CHAPTER I Introduction Plants are the reservoirs of chemicals which have been evolved in response to wide range of selection pressures. Each species might have gone through numbers of mutations and genetic recombinations over millions of generations. The bioactive molecules present in plants have evolved as chemical defenses against predation, infection or adverse environmental changes. Special classes of chemicals produced have been put through severe tests by the forces of natural selection at each generation (Wilson, 1992). Consequently, during evolution plants have synthesized compounds whose structural diversity may be beyond the dreams of even the most imaginative organic chemists. In fact, plant species have evolved chemical pathways to produce compounds that are capable of curing many diseases. For instance, almost all the plants make flavonoids that block Ultra Violet (UV) radiation; the higher the radiation to which plants are exposed, higher the turnover of flavonoids. Experiments suggest that plant flavonoids can resist far more UV radiation than what would be caused by worst case scenario of ozone depletion (Simmonds and Grayer, 1999). Majority of biologically active compounds isolated from plants are secondary metabolites, which are sophisticated arsenal to protect plants from outside dangers. Secondary metabolites perform important ecological functions including defenses against herbivores, bacterial and fungal infections. Many compounds used by the plants for a particular purpose like protection against fungi can be used by humans for a similar purpose. However, secondary metabolites, which have ecological significance for plants, have altogether different effects on humans. For example, in many leguminous plants like Vicia faba, the non-protein amino acid L-Dopa functions as an antifeedant and protects plants from herbivory; but in medicine, it is used as a drug in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease (Simmonds and Grayer, 1999). Plants – the primary producers - have always been the basis of human survival. All forms of hominids probably experimented with plants. Plants have been meeting the basic needs of food, cloth and shelter ever since the emergence of Homo sapiens. Plants are also the source of human health care products. Kautilya’s Arthasastra gives account of many plants that were used to remove hunger. For example, consumption of doses of 1
Transcript
CHAPTER I
Introduction Plants are the reservoirs of chemicals which have been evolved in response to
wide range of selection pressures. Each species might have gone through numbers of
mutations and genetic recombinations over millions of generations. The bioactive
molecules present in plants have evolved as chemical defenses against predation,
infection or adverse environmental changes. Special classes of chemicals produced have
been put through severe tests by the forces of natural selection at each generation
(Wilson, 1992). Consequently, during evolution plants have synthesized compounds
whose structural diversity may be beyond the dreams of even the most imaginative
organic chemists. In fact, plant species have evolved chemical pathways to produce
compounds that are capable of curing many diseases. For instance, almost all the plants
make flavonoids that block Ultra Violet (UV) radiation; the higher the radiation to which
plants are exposed, higher the turnover of flavonoids. Experiments suggest that plant
flavonoids can resist far more UV radiation than what would be caused by worst case
scenario of ozone depletion (Simmonds and Grayer, 1999).
Majority of biologically active compounds isolated from plants are secondary
metabolites, which are sophisticated arsenal to protect plants from outside dangers.
Secondary metabolites perform important ecological functions including defenses against
herbivores, bacterial and fungal infections. Many compounds used by the plants for a
particular purpose like protection against fungi can be used by humans for a similar
purpose. However, secondary metabolites, which have ecological significance for plants,
have altogether different effects on humans. For example, in many leguminous plants like
Vicia faba, the non-protein amino acid L-Dopa functions as an antifeedant and protects
plants from herbivory; but in medicine, it is used as a drug in the treatment of Parkinson’s
disease (Simmonds and Grayer, 1999).
Plants – the primary producers - have always been the basis of human survival.
All forms of hominids probably experimented with plants. Plants have been meeting the
basic needs of food, cloth and shelter ever since the emergence of Homo sapiens. Plants
are also the source of human health care products. Kautilya’s Arthasastra gives account
of many plants that were used to remove hunger. For example, consumption of doses of
1
Albizia lebbeck, Ficus racemosa and Prosopis cinereria mixed with ghee removes hunger
for a fortnight; ingestion of a dose of the scum prepared from the mixture of Scripus
grossus or Cyperus esculentus, rhizome of Nelumbo nucifera, roots of Saccharum
officinarum mixed with Aconitum ferox, Cynodon dactylon, milk, ghee and manda
enables one to fast for a month; similarly one can go without food for a month by
consuming one dose of the powder of Phaseolus radiatus, Hordeum vulgare, Dolichos
biflorus and root of Desmostachya bipinnata mixed with milk and ghee (Sensarma, 1996;
Viswanathan and Singh, 1996). World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that 80% of
the populations living in the developing countries rely almost exclusively on traditional
medicine for their primary health care needs, and 85% people in third world use plants or
their extracts as the active substances in health care system (Shome et al., 1996; Sheldon
et al., 1998).
Plants have been used as medicines since beginning of human civilization. There
are written evidences of medicinal uses of plants in texts of the ancient Chinese, Indian
and other civilizations. India has had a history of ancient traditional medicinal practice
based mostly on Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani systems of medicine. Medicinal plants
have always been the main constituents of the traditional medicine. Indian Materia
Medica includes about 2000 drugs of natural origin almost all of which are derived from
traditional system; out of these 400 are of mineral origin and the rest are of plant origin.
Ayurveda is based on natural products of nearly 2,000 cultivated and wild plant species.
The written records of Ayurveda like Charaka Samhita, Shushruta Samhita and others
contain more than 8,000 herbal remedies. There are literally millions of plants,
combinations, traditions and household remedies to treat varieties of diseases and to
boost health (Pearce and Moran, 1994; Subrat et al., 2002).
Traditional knowledge of plants for medicinal purposes was based on
observations and personal experiences. This knowledge was handed down from one
generation to next generations mostly by word of mouth. In most societies there are no
written records of such knowledge. By 19th century active principles of medicinal plants
were isolated based on such knowledge base and discovery of quinine from Cinchona
bark was the first active principle isolated and characterized (Phillipson, 2001).
Reserpine, a drug prescribed for hypertension, was isolated from the root of shrub
Rauvolfia serpentina based on ethnobotanical knowledge. Neem tree (Azadirachta
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indica) has always been considered a miracle tree in India for thousands of years. Its parts
have been used for leprosy, urinary disorders, diabetes, skin diseases, jaundice, fevers,
infections, as tonic, as blood purifier, to clean teeth, to keep away bugs and insects, as
veterinary medicine and for various other diseases. In fact the tree has often been called
as the village pharmacy. A variety of neem products are available in markets and most of
these have been developed from ethnobotanical data. In 1682, life of the son of King
Louis XIV of France, who was dying of dysentery, was saved by a Parisian Merchant
who gave him root of ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha). This species is native to Brazil
and Bolivia where roots of ipecac is commonly used in treating dysentery and amoebic
dysentery (Swerdlow, 2000).
It has been estimated that only 20-30% of the world’s flora of approximately
250,000-500,000 species has been subjected to phytochemical investigations (Principle,
1990; Simmonds and Grayer, 1999; Cordell, 2000; Plotkin, 2001). Of an estimated
75,000 edible plant species known in the world, only 2500 species have ever been eaten
with regularity and a mere 150 species have been exploited commercially and only 20
feed the world population. About 9,500 wild plant species used by indigenous people for
meeting their various requirements have been documented. Out of 7,500 wild plant
species used by indigenous people for medicinal purposes, about 950 species have been
found to be useful in health care for the first time; out of about 3,900 plant species used
as edibles about 800 have been found as novel food yielding species and 250 species
among them have potential to develop as alternative sources of food; out of 525 wild
plant species used for making fibre and cordage, about 50 species have potential for
commercial exploitation; out of 400 wild plant species used as fodder, about 100 species
have potential for wider use; and out of 300 wild plant species used as pesticides and
piscicides, about 175 have potential for the development of bio-pesticides
(Pushpangadan, 1984; Mishra, 1985; Saklani and Jain, 1996; Saini, 1996; Prakash and
Singh, 2000; Nautiyal et al., 2000-2001; Satyavati, 2001; Sarin, 2003).
The number of flowering plant species known from India is about 15,000 species.
50% of these species are known to possess medicinal properties. Over 8,000 species of
angiosperms, 44 species of gymnosperms, 600 species of pteridophytes, 1,737 species of
bryophytes, and 1,159 species of lichens have been recorded from Himalayas and many
of these species are rich sources of medicine for millions of people. Indian Himalayan
3
region has over 1,748 plant species (1,685 angiosperms, 12 gymnosperms and 51
pteridophytes) of known medicinal value (Samant et al., 1998). Only 280 Himalayan
plant species in 316 formulations are used by the pharmaceutical companies. About 175
species belonging to 79 families are confined to the Indian Himalayan region (Dhar et al.,
2000). In Charaka Samhita, Himalayas have been described as home of medicinal plants.
Traditional knowledge is available not only for the diversity of plants used in
health care but also for the diverse ways in which these plants are administered. Different
communities often put a single plant to different uses. Wealth of information on wild
plants can be unearthed from the unwritten archives of the traditional people. Loss of
unwritten traditional knowledge is like burning of library of Alexandria. In India, as in
any other part of the world, Local Community Systems (LCSs) have been severely
eroded because of variety of factors (Slikkerveer, 1999) and some of them are:
(i) displacement and devaluation by modern systems, such as the replacement of
traditional medical practices by modern medical system, and of community
customs of conservation by state-sponsored practices of conservation; local
knowledge has of late been appropriated by the state and private sectors in the
form of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs),
(ii) institutional take over of resources by the state and private sectors, and
(iii) over-exploitation of resources by the state or the private sectors and physical
displacement of communities by economic development projects.
Study of traditional knowledge of plants or ethnobotanical approach is one of the
approaches amongst many that exist for selecting plants for phytochemical studies. One
can select an area rich in plant biodiversity and randomly pick a plant for study. The
probability of discovering a useful compound from such randomly selected plants is
extremely low. However, such random searches may lead to the discovery of new drugs.
