF.

88


Economy's Output

Food

production, QF


It is a basic proposition of

microeconomics that a market

economy maximizes the value of

output at given market prices,

PCQC + PFQF .

89

We can indicate the market

value of output by drawing

a number of isovalue lines

— that is, lines along

which the value of output

is constant.

90


Economy's Output Food production, QF


Q

Isovalue lines

TT

An economy

whose

production

possibility

frontier is TT

will produce at

Q, which is on

the highest

possible

isovalue line.

91




Q

Isovalue lines

TT

Each of these lines is defined

by an equation of the form

PCQC + PFQF = V.

92




Q

Isovalue lines

TT

The higher V is, the farther out an isovalue

line lies; thus isovalue lines farther from the

origin correspond to higher values of

output.

93




Q

Isovalue lines

TT

The economy will produce the highest value of

output it can, which can be achieved by producing

at point Q.

94

How an Increase in the Relative Price of

Cloth Affects Relative Supply

Food production, QF


TT

Q1

Q2

V V1 (PC/PF)1

V V2 (PC/PF)2

The isovalue lines become

steeper when the relative

price of cloth rises from

(PC/PF)1 to (PC/PF)2

(shown by the rotation

from VV1 to VV2). As a

result, the economy

produces more cloth and

less food and the

equilibrium output shifts

from Q1 to Q2.

95

RELATIVE PRICES AND DEMAND

• The value of an economy's consumption

equals the value of its production:

PCQC + PFQF = PCDC + PFDF = V

• Production and consumption must lie

on the same isovalue line.

96

Food

production, QF

Cloth

production, QС

TT

D

Production, Consumption, and Trade in

the Standard Model

Isovalue line

Indifference curves

Cloth exports

Food imports

The economy

produces at

point Q,.

The economy

consumes at

point D.

Q

97

Food

production, QF

Cloth

production, QС

TT

D

Q

Production, Consumption, and Trade in

the Standard Model

Isovalue line

Indifference curves

Cloth exports

Food imports

The economy

produces more cloth

than it consumes and

therefore exports

cloth; correspondingly,

it consumes more food

than it produces and

therefore imports food.

The economy

produces more cloth

than it consumes and

therefore exports

cloth; correspondingly,

it consumes more food

than it produces and

therefore imports food.

98

Food

production, QF

Cloth

production, QС

TT D1

Q1

When that relative price

rises all isovalue lines

become steeper.

The maximum-value line

rotates from VV1 to VV2.

Effects of a Rise in the Relative Price of Cloth

Q2

D2

V V1 (PC/PF)1

V V2 (PC/PF)2

99

Food

production, QF

Cloth

production, QС

TT D1

Effects of a Rise in the Relative Price of Cloth

V V1 (PC/PF)1

V V2 (PC/PF)2

The economy produces

more C and less F,

shifting production

shifts from Q1 to Q2

The economy's consumption choice shifts from D1 to D2

Q1

The economy's consumption choice shifts from D1 to D2

D2

Q2

The economy produces

more C and less F,

shifting production from

Q1 to Q2

100

Food

production, QF

Cloth

production, QС

TT D1

The move from D1 to D2 reflects two effects of

the rise in PC/PF

V V1 (PC/PF)1

V V2 (PC/PF)2

1) the economy has moved to a higher indifference curve: It is better off. The reason is that this economy is an exporter of cloth.

Q1

1) the economy has moved to a higher indifference curve: It is better off. The reason is that this economy is an exporter of cloth.

D2

Q2

101

Food

production, QF

Cloth

production, QС

TT D1

The move from D1 to D2 reflects two effects of

the rise in PC/PF

V V1 (PC/PF)1

V V2 (PC/PF)2

2) the change in relative prices leads to a shift towards consumption of more food

Q1

2) the change in relative prices leads to a shift towards consumption of more food.

D2

Q2

102

Consumer goods

production, QC

Oil production, QО

TT D1

Q1

Effects of a Rise in the Relative Price of Oil

Q2

D2

V V1 (PO/PC)1

V V2 (PO/PC)2

case

103

THE WELFARE EFFECT OF CHANGES

IN THE TERMS OF TRADE

• When PC/PF increases, a country that initially

exports cloth is made better off, as illustrated

by the movement from D1 to D2.