For example, taxol is one such anticancer drug. It is very difficult to make a truly random
selection and collection of plants for phytochemical study. In recent years, ecosystems
rich in plant diversity like Tropical Rainforests and the Himalaya have been the focus of
exploration for bioprospecting as these contain high proportion of plants that have not yet
been chemically screened. Random selection of plants for phytochemical analysis is the
only bioprospecting alternative in the absence of documented ethnobotanical information.
National Cancer Institute of the United States of America has estimated that there is
4
5
1:8,000 probability of finding a marketable anti-cancer plant-derived drug using random
screens. This ratio is comparable to probability of 1:10,000 associated with drug
discovery based on the random screening of synthetic compounds (Shah, 1981; 1982;
Vaidya and Antarkar, 1994; Simmonds and Grayer, 1999; Farnsworth, 1994).
The use of ethnobotanical information to select plants for drug discovery or other
purposes has high success rates. It has been shown that plants that were selected using
ethnobotanical information have provided more active leads than random screenings
(Vanden Berghe et al., 1985). It has been reported that 119 compounds found from 90
plants are used as single entity medicinal agents; 70% of which have been developed
based on ethnomedicinal use (Cox and Balick, 1994; Subrat et al., 2002; Farnsworth,
1985). At least 1,000 plant species are reported to be in use as medicinal agents in China
alone (Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Approximately 1,250 Indian medicinal plants are used
in formulating therapeutic preparations according to Ayurveda and other traditional
system of medicine (Pushpangadan, 1984).
Recent advances in isolation, separation, purification and characterization of
natural products coupled with ethnobotanical studies have lead to the discovery of several
novel drugs. For example, artemisinin from Artemisia annua, podophyllotoxin from
Podophyllum peltatum, vinblastine and vincristine from Catharanthus roseus,
camptothecins derived from a Chinese tree species Camptotheca acuminata and
kaempferol glycoside extracted from Forsteronia refracta found in Amazon rainforests
are novel drugs used in the treatment of dreaded diseases such as malaria and cancer.
(Ross, 1999; Williamson et al., 1999; Swerdlow, 2000; Moza, 2005)
Dharchula ranges of North-West Himalaya are located between 290 59' to 300 04'
North latitude and 800 28' to 800 57' East longitude 'and are composed of steep rugged
slopes covered with snow for over six months. These ranges are known to harbour
medicinal and other useful plants (Duthie, 1885; 1906; Hooker, 1879; Strachey, 1906;
Shah et al., 1980; Rawat and Pangtey 1987; Arya, 1991-92; Rawal and Pangtey, 1993;
Samant et al., 1993; Samant et al., 2001; Satyal et al., 2002; Samant and Pal, 2003). The
local communities not only use plants for their health care system and in fact they earn
their livelihoods through trade and commerce of plant resources.There is no
documentation of traditional knowledge possessed by the local communities with respect
to plants found in the region. It may be noted that wild harvests of medicinal plants used
in traditional Indian, Chinese and Tibetan medicinal systems from the region have
lead to drastic reduction in wild populations of different species. Further, the potential of
traditional knowledge available with locals is not yet put to use for the development of
new and novel drugs. The present investigations on “Traditional knowledge of plant
resources in Dharchula region: biotechnological potential, conservation and
management strategies” were, therefore, undertaken with following objectives;
(i) to explore Dharchula ranges for documentation of traditional knowledge
associated with the plant resources and evaluation of their biotechnological
potential;
(ii) to undertake economic evaluation of traditionally used plant resources in the
region; and
(iii) to assess the conservation status of the species used traditionally by the local
communities;
(iv) to evolve appropriate Intellectual Property Rights regime for the traditional
knowledge possessed by the Bhotia community and associated plant
resources and suitable management strategies for sustainable development
in the region.
My research investigations will ultimately help initiate plant-human culture, a
novel project that was recently launched by Kew and United Kingdom government in
association with local community groups in South Asia that use plants in their everyday
lives with objectives to bring people and plants together (Simmonds, 2005).
6
CHAPTER II
Eco-geographical Aspects of the Area Surveyed Landscape and ecological features have bearing on the conservation and
sustainable utilization of plant resources. Keeping this in view eco-geographical features
of the area surveyed has been studied.
2.1. Geographical location and major river systems of the area
Study area is located between 290 59' to 300 04' North latitude and 800 28' to 800
57' East longitude in Dharchula sub-division of Pithoragarh District in Kumaon Himalaya
of Uttaranchal State (Figure 1). The area encompasses over 2200 square kilometers and
comprises three valleys namely Darma, Chaudas and Byas with altitude ranging from
1,200 m to over 7,000 m. The area is bordered by Nepal in the East, Tibet in the North,
Munshiari and Askot sub-divisions of Pithoragarh Distrct in the West and South (Figure
2). Magnificent groups of Panchachuli, Api and Annapurna peaks are located in this
region.
These mountains, which are masses of tangled peaks and valleys, are known to be
associated with several sacred beliefs and represent one of the most rugged ranges in the
region. In the ruggedness of feature they are not surpassed by any inhabited tract in the
world. Mountains have such irregular and confused appearance that only the line of river
valleys enables one to find a clue to their arrangement. The region consists of succession
of deep gorges and steep precipitous hill sides containing Kali, Kuti and Dhauli River
systems. Kuti River is tributary to Kali but the total volume of water of Kuti River is
more than that of Kali River. All these rivers join and is known as Sarda when it reaches
Tanakpur in the foothill, a tributary of the Ganges. Panchachuli, Nampa, Api and Chota
Kailash are the main glaciers of this region.
2.2. Geology and soils
Perpetually snowcovered zone is separated by the Lesser Himalaya by the Main
Central Thrust. The region is largely composed of gneiss and granite. The component
rocks have been subjected to severe compressional forces. In several sections this zone is
7
made up of: (i) intrusive granite, (ii) complex schists resulting from the intrusion of
granite into rocks which it has partly absorbed, and (iii) old gneiss, schists, granulites and
Figure 1. Map of India showing location of Uttaranchal and forest cover of all the
districts of the state (Sourtce: Forest Survey of India, Dehradun)
highly metamorphosed crystalline limestones, which may include Precambrian and
palaeozoic representations. Northern most belt on the North and North-east of greater
Himalaya is made up of highly fossiliferous sedimentary formations ranging from
Palaeozoic to the Eocene times and is remarkably uniform in lithological sequence (Joshi,
et al. 1983). Dhauli river valley in Darma is characterized by porphyritic gneiss zone with
the amphibolitic sills with a tectonic contact passes over to sedimentary quartzite, phyllite
and limestone zones. The porphyritic gneiss is overlain by mica schist with multilayered
weathered amphibolitic sills in Chaudas. The well marked tectonic zone is exposed with
amphibolitic sills physically overthrusted by an unmetamorphic quartzite-limestone
8
phyllites sequence. Byas valley is characterized by quaternary sediments along Kali and
Kuti rivers. Kuti River flows through the exposed clay rock with more carbonaceous
material. Southern portion of the area consist of crystalline metamorphic rocks and some
granite and basic magmatic rocks (Sinha, 1989). Soil is dark grey to dark brown and
black in colour and silty loam to loamy in texture. Soil properties and processes are
influenced by climate. As climate changes with elevation so do soil characteristics.
Chamoli
Muns
Bageshwar
Pit
Champawat
Figure 2. Map of Pand Byas valleys of
In Darma valley, the organ
elevation probably due to e
hiari
horagarh
ithoragarh Distudy area baIII,2000 (Sou
ic carbon pe
rosion of litte
TIBET
Byas valley
Chaudas valley
Dharchula
NEPAL
strict in Uttaranchal sed on Digital Interprce: Forest Survey of
rcentage in the soil
r and low decompo
9
Askot
Darmavalley
showing Darma, Chaudas retation of IRS ID –LISS – India)
decreases with increase in
sition rates due to sub-zero
10
temperatures. Sand is the predominant constituent of the soils; pH varies from 4.9 to 6.1
and moisture percentage varies between 13.5-34.5% (Ram and Singh, 1994).
2.3. Climate
The region experiences heavy rain (37-50 cm) during the monsoon season
commencing from end of June to middle of September, with maximum rainfall being in
July-September. In the higher reaches the annual rainfall is just about 10 cm. In this
region summers are short and winters very severe and the grounds are entirely covered
with snow from October to April. Heavy snow fall and frost are common. Melting of
snow in April-May provide abundant moisture. Cloud and fog formation is a common
feature even in May, well before commencement of monsoon. Clear sky is limited to only
few morning hours. Soil erosion is very pronounced in the region. Frequent landslips in
the lower valleys and avalanches in the higher regions and natural perturbations create
new ecological niches, which are inhabited by characteristic flora and fauna thereby
enhancing biodiversity. A rise of 270 m in altitude corresponds to fall of 10 C in mean
temperature up to 1,500 m and this fall in temperature is more rapid towards alpine belt.
2.4. Vegetation
The study area comprises 12,740 ha of dense forest, 3936 ha of open forest, 1153
ha of scrub, 802 ha of water bodies and 203544 ha of non-forest area, which encompass
habitations, villages, farmlands, community lands, snow covered areas, etc (Source:
Forest Survey of India). The area is known for its rich biodiversity and many of its plant
species are of medicinal importance in traditional systems of medicine: Indian, Tibetan
and Chinese. Richard Strachey was the first to explore the area in 1846 and subsequently
in 1848 with J. E. Winterbottom. Both plant explorers collected over 2000 species
between the years 1846-49. J. F. Duthie explored North-Eastern Kumaon in 1883 and
catalogued 2672 flowering plants, 201 ferns and allies, 120 mosses and 50 lichens. This
catalogue also includes the plants collected by the earlier explorers (Duthie, 1885 and
1906).
The vegetation of the area can be broadly classified in to the following types as
per the Champion and Seth Classification (Champion and Seth, 1968) –
1. Upper Himalayan Chir Pine Forests
2. Moist Temperate Deciduous Forests
3. Low Level Blue Pine Forests
4. Kharsu Oak Forests
5. Western Himalayan Upper Oak/Fir Forests
6. East Himalaya Mixed Coniferous Tansen (Tsuga dumosa) Forests
7. Montane Bamboo Brakes
8. Himalayan Temperate Pastures
9. Oak Scrub Forests
10. Hippophae Scrub
11. Sub-Alpine Forests
12. Sub-Alpine Forests
13. Alpine Pastures and Alpine Scrub River Bed
1. Upper Himalayan Chir Pine Forests – This forest type occurs at altitudes between
1,200 and 2,100 m. Common species are Rhododendron arboreum, Pyrus pashia,
Information was gathered by interacting personally with over 50 persons (on an
average 2-5 from each village). These included 5 women and over 45 men in the age
group of 40-70 years.
Field visits were made to the areas surrounding the villages and those away from the
villages which are rich in plant resources used traditionally. For each of the species for
which ethnobotanical information was collected, specimens were prepared and were
identified in the Herbarium of Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (DD).
80 species were documented (Table 3). Photographs were taken of most species along
with habitat and parts used. Botanical name, family, local name, description, phenology,
ecology & distribution, propagation, chemical constituents, uses, conservation status,
trade, observation and discussions on traditional uses for each species have been given.
Descriptions of chemical constituents have been included from available literature.
Material in bulk was also collected for chemical studies.
Table 3. Species collected and for which traditional knowledge documented
1. Abies pindrow Royle 41. Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. 2. Aconitum balfourii Stapf. 42. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson 3. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle 43. Podophyllum hexandrum Royle 4. Ainsliaea aptera DC. 44. Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. 5. Allium stracheyi Baker 45. Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don 6. Angelica glauca Edgew. 46. Polygonum rumicifolium (Royle ex Bab.) 7. Arisaema jacquemontii Blume 47. Polygonum viviparum Linn. 8. Arnebia benthamii (G. Don f.) John. 48. Potentilla sundaica (Bl.) Kuntz 9. Artemisia maritima Linn sensu Hook. f. 49. Prinsepia utilis Royle 10. Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. 50. Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. 11. Berberis chitria Lindl. 51. Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham. ex D. Don 12. Bergenia ciliata (Haworth) Sternberg 52. Pyrus pyrifolia Burm. f. Nakai 13. Cannabis sativa Linn. 53. Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissner 14. Carum carvi Linn. 54. Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don 15. Cirsium wallichii DC. 55. Ribes grossularia Linn. 16. Coleus forskohlii (Willd.) Briq. 56. Rosa sericea Lindley 17. Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. 57. Roscoea alpine Royle 18. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. 58. Rubia cordifolia Linn. Sensu Hook. f. 19. Corydalis govaniana Wall. 59. Rubus ellipticus Smith 20. Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo 60. Rubus foliolosus D. Don 21. Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. 61. Rubus nutans Wall. 22. Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke. 62. Rumex nepalensis Spreng. 23. Elaeagnus umbellata auct non Thunb. 63. Saussurea gossypiphora D. Don 24. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. 64. Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch.-Bip. 25. Fagopyrum tataricum (Linn.) Gaertn. 65. Selinum vaginatum (Edgew.) Clarke 26. Fraxinus micrantha Lingels. 66. Senecio chrysanthemoides DC. 27. Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sw. 67. Silene kumaonensis Williams 28. Gerardiana heterophylla (Vahl.) Decne. 68. Solanum nigrum Linn. 29. Hippophae salicifolia (D. Don) Serv. 69. Swertia ciliata (G. Don) B. L. Burtt 30. Hyoscyamus niger Linn. 70. Taraxacum officinale Weber ex Wiggers 31. Impatiens scabrida DC.;
I. roylei Walp. I. balsamina L. 71. Taxus baccata Linn.
32. Iris kumaonensis D. Don ex Royle 72. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. 33. Juglans regia Linn. 73. Thamnolia vermicularis (Sw.) Ach. 34. Juniperus cummunis Linn. 74. Thymus serpyllum Linn. 35. Jurinea macrocephala (Royle) Clarke 75. Urtica dioica Linn. 36. Lilium oxypetalum (D. Don) Baker 76. Urtica parviflora Roxb. 37. Malva sylvestris Linn. 77. Valeriana wallichii DC. 38. Mazus surculosus D. Don 78. Viburnum nervosum D. Don 39. Paris polyphylla Smith 79. Viola serpens Wall. ex Roxb.
40. Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle 80. Zanthoxylum armatum DC.
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4.2. Economic Evaluation:
For economic evaluation of traditionally used plant resources, the following four
variables were selected –
(i) market value of species extracted,
(ii) value of medicinal plants used in local medicine,
(iii) value of medicinal plants as source of new plant based drugs or
drugs synthesized based on plant product, and
(iv) value of potential medicinal plant species lost due to extinction.
The value of medicinal plant resources has been worked out using formula –
V = (PE) + (AR) + (DY) + X
Where,
P = Market value of medicinal plants extracted,
E = Quantity of medicinal species extracted annually,
A = Population using traditional medicine,
R = Rupees saved by one person annually by using wild species for primary
health care,
D = Value of a medicinal plant species that serve as source for new drug,
Y = Number of species giving rise to new drugs, and
X = Value of potential medicinal plant species lost due to extinction.
22
CHAPTER V
Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical and Conservation Aspects of Plant
Resources of Dharchula Region
5.1. Abies pindrow Royle (West Himalayan Fir/ Pindrow Fir/ Silver
Fir) Family : Pinaceae
Local Name : Wuman shin (Byas, Darma, Chaudas)
Description: A lofty evergreen tree attaining girth of 2.5-4 m and height of 45-
60 m, with narrow cylindric crown and horizontal or drooping branches.
Bark dark grey and brown, rough, furrowed and exfoliating in regular
woody scales. Blaze somewhat fibrous, uniform deep reddish-brown or
purplish. Leaves variable, 2.5-6.2 cm long, under surface with 2 silvery
bands on either side of mid rib, tip notched and dark green in colour.
Cones solitary or in pairs, erect, dark blue, situated a little below the tips
of the shoots, ripe cones erect, cylindric. Seeds 2.5-3.2 cm long including
wing. (Figure 3a & 3b)
Phenology: New leaves appear during April-May and these persist for 3-5 years.
Cones ripen during October – November.
Ecology and Distribution: It is distributed in the northern aspect of the
mountains and occur either in pure patches or in association with Quercus
Local Name : Lhed Phool/Kunch phool (Darma, Byas, Chaudas)
Description: An erect annual-binnial herb of about 20-90 cm height. Leaves
both radical and cauline; basal leaves ovate-lanceolate; cauline leaves
sessile. Flowers heads numerous, yellow and arranged in dense terminal
clusters; ray-florets strap-shaped (Figure 68).
Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-September.
Ecology and Distribution: It grows along road sides, in abandoned fields, vacant
lands and alpine meadows between 2,500 and 3,500 m. It is abundant in
Darma, Chaudas and Byas valley in Dharchula Himalaya.
Propagation: This species can be easily grown by direct sowing of achenes in the
field or in the beds. About 8-10 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into the
polythene bags filled with soil. Saplings are planted in the field during or
just before rains.
Chemical Constituents: Jacoline, jacobine, jaconine and seneciphylline
isolated from roots; total alkaloids, I-otosenine, renardine, jacobine and
eudesmanolides – chrysanthemolide and 1-acetylerivanin were isolated
from aerial parts (Mengi et al., 1991; Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1998).
Essential oil extracted contains germacrene D,1-undecene and
anhydrooplopanone (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993).
239
Figure 68. Plants of Senecio chrysanthemoides bearing
inflorescences growing at Go of Darma
Uses: Leaves are taken to treat inflammation of mouth and sore throat (Jain,
1991).
Conservation status: Senecio chrysanthemoides is a widely distributed and
common species of Dharchula Himalayas.
Trade: There is no local trade of any parts of Senecio chrysanthemoides in
Dharchula areas at present. There is no prohibition in the export or import
of any portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species.
Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: In
Darma valley, infusion of root in normal water is administered for gastric,
indigestion and other stomach ailments. Phytochemical studies may yield
botanical pesticides, as the species does not harbour any insects.
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5.67. Silene kumaonensis Williams
Family : Caryophyllacea
Local Name : Khushu (Byas, Darma, Chaudas)
Description: Subscandent perennial herb with ascending stems growing up to 1
m tall. Root thick, cylindrical, 3-5 cms in diameter, light brown when dry.
Leaves acuminate at apex, lower cauline ones broadly lanceolate to ovate-
lanceolate, undulate along margins. Inflorescence cymose, long
pedunculate. Flowers greenish subtended by leaf-like bracts; petals
narrow, greenish with oblong-linear lobes (Figure 69a).
Phenology: It flowers and fruits during August-September.
Ecology and Distribution: It grows in rock crevices, meadows and fallow fields
between 3,000 and 4,000 m and is common in Darma and Byas valleys.
Propagation: Planting of root cuttings just before rains or direct sowing of seeds
yield high rates of survival and establishment.
Conservation status: Silene kumaonensis is neither listed as endangered in Red
Data Book of Indian Plants, nor is it included in the list of endangered or
threatened species of CITES. This species appears to be endemic to
Dharchula Himalayas.
Trade: There is no local trade of any parts or derivatives of Silene kumaonensis in
Dharchula areas at present. There is no prohibition in the trade of any
portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species.
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x y
Figure 69a. Plants of Silene kumaonensis growing along margins of cultivated fields at Garbyang in Byas valley showing habit of the species (x) branches
showing flowers (y)
Figure 69b. Cleaned and air dried
roots of Silene kumaonensis
Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: In the
past when soap and other detergents were not easily available, its roots
were used by Bhotias for washing woolen clothes. Dry roots (Figure 69b)
are crushed and powdered and then used as soap powder. It is considered
excellent especially for washing woolen clothes. Powdered root is also
used for washing hairs. It is considered very effective for removing
dandruffs. This is the first report of the use of this species by local
communities.