• Conversely, if PC/PF were to decline, the

country would be made worse off; for

example, consumption might move back

from D2 to D1.

104

THE WELFARE EFFECT OF CHANGES

IN THE TERMS OF TRADE

The general statement, then, is that

a rise in the terms of trade

increases a country's welfare,

while a decline in the terms of

trade reduces its welfare.

105

RS

RD

(PC/PF)1

Relative quantity

of cloth,

Relative price

of cloth, PC/PF

Qc + Qc*

QF + QF*

1


1) An increase in PC/PF

leads both countries to

produce more cloth

and less food.

2) An increase in PC/PF

leads both countries to

shift their consumption

mix away from cloth

toward food.

106

Now we can use RS, RD

and the ToT to

understand a number of

important issues in

international economics.

107

ECONOMIC GROWTH: A SHIFT

OF THE RS CURVE

• The effects of economic growth in a trading

world economy are a source of concern

around two questions:

– is economic growth in other countries good or

bad for our nation?

– is growth in a country more or less valuable

when that nation is part of a closely integrated

world economy?

108

The effects of growth

“+” “-”

at home on other

economies

in other countries on

home economy

109

The effects of growth at home

• On one hand, growth

in an economy's

production capacity

should be more

valuable when that

country can sell some

of its increased

production to the

world market.

• On the other hand,

the benefits of

growth may be

passed on to

foreigners in the

form of lower prices

for the country's

exports rather than

retained at home.

110

The effects of growth in other countries

• On one side, economic growth in the rest of the world may be good for our economy because it means larger markets for our exports.

• On the other side, growth in other countries may mean increased competition for our exporters.

111

The standard model of

trade provides a

framework that can

clarify the effects of

economic growth in a

trading world.

112

GROWTH AND THE PRODUCTION

POSSIBILITY FRONTIER

• This growth can result either from increases

in a country's resources or from

improvements in the efficiency with which

these resources are used.

• The international trade effects of growth

result from the fact that such growth

typically has a bias.

113

Food

production, QF

Cloth

production, QC

TT1 TT2

Biased Growth

Food

production, QF

Cloth

production, QC

TT1 TT2

b) growth biased toward food a) growth biased toward cloth

Growth is biased when it shifts

production possibilities out more

toward one good than toward

another. In both cases the

production possibility frontier

shifts out from

TT1 to TT2 .

114

Food

production, QF

Cloth

production, QC

TT1 TT2

Biased Growth

Food

production, QF

Cloth

production, QC

TT1 TT2


In case (a) this

shift is biased

toward cloth.

In case (b) this

shift is biased

toward food.

115

Food

production, QF

Cloth

production, QC

TT1 TT2

Biased Growth

Food

production, QF

Cloth

production, QC

TT1 TT2


In case (a) at an unchanged

relative price of cloth the

output of food actually falls.

In case (b) at an unchanged

relative price of cloth the

output of cloth actually falls.

116

Growth may be biased for two

main reasons:

1. The Ricardian model shows that

technological progress in one

sector of the economy will expand

the economy's production

possibilities more in the direction

of that sector's output than in the

direction of the other sector's output.

117

Growth may be biased for two

main reasons:

2. The H-O Model showed that an

increase in a country's supply of a

factor of production — say, an

increase in the capital stock resulting

from saving and investment — will

produce biased expansion of

production possibilities.

118

RS2

RD

(PC/PF)2

(PC/PF)1

Relative price

of cloth, PC/PF

1

2

RS1

Growth and Relative Supply

Relative quantity

of cloth, Qc + Qc*

QF + QF*

a) Cloth-biased growth

Suppose that Home

experiences growth

strongly biased

toward cloth, so that

its output of cloth

rises at any given

relative price of cloth,

while its output of

food declines.