Although extensively used in the past, its use has declined
considerably in the recent years. Quantity required for personal use is
generally collected from wild. Phytochemical studies are urgently needed
for finding its potential applications in herbal cosmetics.
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5.68. Solanum nigrum Linn.
Family : Solanaceae
Local Name : Ninoni, Nallo Chi (Chaudas), Gurkamai
Description: A glabrous or pubescent bushy annual herb of about 45 cm height.
Stems erect and much-branched. Leaves alternate, ovate-lanceolate,
acuminate, toothed, narrowed at the base. Flowers small, white and
arranged in terminal cymes. Berries, globose, usually red, purplish black
when ripe, with yellow seeds, bitter or pungent in taste (Figure 70a &
70b).
Phenology: It flowers and fruits during May-September.
Ecology and Distribution: It grows in abandoned field, wastelands, garbage
dumps, hedges and disturbed areas near human settlements of tropical and
temperate areas up to 2,700 m. It is a common species distributed all over
Darma, Byas and Chaudas.
Propagation: Solanum nigrum is a profuse seed bearer having high germination
rate. It prefers shady places. Seeds are sown in March-April in moist soils
and seedlings are transplanted in June-July. This species is weedy and
grows at variety of soils. Caterpillars and slugs are the common pests this
species (http://www.pfaf.org).
Chemical Constituents: Aglycones of steroidal glycosides (Solasodine and
solasodiene), tigogenin, diosgenin, solasonine, solamargine and beta-
7-hydroxy-7-vinylhexadec-4(Z)-enoic and hexadec-4(Z)-enoic acids
isolated from seeds (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998).
An amide armatamide – N-(4’-methoxyphenyl ethyl)-3,4-
methylenedioxy cinnamoyl amide - along with asarinin, fargesin,
alpha- and beta- amyrins, lupeol and beta-sitosterol-beta-D-glucoside
isolated from barks (Kalia et al., 1999).
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Figure 82a. A branch of the plant of Zanthoxylum
armatum bearing unripe fruits growing at Pangla of Chaudas
Figure 82b. Dry Zanthoxylum armatum seeds
Uses: Fruits are used to intoxicate fish. It is considered to have stomachic and
carminative properties (Atkinson, 1882). In Ayurveda fruit is considered
appetizer, anthelmintic and gives relief from pain, tumours and abdominal
troubles; it is also considered useful in eye and ear diseases, disease of
lips, headache, heaviness, leucoderma, asthma and troubles of spleen
(Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). The seeds and the bark are used as an aromatic
tonic in the treatment of fevers, dyspepsia and cholera (Chopra et al.,
1956). In some parts of Nepal, fresh seeds are chewed to treat stomach
disorders and seeds are also taken as pickles during meals (Joshi and
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Joshi, 2000). It is believed that walking sticks made from the stem kept in
the house doors keep the evils away; flowers important source of bee
forage (Gaur, 1999).
Conservation status: Zanthoxylum armatum is found only at few localities of
Chaudas and Darma valleys. It is, however, not listed in Red Data Book of
Indian Plants, nor is it included in the list of endangered or threatened
species of CITES.
Trade: There is no significant trade in Zanthoxylum armatum plant portions in
Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition on export or import of any
portions/extracts or any formulations made out of this species.
Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area:
Aromatic seeds of Zanthoxylum armatum (Figure 82b) are used by the
local inhabitants as condiment to season thick soups particularly made out
of Eleusine coracana Gaertn. (Mandwa) flour locally called kalang, which
is consumed in winter. It is considered a useful tonic and good for cough,
cold and sore throat. Seeds and thorns are used to get relief from
toothache; and small branches are used as toothbrush. Seeds are also used
in making chutney together with green pepper, garlic and salt. Seeds are
crushed and paste in water is applied on the skins of the cattle to remove
lice, ticks and other insects. This species need detailed phytochemical
studies as it may yield chemicals with potential drug value.
CHAPTER VI
Biotechnological Implications of the Traditional Knowledge associated
with Plant Resources in Dharchula Region
Recent developments in physico-chemical methods of isolation, purification and
characterization of chemical compounds coupled with rapid bio-assays of these chemicals
using biotechnological tools have led to development of a new discipline interfacing
traditional plant taxonomy, chemistry and biotechnology called bio-prospecting. My
observations and discussions on 80 species used by the Bhotias of Dharchula region have
led to identification of 13 plant species that may have biotechnological implications in
terms of development of new products that may have immense value as drugs in the
treatment of diseases or as products of industrial importance. Traditional knowledge
associated with these 13 species is enumerated below. It may be noted that traditional
knowledge listed below has not yet been otherwise documented.
6.1. Cirsium wallichii DC (page 75)
Bhotias use root of this species for a variety of purposes. The root paste is applied
externally on the boils for suppuration. It is also used as cooling agent. Infusion of
mixture of Cirsium wallichii root and Pyrus pashia fruit and leaves in water is poured on
the head for cooling at the time of severe headache.
It is a first report of medicinal use of this species by a community. Phytochemical
studies of this species are urgently needed to find out its potential medical applications
and development of new drugs.
6.2 Coleus forskohlii (Willd.) Briq. (page 77)
Root of this species has several applications in local health care. Bhotias use it for
treatment of cancer, intestinal ulcers and apply externally for healing of wounds. It is also
mixed with various other plant extracts for effective treatment of other diseases. For
instance, when taken along with Potentilla sundaica, it enhances the efficacy of the later. Its application and efficacy in the treatment of cancer and its usefulness in treatment of
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other diseases reported in Dharchula area needs to be investigated to find out its potential
in development of new drugs.
6.3 Fraxinus micrantha Lingelsheim (page 112)
The inner bark of this species is used by Bhotias for treatment of liver diseases of
human as well as of livestock. The inner bark extract in water is taken internally for the
treatment of liver diseases, particularly for enlargement of liver. The inner bark extract
appears to be quite efficient in chelating iron. Its usefulness in chelation therapy for
Thalassemia needs to be investigated. The inner bark is also used for dying traditional
woolen cloths dark blue by using iron vessels. The preliminary investigations have shown
that the inner bark extract inhibits the growth of cancer cell lines. The inner bark has also
been found to have anti-inflammatory properties. This species may yield novel drugs,
dye and may even be an important source of mannitol.
6.4 Jurinea macrocephala (Royle) C. B. Clarke (page 143)
The root of this species yields an excellent natural gum, which is used as the
binding agent in making incense materials. The chemical characteristics of gum need to
be investigated before its economic potential is assessed.
6.5 Lilium oxypetalum (D. Don) Baker (page 146)
Aromatic bulbs of this species are edible. The paste of the bulbs made in water is
applied on the swellings in the limbs. Its medicinal application is not yet known.
Phytochemical studies may provide chemical constituents of potential economic value.
6.6 Mazus surculosus D. Don (page 151)
Entire plant mixed with Viola serpens and Rubus nutans in equal proportions is
pounded and is given to treat inflammations in urinary tracts, painful urination or any
problem related to urination. Detailed phytochemical investigations may provide new
drugs.
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6.7 Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle (page 157)
It is an important medicinal plant of the region. Paste of roots made with water is
applied on the wounds and cuts; it acts as an antiseptic. Roots are boiled in water and the
decoction is given to livestock as an antidote for poison. This species may yield active
principles that can be used as antidotes for a variety of chemical and biological warfare
agents.
6.8 Polygonum rumicifolium (Royle ex Bab.) (page 178)
Young leaves are edible and are considered nutritious if taken in moderate
quantities. Rootstock of this species is used for the treatment of high fevers with
convulsions; it is also used as cooling agent. This species requires immediate
phytochemical studies to find out its potential for development of useful drugs for
treatment of diseases like drug resistant malaria.
6.9 Potentilla sundaica (Bl.) Kuntz. (page 184)
Many Bhotia families of Chaudas valley store this species in their homes and use
it for cough and throat infections especially amongst children. The entire plant is cleaned
and dried and pounded along with Coleus forskohlii and clove and made into small
tablets (goli). These tablets are used as home remedy for throat infections. It is quite
effective even when administered alone. The efficacy of the plant collected during
October is said to be higher as compared to the material collected in other seasons. This
species needs to be investigated further for active principles involved in curing throat
disorders.
6.10 Prinsepia utilis Royle (page 187)
Edible oil extracted from the seeds is found safe for consumption by people who
suffer from high blood pressure and high level of cholesterol. Massage with oil gives
relief to those suffering from rheumatism and joint and body pains due to fatigue.
Pericarp of the ripe berries yields deep blue colour. Its economic potential for
development as dye needs to be explored. Phytochemical studies coupled with
toxicological assays may make this unexploited plant of potential economic value into a
major oil-yielding crop. This may bring an economic transformation of the communities.
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6.11 Silene kumaonensis Williams (page 241)
The dried roots of this species were used as detergent to wash the woolen clothes
and hairs. In fact this was the only detergent available to the local inhabitants in the past.
Use of dried roots washing woolen clothes is still prevalent among Bhotias. It can also
cure dandruffs when used as shampoo. Phytochemical studies may yield products having
potential applications in herbal cosmetics.
6.12 Thamnolia vermicularis (Swartz) Ach. in Schaerer (page 265)
This species is considered very auspicious. It is used as galactagogue. If the cows
are made to inhale the smoke of burning dried Thamnolia vermicularis, the lactation is
enhanced. This species requires detailed phytochemical investigations.
6.13 Thymus serpyllum Linn. (page 267)
It is widely used by Bhotias for making local brew. Proper fermentation of grains,
fruits, etc. does not occur without multiplying yeasts by adding infusion made of this
species. This may probably be due to the fact that it contains some growth promoting
factor that stimulates multiplication of yeast during the fermentation process. This
observation is novel and thus, the species has wide potential in making liquors and may
also be a substitute for hops. Detailed phytochemical studies may yield new products of
commercial value.
In addition to the above species, Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. (page 81),
which is harvested extensively, has potential to transform the economy of the region if
managed appropriately. It is valued very highly in Tibetan and Chinese medicine. It is
used as antibiotic and also used to enhance vitality and potency. The key issues that need
to be addressed are: (i) development of techniques for rearing large number of caterpillars
and mass inoculation of caterpillars with fungus, (ii) development of appropriate habitat
conditions required for fungus growth and multiplication of larvae, (iii) development of
trading facilities, and (iv) intensive ecological and chemical studies through
biotechnological approaches. The biotechnological potential of this species is enormous,
particularly in the development of new drugs.
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CHAPTER VII
Economic evaluation of traditionally used plant resources An attempt has been made here to evaluate the traditionally used plants in Dharchula
Himalayas covering about 261 km2 comprising Darma, Chaudas and Byas valleys. There
are 50 inhabited villages in the area having a total population of 14664 (including Bhotias
and others) as given in Table 4.
Table 4. Resource base and population sizes of the Villages inhabited by Bhotia and non-Bhotia communities (Source: Divisional Forest Office, Pithoragarh Forest Division)
(Jambu), Bergenia ciliata (Pashanbed), Nardostachys jatamansi (Mansi) and Juglans
regia (Akhrot root bark) were the major species traded extensively in Dharchula. Since
harvesting in wild is not legally permitted in India, these were shown to have been bought
from Nepal. However, almost all of them had come from Indian part of Dharchula as
informed by the traders and extractors. The total value of all of these species as per 2003
prices was Rs. 315.6 – 440.5 lakh. Extraction and trade in other species were not
significant. Recently the extraction of these species has shown a downward trend as
compared to earlier years because of high earnings from Cordyceps sinensis, whose
extraction requires considerably lesser physical effort and give higher remuneration in a
short period. For example, the amount earned by the locals from the extraction of 800
pieces of (about 250 gms) Cordyceps sinensis is about the same as that earned by trading
150 kg of dry Picrorhiza kurroa roots.
(ii) Value of Medicinal Plants used in local medicine/health care
Almost all the villages situated in the study area do not have hospitals and health
care facilities. Every inhabitant of the area has to depend upon wild plants and other
species for remedies of non-serious disorders and primary health care. For major illnesses
the patients have to be taken to Dharchula or bigger hospitals after trekking some times
for three days. Therefore, the entire populations of 14664 are dependent on herbal
medicine as an alternative for primary health care. During discussions and enquiries from
the villagers it was revealed that the minimum saving in health care by using herbal
medicine is Rs. 50-100 per person per year. The value of medicine on account of this is
of the tune of Rs. 7.33-14.66 lakh annually. This is the indirect value of the medicinal
herbs.
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(iii) Value of medicinal plants as source of new plant-based drugs or synthesized
drug based on plant product
Total number of flowering plant species in Kumaon is 2673 as described by J. F.
Duthie. Pithoragarh District which includes Dharchula is generally considered
historically the richest within Western Himalaya (Duthie, 1885; 1906; Osmaston, 1994).
The conservative estimate of the number of flowering plants in Dharchula is 2,500
species. Out of 80 species documented for their traditional uses, 13 appear to have
potential and leads for useful compounds have been found in two species – 2.5%
probability of hitting a new compound from the plant resources documented. As per the
National Institute of Health (NIH) criteria it is inferred that that the probability of a
successful prescription drug is somewhere between 1:1000 and 1:10,000 (Principe, 1991
and 1996; Kumar, 2004). Therefore, the probability of new plant based drugs expected
from the area is between 2.5 and 0.25, a value that fits with 2.5% arrived at from present
study. Principe’s estimate of value of a medicinal plant in USA is $ 390 million. This
value will vary from country to country. It is evident from the fact that market value of
single commercially useful species in USA is considered to be $ 200 million and the
corresponding figure for the OECD countries is $ 600 million. In the Indian context the
value of medicinal plants is taken as 10% of Principe’s estimate, i.e. $39 million or Rs.
17550 lakh ($1=Rs. 45). Therefore, considering that plant wealth in Dharchula would
lead to at least one new drug, its value would be Rs. 17550 lakh. Higher estimates for
medicinal value has been given in other studies. For example, Mendelsohn and Ballick
have estimated that the value is $449 million per drug (Mendelsohn, 1995 and 1997).
(iv) Value of potential medicinal plant species lost due to extinction
WWF and IUCN estimated that between 1991 and 2050 25% of all the plant
species may become extinct. This means 625 species may become extinct in 60 years in
Dharchula area. This amounts to loss of 10 species per year. 0.01-0.001 new drugs
expected from these 10 species are lost (probability being 1:1000 to 1:10,000).
Considering the value of Rs. 17550 lakh per plant in terms of formulation of new drug,
the value of potential drugs lost due to extinction would be Rs. 17.55 – 175.5 lakh. There
would be no addition to the value from the extinction of species whose contribution
towards development of new drugs has already been taken into consideration.
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The value of medicinal plants of Dharchula area is, therefore, estimated by –
V = (PE) + (AR) + (DY) + (X),
Where,
P = Market price of medicinal species extracted
E = Quantity of medicinal species extracted annually
A = Population using traditional medicine
R = Rupees saved by one person annually by using wild species for primary
health care
D = Value of a medicinal plant species that serve as source for new drug
Y = Number of species giving rise to new drugs
X = Value of potential medicinal plant species lost due to extinction
The value (V) of medicinal plant species of Dharchula area is –
V = Rs. 17890.48 – to - 18180.66 lakhs
Since the extent of study area is 261 km2, V becomes -
V = Rs 68.54 – 69.65 lakh per square km.
i.e. Rs. 68540 – 69650 per ha.
These results substantiate the fact that Dharchula area is rich in medicinal plant
resources. The value of over Rs. 68,000 per ha per year makes it justifiable for evolving
strategies for conservation and sustainable utilization of the valuable plant resources of
Dharchula area. It may be noted that the value of the medicinal plants in terms of their
ecological and ecosystem services have not been taken into account in the present
economic evaluation. It may also be noted that this is a first report of economic
evaluation of medicinal plant resources of the region.
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CHAPTER VIII
Traditional Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights issues
Ethnobotanists and others have been seeking information free of cost from the
local people who are knowledgeable about processes, practices and the traditional uses of
natural products that were accumulated through several generations of experimentations
and adoption. Generally, information gathered pertains to the uses of plant species,
location and habitat preferences of individual species, time and mode of harvest, and
preparation, processing and formulations. The information collected and subsequently
published are often patented without giving credit for the leads provided by or giving
compensation or reward to the communities or traditional practitioners. The findings are
generally shown as original discoveries. This is in fact not true at least in some cases.
Pharmaceutical industries investigate the efficacy of medicines used by the indigenous
people. Useful substances are known to the indigenous people and based on such
traditional knowledge the pharmaceutical companies isolate active principles and market
them as drugs directly or design new drugs with modifications or synthesize them. While
companies patent the products and earn huge profits, the information provided by the
indigenous people is ignored by treating the traditional knowledge as mere tradition, folk-
lore or public property. Large numbers of patents have been granted on genetic resources
and traditional knowledge without the consent of the possessors of the resources and
knowledge. For example, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in
India had asked for re-examination of US Patent No. 5, 401, 5041 granted for the wound
healing properties of turmeric. The US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) revoked
this patent after ascertaining that there was no novelty. This knowledge has been in use in
India for centuries. Similarly, the patent granted to Neem was also revoked on the
grounds that it is the intellectual property of the Indians who have been using it for
centuries.
Protection of the traditional knowledge of local and indigenous communities is a
very contentious issue. Traditional knowledge has always been treated as knowledge in
the public domain, which is freely available for exploitation without acknowledging the
efforts made by the communities. Need to protect the traditional knowledge has captured
the attention of the world community only after modern biotechnological advances have
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demonstrated the usefulness of traditional knowledge in the development of new products
of commercial importance. Benefits of new technology have not reached the custodians
of knowledge. The process of globalization is threatening the appropriation of elements
of collective knowledge of communities into proprietary knowledge for the commercial
profit of a few (Dashaco, 2001; Tripathi, 2003).
Since the knowledge held by the practitioners of a community is not known to
other communities or societies it must be considered as private and not something which
comes within public domain or as something which is a human heritage available free of
cost. Goodwill of the communities or societies is taken advantage of by the
ethnobotanists, researchers or scientists whose motives may be personal gain or profit
maximization. The gathering of knowledge and collection of biological resources from
traditional people by outsiders is intense ‘bio-prospecting’ (search for and collection of
biologically active materials for commercial use).
Many communities are now aware of such motives and have, therefore, taken
upon themselves to protect their traditional systems, ideas, information and innovations.
There is increasing realization amongst the traditional communities regarding the mining
of their knowledge by the outsiders without any respect to the rights of the local
inhabitants. The local communities do not come forward easily to share or divulge
information unless commensurate returns are guaranteed. For example, a person known
to possess antidotes for snakebite never discloses the source of antidote. At present,
indigenous or traditional knowledge passed down orally over many generations are not
rewarded in the absence of community Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs). The
intellectual properties that have been in existence in the ancient cultures since ages are
still extant. Without the appropriate safeguards in the current IPR laws situation may
arise where unauthorized commercial exploitation of biological resources may be
encouraged thereby legitimizing bio-piracy. Patenting of products derived by following
leads from traditional knowledge and bioprospecting are not only exploitative but also
violate the spiritual values of many traditional people (Dutfield, 1999).