119

RS2

RD

(PC/PF)2

(PC/PF)1

Relative price

of cloth, PC/PF

1

2

RS1



Then for the world

as a whole the output

of cloth relative to

food will rise at any

given price and the

world relative supply

curve will shift to the

right from RS1 to

RS2. Relative quantity

of cloth, Qc + Qc*

QF + QF*

120

RS2

RD

(PC/PF)2

(PC/PF)1

Relative quantity

of cloth,

Relative price

of cloth, PC/PF

1

2

RS1


Qc + Qc*

QF + QF*


This shift results in a

decrease in the

relative price of cloth

from (PС/PF)1 to

(PС/PF)2 , a worsening

of Home's terms of

trade and an

improvement in

Foreign's terms of

trade.

121

RS2

RD

(PC/PF)2

(PC/PF)1

Relative quantity

of cloth,

Relative price

of cloth, PC/PF

1

2

RS1


Qc + Qc*

QF + QF*

RS1

RD

(PC/PF)1

(PC/PF)2

Relative quantity

of cloth,

Relative price

of cloth, PC/PF

1

2

RS2

Qc + Qc*

QF + QF*

b) Food-biased growth a) Cloth-biased growth

122

RS2

RD

(PC/PF)2

(PC/PF)1

Relative quantity

of cloth,

Relative price

of cloth, PC/PF

1

2

RS1


Qc + Qc*

QF + QF*

RS1

RD

(PC/PF)1

(PC/PF)2

Relative quantity

of cloth,

Relative price

of cloth, PC/PF

1

2

RS2

Qc + Qc*

QF + QF*

b) Food-biased growth a) Cloth-biased growth

Notice that the

important consideration

here is not which economy

Grows but the bias

of the growth.

123


RS1

RD

(PC/PF)1

(PC/PF)2

Relative quantity

of cloth,

Relative price

of cloth, PC/PF

1

2

RS2

Qc + Qc*

QF + QF*

b) Food-biased growth

Either Home or Foreign

growth biased toward food

leads to a leftward shift of

the RS curve (RS1 to RS2)

and thus to a rise in the

relative price of cloth from

(PС/PF)1 to (PС/PF)2. This

increase is an

improvement in Home's

terms of trade, a

worsening of Foreign's.

124

• Growth that disproportionately expands a country's production possibilities in the direction of the good it exports (cloth in Home, food in Foreign) is export-biased growth.

• Similarly, growth biased toward the good a country imports is import-biased growth.

125

Our analysis leads to the following

general principle:

• Export-biased growth tends to worsen

a growing country's terms of trade, to

the benefit of the rest of the world;

• Import-biased growth tends to

improve a growing country's terms of

trade at the rest of the world's

expense.

126

INTERNATIONAL EFFECTS OF

GROWTH

• We are now able to resolve our questions about the international effects of growth.

• Is growth in the rest of the world good or bad for our country?

• Does the fact that our country is part of a trading world economy increase or decrease the benefits of growth?

127

• export-biased growth in the rest

of the world is good for us,

improving our terms of trade,

• while import-biased growth

abroad worsens our terms of

trade.

128

• Export-biased growth in our own

country worsens our terms of

trade, reducing the direct

benefits of growth,

• while import-biased growth leads

to an improvement of our terms

of trade, a secondary benefit.

129

Economies of

scale and

international

trade

130

There are two reasons why countries specialize and trade:

1. countries differ either in their resources or in technology and specialize in the things they do relatively well;

2. economies of scale (or increasing returns) make it advantageous for each country to specialize in the production of only a limited range of goods and services.

132

International trade plays a crucial

role: It makes it possible for each

country to produce a restricted range of

goods and to take advantage of

economies of scale without sacrificing

variety in consumption.

133

• Mutually beneficial trade can arise as a result of economies of scale.

• Each country specializes in producing a limited range of products, which enables it to produce these goods more efficiently than if it tried to produce everything for itself.

• Specialized economies then trade with each other to be able to consume the full range of goods.

134

• External economies of scale occur when the cost per unit depends on the size of the industry but not necessarily on the size of any one firm.

• Internal economies of scale occur when the cost per unit depends on the size of an individual firm but not necessarily on that of the industry.

135

• External and internal economies of scale have

different implications for the structure of

industries.

– An industry where economies of scale are purely

external will typically be perfectly competitive.

– Internal economies of scale lead to an

imperfectly competitive market structure.