As has been mentioned elsewhere, there are nearly 5000 ethnic communities in
India. And there are as many diverse traditional practices, home remedies, recipes and
formulas practiced by them; these have been handed down orally from generation to
generation. The relevance of local herbal health traditions have not diminished despite
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progresses made in the field of modern medicine. The economic value of traditional
knowledge can never be truly evaluated because their contribution is unquantifiable and
can never be adequately measured. Traditional knowledge needs to be protected. The
following considerations proposed by Correa may be taken into account for evolving
effective IPR regimes for traditional knowledge (Correa, 2001) –
(i) Ethical and moral considerations – For providing knowledge for evolving
and promoting noble cause; in finding solutions to global health and other
problems facing humanities.
(ii) Sustainable development considerations - Benefits from use of traditional
knowledge can be used to sustain economic development activities.
(iii) Conservation considerations – Use and importance of traditional
knowledge of biological resources has potential to highlight the
importance of conservation and sustainable utilization of natural biological
resources.
(iv) Preservation of traditional lifestyles – Traditional knowledge provides
framework to encourage the maintenance of practices and knowledge
embodying traditional lifestyles. Preservation of traditional knowledge
becomes conditional to continuation of traditional lifestyles. The crisis
affecting the world’s diverse cultures and languages is as great as the crisis
of biodiversity loss. According to some estimates, 90% of 9,000 currently
spoken languages may become extinct in the next 100 years. Possibility of
economic returns from use of traditional knowledge will be an incentive to
continue to engage in traditional practices.
(v) Prevention of unauthorized appropriation of traditional knowledge
(biopiracy) by unscrupulous parties – Improving the quality and quantity
of information made available to various patent offices can help in
examination of novelty, inventive steps and processes.
(vi) Promoting use of traditional knowledge – Protection of traditional
knowledge does not mean limiting access to it. Use of traditional
knowledge needs to be promoted with adequate measures to prevent
misappropriation. Government of Philippines has made provisions in their
relevant Acts with an aim to accelerate the development of traditional and
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alternative health care by improving the manufacture, quality control and
marketing of traditional health care materials. Traditional knowledge has
to be treated as underutilised “intellectual resource”.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ratified in 1992 by over 170
countries in the world has three objectives - (i) conservation of biological diversity, (ii)
sustainable use of its components, and (iii) fair and equitable sharing of the benefits
arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. Article 8(j) of the Convention provides
that – “ Each contracting party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, subject to its
national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices
of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and promote the wider application with
the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and
practices and encourage the equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of
such knowledge, innovations and practices”. CBD contains 42 Articles. The basic
commitments of the CBD, therefore, are as follows–
• Recognition of sovereign rights of the states over their biological
resources.
• Stipulation that access to biological resources can only occur with the
prior and informed consent of the states.
• Protection and promotion of the rights of communities in terms of their
biological resources and traditional knowledge.
• Establishment of access to the biological resources of developing
countries on a quid pro quo basis with technology transfer from the
developed countries.
• Equitable sharing of benefits arising from the commercial use of
biological resources and associated traditional knowledge.
• IPRs must not conflict with the conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity.
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Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) agreement (1994)
also has some provisions having limited application to the protection of traditional
knowledge. Many countries including India have suggested few preconditions while
granting patent rights (Bellman et al., 2003). These include –
(i) Disclosure of the source and origin of the resource and of the traditional
knowledge used in the invention. For example, process and use of a
medicinal or aromatic plant to make products or extracting vegetable dye
from certain minerals and plants.
(ii) Evidence of Prior Informed Consent (PIC) before using the biological
resource.
(iii) Evidence of fair and equitable benefit sharing (both monetary and non-
monetary) from the use of traditional knowledge.
(iv) The onus of providing compliance (burden of proof) to be upon user
agency, which will have to prove that all conditions of disclosure and
benefit sharing have been met.
Only inventions that can be dated and attributed to an individual or small group of
people can be patented. In theory, traditional knowledge may be patentable as sources of
knowledge could be attributed to individuals, kinships or communities. Collective nature
of most traditional knowledge poses complicated problems about the attribution and
exercise of rights. It is often impossible to trace traditional knowledge to a specific
community or geographical area, and hence it becomes ineligible for patent protection.
Further, once traditional knowledge is recorded and published its use and application is
beyond the control of the original knowledge providers and there is no way to protect
their IPR. No one discounts the importance of documentation. However, once published,
novelty on the disclosed information cannot be claimed. If a scientist or researcher
improves upon published traditional knowledge and develops a new product or comes out
with a formula satisfying the requirements for patentability, he obtains patent for the
product or formula and not for the herbs used. The people who are using and applying
traditional products may technically become patent violators (Dutfield, 1999). Presently,
the existing patent laws do not work for traditional knowledge holders because of
following reasons (Anonymous, 2002) –
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• Individual inventors can not be identified as traditional knowledge is
collective in nature.
• It is often impossible to attribute traditional knowledge to any particular
geographical location.
• Since traditional knowledge has been in existence over a long period of
time, it is often impossible to present it as novel.
• There is no recorded documentation of traditional knowledge as it has been
passed on orally.
In India, section 36(iv) of the Biodiversity Bill provides for the protection of
knowledge of local people relating to biodiversity through measures such as registration
of such knowledge, and development of a sui generis system. For ensuring equitable
sharing of benefits arising from the use of biological resources and associated knowledge.
Section 19 and 21 stipulate prior approval of the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
before their access. NBA will impose terms and conditions while granting approval. One
of the functions of NBA is to take measures to oppose the grant of IPRs in any country
outside India on any biological resource obtained from India or knowledge associated
with such a biological resource. Thailand has developed a comprehensive sui generis
regime for Traditional Medicine, which is called “Thai Medicinal Intelligence Act”
(Correa, 2001). The Act distinguishes three different categories of “Traditional
Formulations”. Certain formulas of traditional Thai Medicine, which have significant
benefit or special medicinal value, have been designated as national formula. Rights of
such formulas belong to the state. The commercial use of a national formula for the
production of drugs or for research and development is subject to permission from the
Government. Private formulas are those which can be used freely by the owner. Whereas,
third party has to obtain permission from the owner of the formula. This Act provides for
registration of private formulas by an inventor or developer of such formulas. The rights
over a registered personal formula subsist throughout the life of the owner and for a
further 50 years from the date the applicant dies. Third category of formula is “general
formula”, which is well known traditional formulas that remain free to use by anybody.
One of the important feature of this law is that all three types of formulas can continue to
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be used free domestically by the traditional healers or Thai communities on a limited
scale. The law also provides for the conservation and sustainable use of the medicinal
plants. A “Thai Traditional Knowledge Development Fund” has also been created.
Any strategy to protect traditional knowledge must take into account the rights of
indigenous and local communities with regard to informed consent procedures.
Prospecting of biological resources has to be allowed only with the prior consent of the
local communities in accordance with the customary laws of the concerned communities.
The laws should not only prevent biopiracy, these laws must also provide the basis for
sharing benefits arising out of use of traditional knowledge. Mere documentation of
traditional knowledge will not ensure benefit sharing with the holders of such knowledge.
It may even foreclose that possibility as documented knowledge is deemed part of the
prior art. Another equally important factor that prohibits the communities to go for
patents is the cost of application for patents and pursuing patent infringement cases.
Considering above mentioned aspects of traditional knowledge and IPRs and the
present studies on the traditional knowledges possessed by the Bhotias of Dharchula
region, in my view, following strategies may ensure rights of local communities which
will ensure sustainable development and conservation –
1. Laws must provide for, as far as possible, patenting the traditional knowledge,
processes and practices in the name of persons or communities who hold this
knowledge, either singly or jointly. If necessary, the requirements of inventive
steps in the existing patent laws must be done away with. Indigenous people
will then be entitled to full ownership, control and protection rights over their
intellectual property.
2. A minimum of 25% or even 50% of the income realized from use of new
products developed by following leads derived from the traditional knowledge
should be provided as royalty to the local communities possessing the
knowledge and this should be made mandatory while patenting new products.
When traditional knowledge is used for curing a disease or developing new
processes or products it is expected that there would be disclosure only if
there are commensurate returns.
3. All the communities should be made to register their practices or knowledge
and the patent for a product should not be granted unless consent of the
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concerned community has been obtained for research, investigation and
development.
4. Entire spectrum of traditional knowledge or practices of all the communities
should be documented so that they come within private domain. This would
ensure that the information is not lost and that information will come within
the ambit of ‘prior art’ i.e. disclosure of contents of the claim prior to
application for patent.
5. Collective rights of indigenous and local communities to freely use, exchange
and develop biodiversity and to access their territories must be recognized as a
prior right and be placed over and above private IPRs.
6. Collective invention must be recognized to protect communities from
biopiracy. There are genuine concerns that many companies may be unwilling
to share their intellectual property rights with traditional communities or
resource providers and pay adequate compensation.
7. Customary laws, rules and traditions must be accommodated in the national
laws. Many communities have their own laws and traditions to conserve,
protect and utilize their biological resources.
8. Above concerns have to be reflected in legislation and national policies by
making necessary amendments or insertions in the provisions of the relevant
acts and rules.
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CHAPTER IX
Sustainable utilization and Management of traditional plant resources
and the knowledge associated with them
Based on the data presented in the thesis, it is important to suggest management
plan for the sustainable utilization of traditional plant resources and knowledge
associated with them
9.1. Stakeholders, issues and concerns
Livelihoods of local inhabitants have always depended on free access to the
wilderness for collection of natural plants and other resources. In order to devise
strategies to evolve policies and management plans, interests of all the stakeholders have
to be taken into account for the sustainable utilization of plant resources. The Table-6
gives the different strategies proposed under different interests/motivators and
demotivators –
Table 6. Management strategies for sustainable utilization of plant resources under different conditions
Stake-Holders
Interests/motivators Demotivators Strategy
Local inhabitants
a. Free and easy access to resources.
b. Removal of archaic regulatory mechanism.
c. Continuous demand and good local market and price.
d. Optimum level of resource base.
e. Increase in resource base to meet the increased level of demand.
f. Availability of institutional support.
g. Traditional knowledge kept alive and availability
a. Excessive control and regulatory mechanism.
b. Depleted
resource base. c. No market.
a. Fundamental rights of local inhabitants to use resources for religious, medicinal or ritual purposes to be respected. b. With the facilitatory role of government the locals use resources on sustainable basis to improve their living standards.
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of demand of new plant resources.
Forest Deptt
a. No depletion of resources.
b. Sustainable utilization of resources.
c. Equitable distribution of income/benefit sharing.
d. No infringement of Acts and Rules in vogue.
e. Compliance with CBD objectives.
f. Continuous availability of local and international markets.
g. Enhancement of resource base through new technology and ex situ propagation.
h. Exploring the possibilities of developing new drugs or products by having linkages with universities or pharmaceutical companies leading to generation of new demands.
a. Unsustainable use of resources. b. Depletion of resource base. c. Infringement of Acts or Rules. d. Monopoly of some local inhabitants or communities.
a. Govt to facilitate use of natural resources by the local inhabitants for traditional purposes. b. Govt to provide financial and technical support so that local inhabitants do not indulge in over-exploitation of the resources to meet market demand. c. Govt to formulate guidelines and plans along with communities for harvesting and marketing. d. Govt to lease out plant collection rights to local communities in perpetuity but renewable every 2 - 3 years depending upon the status of stock of plants. e. Prioritization of
species.
Local Bodies (Local Community/ vanPanchayat, etc.)
a. Control over market. b. Control over resources. c. Equitable distribution of benefit.
d. Access to resources by the members only.
e. Participation in
a. Excessive control by government over resources. b. Lack of transparency in policies and plans. c. Appropriation of benefits by
a. Local bodies like Van Panchayats to be given control over plant resources so that they get some sense of ownership. b. Arrange local markets and negotiate prices.
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preparation of plans and guidelines and implementation.
f. Participation in decision making processes.
g. Protection of intellectual property rights of local traditional knowledge holders.
Scientists, researchers and companies by using traditional knowledge. Misappropriation of the traditional knowledge results in denial of benefits to those who deserve them.
c. Seek Govt assistance to educate local inhabitants about sustainable extraction and scientific cultivation of species. d. Make people aware of their responsibilities towards environment and society; Institutionalise long term links with the markets. e. IPR in the name of community or local inhabitants with provisions for adequate compensation.
Market Continuous supply of raw material at reasonable prices.
Non-availability of species in demand.
Encourage and motivate brokers not only to give commercial value for the plants traded but also to introduce new species that are in demand.
Forests/ Environment
a. Healthy biodiversity. b. Environment in which all the components of ecosystem are at balance.
a. Presence of invasive species that will not allow other species to come up in the area. b. Destructive and non-sustainable extraction of plant resources resulting in adverse impact on biodiversity.
a. Management plan that will conserve biodiversity by maintaining harmonious relationship between local inhabitants and nature. b. Continuous mapping of the area in order to prepare baseline data to assess the status of resource and health of ecosystem.
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The first step in the development of appropriate management policies is to put in
place a system where the interests of all the stakeholders can be adequately and properly
addressed. While formulating a policy the basic premise is to keep in mind that human
presence or some human interference is not necessarily adverse for the health of
biodiversity. My observations in Darma valley clearly suggests that some biotic
interference helped biodiversity to flourish (Garbyal et al., 2005). Every species whether
rare, endangered or threatened has equal right to exist along with local inhabitants in the
region. People of the region are no longer dependent on nature for their livelihood. There
is no food scarcity, which used to be quite common in the past; modern medical facilities
can be accessed though with little difficulty at places; downhill migration of the people
has brought prosperity to the people. These socio-economic developments in the region
lead to breaking of the age-old balance or link with the nature.
The system in which interests of all the stakeholders can be rightfully addressed
will be the one in which local bodies like Van Panchayats or Village Panchayats or any
other local body play the central role. Role of the Government agencies must be limited
to exercising regulation or control and channelising assistance to the local inhabitants
through these bodies. The local bodies in turn help Government agencies by formulating
guidelines for extraction of species and in making plans that will be acceptable to all. The
local bodies inter alia also ensure that local traditions and values are respected.
9.2. Inadequacy of legal provisions
There are three main Acts of Law that deal with wild plant resources used by
the local inhabitants for traditional purposes. These are Indian Forest Act, 1927; Wild
Life Protection Act, 1972 and Biological Diversity Act, 2002. The wild plant diversity in
the region is available in notified forests and sanctuaries as in other parts of the country.
This being the case, all the wild plant materials used are included under the definition of
‘forest produce’ as defined under Section 2, sub-section 4(b) of the Indian Forest Act,
1927 and ‘wild life’ under Section 2(37) of the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972. The
harvests, transportation and trade of forest produce are governed by the Sections 39, 40,
41 and 42 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927. Similarly, specified plants are given protection
by Sections 17-A, 17-B, 17-C, 17-D, 17-E, 17-F, 17-G and 17-H of the Wild Life
Protection Act, 1972. Under these Acts the controlling agencies are the Forest and Wild
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Life departments of the states. Under the recent Biological Diversity Act, 2002 access to
the biodiversity found in the forests and wildlife sanctuaries/national parks is controlled
by the National Biodiversity and State Biodiversity Authorities. However, roles of Forest
and Wild Life departments, who are the custodians of the biological diversity according
to the Indian Forest Act, 1927 and Wild Life Protection Act, 1972 have not been
specified. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 has, therefore, sown the seeds of conflicts
of interests, which is bound to affect the management of biological resources and
ultimately the local communities whose livelihood depends upon these resources.
Multiplicity of controlling agencies will only hamper the implementation of
regulation/control necessary for conservation and sustainable utilization of natural
resources.
There are already stifling restrictions and controls, which were put in place in
the past without taking into account the age old links between the communities and
nature. One more restrictive authority imposed by the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 is
bound to compound the miseries of the local inhabitants and encourage flagrant violation
of the laws. In these Acts, traditions, customary laws and customary rights have been
ignored and subjugated. The members of the Biodiversity Authorities may not be familiar
with the traditions, customary laws and rights of the local communities that are not
documented and remain unwritten. In fact, the local communities should have been the
first regulatory authority for access to their biodiversity and their intellectual property.
Rather than having plethora of Acts dealing with one resource, there should have been
one comprehensive Act, which inter alia empowers the local communities and in which
traditions, customary laws and rules are provided statutory recognition. Natural resources
can only be comprehensively managed if a forum is established where stakes of local
inhabitants are developed and properly addressed.
9.3. Proposed Action Plan for Sustainable utilization and Management of
traditional plant resources Dharchula region
Based on the above mentioned facts, the following actions are proposed for the
management of plant resources and the traditional knowledge associated with it -
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1. Surveys to prepare baseline data to assess the current status of natural
resources in the area and to prioritise the sites and species on the basis of
distribution, status, trade and their potential for development of new drugs or
products of commercial interests. This can be outsourced to the botanists familiar
with the area. Biennial monitoring of data may act as watch dog on the status of
resources.
2. Traditional knowledge about the plant resources is slowly loosing ground. The
base of traditional knowledge is gradually narrowing down as dependence on wild
plants for livelihood is coming down. It is, therefore, imperative that Traditional
knowledge is documented, standardized, disseminated, protected and shared.
People’s interest in traditional knowledge will arouse only if its practice becomes
means of livelihood for the local inhabitants. Documentation of knowledge and its
dissemination amongst fellow inhabitants have to be part of the management plan.
3. Leasing out plant collection rights to the communities in perpetuity, but
renewable every two years depending upon stock of resources available in wild to
ensure sustainable utilization.
4. Rights of the local inhabitants to use resources for religious, medicinal or
ritual purposes to be respected.
5. Memorandum of understanding (MOU) between pharmaceutical companies/
traders and local communities on trade matters including the kinds of species and
quantities required. These MOUs will ensure appropriate returns to the local
communities which in turn will regulate sustainable harvests. This would also
remove the uncertainties such as the present scenario where the local collectors are
at the mercy of agents and middlemen. They do not have any bargaining power
since they do not have knowledge of or access to the market information. In the past
there were cases where local communities cultivated some medicinal plants but
there were no buyers for them. A villager in the village Filam of Darma valley had
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cultivated Podophyllum hexandrum in 2003 in his home garden on the advice of
some government officials. But no one came to purchase his harvests.
6. Preparation of guidelines in consultation with the local communities/local
bodies regarding method of extraction of plant species and their portions. Access
for the collection of plant species to be free for the local inhabitants as per the
guidelines. This will give sense of ownership and control over plant resources to the
local communities.
7. Natural plant resources alone cannot sustain demand over a long period of
time. Therefore, ex situ propagation of species has to be promoted. Ignorance, over-
harvesting and increase in commercial trade have threatened many species in the
wild. There are large chunks of abandoned fields available in almost every village
in the region. These together with common village lands can be utilized for ex situ
propagation. Moreover, there are local inhabitants who have knowledge and are
ready to take up cultivation provided necessary institutional and financial supports
are made available to them. What they need is financial support, quality planting
material or seeds and assured markets for their products. Schemes supported by
government agencies or financial institutions or pharmaceutical companies need to
be prepared for this purpose. There are already examples of companies like Dabor,
etc. to whom lands have been leased for cultivation of threatened medicinal plant
species.
8. It may be noted that cultivation of medicinal plants can become a profitable
economical proposition for those species that are used extensively by the
pharmaceutical. For instance, out of more than 500 medicinal plant species used by
the Ayurvedic pharmaceuticals about 70 species only are used in substantial
quantities. Further, there are species such as Cordyceps sinensis for which the
technology and knowledge for cultivation or controlled multiplication is not
available at present. Therefore, collection from wild has to be made viable and
sustainable. As long as harvests are need based, they will always be sustainable, but
when they are regulated by the demands of national or international markets, they
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may become unsustainable. The local inhabitants must be educated about
sustainable and non-destructive extraction methods from wild.