• Both external and internal economies of scale

are important causes of international trade.

136

THE EFFECTS OF INCREASED

MARKET SIZE

• In our contemporary world – both the variety of goods that a

country can produce

– and the scale of its production

are constrained by the size of the market.

• By trading with each other, and therefore forming an integrated world market, nations are able to loosen these constraints.

137

Effects of a Larger Market

CC1

CC2

Number of

firms, n

Cost, C and

Price, P

PP

1

2

n1 n2

P1

P2

An increase in the size

of the market allows

each firm, other things

equal, to produce

more and thus have

lower average cost.

The more firms there are in

monopolistically industry the

lower the output of each

firm, and thus the higher its

average cost per unit of

output.

138

Equilibrium in the Automobile

Market 38

36

34

32

30

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

CC

Number of firms, n

Price per auto in thousands USD

PP

(a) The Home market 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Figure shows the PP and CC curves

for the Home auto industry. In the

absence of trade when the market is

for 900 000 auto Home would have 6

automobile firms, selling at a price of

$10,000 each.

139


Market 38

36

34

32

30

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

CC

Number of firms, n


PP

(b) The Foreign market 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12


for the Foreign auto industry. In the

absence of trade when the market is

for 1.6 million auto Foreign would

have 8 automobile firms, selling at a

price of $ 8750 each.

140


Market 38

36

34

32

30

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

CC

Number of firms, n


PP

(c) Integrated 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12


for combined market. Integrating the

two markets creates a market for 2.5

million autos. This market supports 10

firms, and the price of an auto is only

$8000.

141

ECONOMIES OF SCALE AND COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE

• How economies of scale interact with comparative advantage to determine the pattern of international trade.

• Let us imagine a world economy consisting, as usual, of our two countries Home and Foreign.

• Each of these countries has two factors of production, capital and labor.

142

Trade in a world without increasing return

Home (capital-

abundant)

Foreign

labor-abundant)

Manufactures Food

The length of the arrows indicates the value of

trade in each direction; so Home would export

manufactures equal in value to the food it imports.

143

Trade with increasing return and monopolistic competition

Home (capital-

abundant)

Foreign

labor-abundant)

Manufactures Food

Because of economies of scale, neither country is able to

produce the full range of manufactured products by itself;

thus they will be producing different things.

Interindustry

trade

Intraindustry

trade Home will be a net

exporter of

manufactures and an

importer of food.

144


Home (capital-

abundant)

Foreign

labor-abundant)

Manufactures Food




Interindustry

trade

Intraindustry

trade

Home, although running a trade surplus in

manufactures, will import as well as export

within the manufacturing industry.

145


Home (capital-

abundant)

Foreign

labor-abundant)

Manufactures Food




Interindustry

trade

Intraindustry

trade

Foreign firms in the

manufacturing sector will

produce products different

from those that Home

firms produce.

146

• World trade in a monopolistic competition model consists of two parts.

• There will be two-way trade within the manufacturing sector. This exchange of manufactures for manufactures is called intraindustry trade.

• The remainder of trade is an exchange of manufactures for food called interindustry trade.

147

• Interindustry (manufactures for food)

trade reflects comparative advantage.

The pattern of interindustry trade is that

Home, the capital-abundant country, is

a net exporter of capital-intensive

manufactures and a net importer of

labor-intensive food. So comparative

advantage continues to be a major part

of the trade story.

Four points about this pattern of trade:

148

• Intraindustry trade does not reflect

comparative advantage. Even if the

countries had the same overall capital-

labor ratio, their firms would continue

to produce differentiated products.

• Thus economies of scale can be an

independent source of international

trade.


149

• The pattern of intraindustry trade itself

is unpredictable. All we know is that

the countries will produce different

products. Since history and accident

determine the details of the trade

pattern, an unpredictable component of

the trade pattern is an inevitable feature

of a world where economies of scale

are important.


150

• The relative importance of

intraindustry and interindustry trade

depends on how similar countries are.

If , for instance, Home and Foreign are

similar in their capital-labor ratios, then

there will be little interindustry trade,

and intraindustry trade, based

ultimately on economies of scale, will

be dominant.


151

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF

INTRAINDUSTRY TRADE

• About 1/4 of world trade consists of intraindustry

trade.

• The industrial countries have become

increasingly similar in their levels of technology

and in the availability of capital and skilled labor.

• There is often no clear comparative advantage

within an industry, and much of international

trade therefore takes the form of two-way

exchanges within an industry.

152

Indexes of Intraindustry Trade for U.S.

Industries

Inorganic chemicals 0.99

Power-generating machinery 0.97

Electrical machinery 0.96

Organic chemicals 0.91

Medical and pharmaceutical 0.86

Office machinery 0.81

Telecommunications equipment 0.69

Road vehicles 0.65

Iron and steel 0.43

Clothing and apparel 0.27

Footwear 0.20

intraindustry

trade/total trade

153

The Theory of External Economies

• Economies of scale that occur at the level of the

industry instead of the firm are called external

economies.

• There are three main reasons why a cluster of

firms may be more efficient than an individual

firm in isolation:

– Specialized suppliers

– Labor market pooling

– Knowledge spillovers

What does it

mean cluster?

154

Clusters: Definitions from the Cluster

Literature

• Porter (1998) ―A cluster is a geographically proximate group of interconnected companies and associated institutions in a particular field, linked by commonalities and complementarities‖.

• Crouch and Farrell, (2001) ―The more general concept of ‗cluster‘ suggests something looser: a tendency for firms in similar types of business to locate close together, though without having a particularly important presence in an area.‖

• Rosenfeld (1997) ―A cluster is very simply used to represent concentrations of firms that are able to produce synergy because of their geographical proximity and interdependence, even though their scale of employment may not be pronounced or prominent.‖

155

Clusters: Definitions from the Cluster

Literature

• Roelandt and den Hertag (1999) ―Clusters can be

characterised as networks of producers of strongly

interdependent firms (including specialised suppliers)

linked each other in a value-adding production chain.‖

• Swann and Prevezer (1998) ―A cluster means a large

group of firms in related industries at a particular

location‖.

• Simmie and Sennett (1999) ―We define an innovative

cluster as a large number of interconnected industrial

and/or service companies having a high degree of

collaboration, typically through a supply chain, and

operating under the same market conditions.‖

156

• In many industries, the production of goods and

services and the development of new products

requires the use of specialized equipment or

support services.

– An individual company does not provide a large

enough market for these services to keep the suppliers

in business.

• A localized industrial cluster can solve this problem by

bringing together many firms that provide a large enough

market to support specialized suppliers.

– This phenomenon has been extensively documented in the

semiconductor industry located in Silicon Valley.

Specialized Suppliers

157

• A cluster of firms can create a pooled

market for workers with highly

specialized skills.

– It is an advantage for:

• Producers

– They are less likely to suffer from labor

shortages.

• Workers

– They are less likely to become unemployed.

Labor Market Pooling

158

• Knowledge is one of the important input

factors in highly innovative industries.

– The specialized knowledge that is crucial

to success in innovative industries comes

from:

• Research and development efforts

• Reverse engineering

• Informal exchange of information and ideas

Knowledge Spillovers

159

• External Economies and the Pattern of Trade

– A country that has large production in some

industry will tend to have low costs of

producing that good.

– Countries that start out as large producers in

certain industries tend to remain large producers

even if some other country could potentially

produce the goods more cheaply.

External Economies and

International Trade

160

External Economies and Specialization

ACSWISS

Q1

P1

Price, cost

(per watch)

Quantity of watches

produced and demanded

ACTHAI

2

1

C0

D

Thailand could potentially supply the

world market more cheaply than

Switzerland. If the Swiss industry gets

established first, however, it may be able

to sell watches at the price P1, which is

below the cost C0 that an individual Thai

firm would face if it began production on

its own.

161

• Trade based on external economies has

more ambiguous effects on national

welfare than either trade based on

comparative advantage or trade based on

economies of scale at the level of the

firm.

Trade and Welfare with

External Economies

162

Russia in a changing

world

• What is a Russia‘s role in current

international division of labour?

• What may be a Russia‘s role in a future

international division of labour?

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