9. Control and regulatory regimes for harvests, access and trade to be put in
place in consultation with the local communities/ local bodies.
10. Local community leaders to be educated about existing laws and provisions,
which need to be respected, followed and complied with. They must also be
educated about new laws enacted, new rules and regulations imposed and any
changes brought about in the existing rules and regulations. Any proposed changes
in the policy and their implications should be brought to the notice of the local
communities. Ideally, local communities must be consulted before bringing in new
rules and regulations. There must be transparency in intent and action.
11. Intellectual property rights of local inhabitants have be protected by
appropriate amendments in the existing IPR laws.
12. Government policies and actions must be based on the understanding of the
livelihoods of local communities.
13. Government’s initiatives to the local communities by way of providing
alternative livelihoods that are contrary to their cultures and values should be
discouraged as these may have profound adverse impact on biodiversity. This
assumes importance because of the fact that area is ecologically very fragile and
sensitive.
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CHAPTER X
Summary and Conclusions Ethnobotanical information is of paramount value not only in the drug discovery
and documentation of traditional knowledge but also in evolving appropriate IPR regimes
and sustainable management strategies for plant resources. Plants have been used for
varieties of purposes by traditional communities, particularly in health care, food and in a
number of household utilities. Some of the recently discovered plant-based drugs, in fact,
owe their origin to traditional knowledge of the communities. Increased harvests of plants
in wild, particularly those used in the health care systems, have threatened many plant
species.
Dharchula ranges in North-West Himalaya include temperate, sub-alpine and
alpine ranges with altitudes varying from 1,200 m to over 7,000 m are located between
290 59' to 300 04' North latitude and 800 28' to 800 57' East longitude. These Himalayan
ranges are known for their rich diversity in plant resources that form the basis of
livelihoods of local communities. Depletion of these resources due to excessive harvests
from wild is not only threatening the livelihoods of local communities but also leads to
loss of traditional knowledge, which is yet to be documented. The present work,
“Traditional knowledge of plant resources in Dharchula region: biotechnological
potential, conservation and management strategies” was, therefore, undertaken to: (i)
document the traditional knowledge associated with the plant resources of the region, (ii)
undertake economic evaluation of the plant resources, (iii) assess conservation status of
plant species and trade involved in the species, and (iv) develop suitable IPR regime and
appropriate management strategies for sustainable utilisation.
To document the traditional knowledge possessed by the Bhotia community with
respect to plant resources, a questionnaire was prepared. The questionnaire was
formulated in a way that the information sought covers the objectives of the
investigations. A total of 23 villages were sampled not only for documentimg the
ethnoboatanical information but also for collection of plant species and record their
distribution and abundance. In addition to these villages, 10 localities located across 261
sq. km. were also surveyed. For each species used by the Bhotia community,
ethnobotanical information, magnitude of trade, the distribution range of the species
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within the area, the abundance of the species, the characteristic features of the habitat
were recorded. Specimens were also collected for all the species investigated. For each
species documented the following information were provided: latest botanical name,
family to which it belongs, local name, taxonomic description, phenology particularly
flowering and fruiting timings, ecology and distribution, known methods of propagation,
a brief account of known phytochemical investigations, traditional uses, conservation
status, trade practices and notes.
A total of 80 species used by the Bhotia community was documented. These
species belong to 40 families. Most of these species are perennial herbs with underground
perenating rhizomatus/bulbous/tuberous/cormatus rootstocks. The product of commerce
in most of the species is rootstock. Use of 80 species belonging to 40 families suggests
that high taxonomic diversity form the basis of livelihoods of Bhotia community.
Most of the species documented prefer highly specialized ecological niche. For
example, Bergenia ciliata prefers exposed wet rocks and cliffs, Coleus forskohlii prefers
exposed dry rocky outcrops, Silene kumaonensis prefers rock crevices, Podophyllum
hexandrum and Arnebia benthamii prefer ground under rocks, Saussurea gossypiphora
prefers gravels and boulders, and Hippophae salicifolia prefers open and moist ravines.
Similaly, Paris polyphylla prefers shade Potentilla sundaica prefers open meadows. This
indicates that ecological diversity is essential for sustenance of high taxonomic diversity.
Flowering and fruiting timings of the species belonging to different families are
similar suggesting that there is convergence with respect to reproductive biology. For
example species belonging to Ranunculaceae family flower and fruit during August-
September, most of the species belonging to Compositaea family flower and fruit during
July-September and species belonging to Liliaceae family flower and fruit during June-
August. This is perhaps due to adaptation to short growing season as the mountain ranges
remain covered under snow from October-November to March-April.
Phytochemical data of different species suggest enormous diversity in natural
products. The range of compounds isolated from the plant species documented is very
high. Phytochemical diversity is perhaps associated with the taxonomic diversity. The
distribution patterns of some of the compounds, particularly alkaloids and terpenoids, can
be used as taxonomic markers. These taxonomic markers can be of enormous utility in
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standardization of drugs, in detection of adulteration of drugs particularly in trafficking
and in formulating quarantine measures.
Of the different species documented, 54 species were used for general disorders,
liver diseases, jaundice, cancer, debility, ulcers, wounds and other ailments (Table 7).
Nine species namely Cordyceps sinensis, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Dioscorea deltoidea,
21. Lilium oxypetalum Swelling in limbs 22. Malva sylvestris Severe headache, convulsions and as cooling agent 23. Mazus surculosus Inflammations of urinary tracts 24. Paris polyphylla Boils and insect bites
25. Parnassia nubicola Cuts, wounds and as antiseptic 26. Picrorhiza kurroa Sickness after childbirth, blood purifier 27.Pinus wallichiana Swelling in limbs, antiseptic, boils, insect bites 28. Podophyllum hexandrum Fever, stomach ailments 29. Polygonum amplexicaule Constipation 30. Polygonum rumicifolium Convulsions, high fever, malaria 31. Polygonum viviparum Mouth ulcers, throat problems 32. Potentilla sundaica Throat problems 33. Prinsepia utilis Rheumatism, body and joint pains 34. Pyrus pyrifolia General and amoebic dysentery 35. Rheum emodi Fractures and wounds 36. Rubia cordifolia Skin eruptions 37. Rubus foliolosus Liver diseases, jaundice 38. Rubus nutans Inflammations of urinary tracts 39. Rumex nepalensis Skin irritations 40. Saussurea gossypiphora Stomach ailments 41. Saussurea lappa Sickness to women after childbirth 42. Senecio chrysanthemoides Gastric, indigestion, stomach ailments 43. Silene kumaonensis Dendruffs 44. Solanum nigrum Stomach ache, convulsions, headache 45. Swertia ciliata Fever, malaria 46. Taraxacum officinale Jaundice, liver ailments 47. Taxus baccata For warmth in extreme winter 48. Thalictrum foliolosum High fever, inflammations, constipation 49. Thamnolia vermicularis Galactagogue 50. Urtica dioica Haemorrhages and to excite activity in paralysed
rumicifolium, Pyrus pyrifolia, Roscoea alpine and Silene kumaonensis used by the
Bhotias need detailed phytochemically investigation. These observations also indicate
high biotechnological potential of plant resources of Dharchula region.
Economic evaluation of entire Dharchula region was carried out by taking into
account the area surveyed and the population sizes of the villages sampled, the quantity
of material of plant species traded, the value of the traded material, the value of the
medicinal plants used in local medicine/health care, potential value of medicinal plants as
source of new plant based drugs or drugs synthesized based on plant product and
potential value of medicinal plants lost due to extinction. The total area covered for
economic evaluation was 261 sq. km. and population size was 14,664 comprising both
Bhotias and non-Bhotias. The total market value of 7 major species traded in 2003 was
Rs 315.6 – 440.5 lakhs. Savings due to use of medicinal plants for health care by local
communities was estimated as Rs. 50-100 per person per year and, therefore, the value
medicinal plants used in local health care was Rs. 7.33 – 14.66 lakhs annually.The
potential value of medicinal plants as source of new plant based drugs or drugs
synthesized based on plant product was Rs. 17,550 lakhs and potential value of species
lost due to extinction was Rs. 17.55 lakhs. The economic value of traditionally used
medicinal plants in Dharchula ranges was found to be Rs. 68,000 per ha per year in the
year 2003.
To provide appropriate Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) regime to the traditional
knowledge possessed by Bhotia community and the associated plant resources, the
existing IPR laws were evaluated keeping in view the provisions of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD). It has been realized that increasing globalization has been a
threat to the appropriation of elements of collective knowledge of communities into
proprietary knowledge for the commercial profit of a few. There are numerous instances
where multinational corporations amassed wealth through biopiracy. Patenting of
products developed from following leads from traditional knowledge and bio-prospecting
are not only exploitative but also violate the spiritual values of many traditional people.
Large numbers of investigators have attempted to evolve effective IPR regimes for
traditional knowledge. For example, Correa (2001) used considerations of: (i) ethical and
moral, sustainable development and conservation aspects, (ii) preservation of traditional
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lifestyle, (iii) prevention of unauthorized appropriation of traditional knowledge by
unscrupulous parties, and (iv) promotion of use of traditional knowledge for evolving
effective IPR regimes. CBD also mentioned the following protective measures: (i)
protection and promotion of rights of the communities in terms of their biological
resources and traditional knowledge, and (ii) equitable sharing of benefits arising from
the commercial use of biological resources and associated traditional knowledge. Trade
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement has also provided
some provisions for protecting the traditional knowledge from exploitation by
unscrupulous parties. All these IPRs have limitations when applied to the traditional
knowledge holders. For example, (i) individual inventors cannot be identified as
traditional knowledge is collective in nature, (ii) it is not always possible to identify
geographical area from which the knowledge has emanated, and (iii) it is neither possible
to attribute knowledge to anyone nor there are any documentation. The effective IPR for
the traditional knowledge possessed by the Bhotias and its associated plant resources
should include elements such as: (i) traditional knowledge to be patented in the name of
the community or persons singly or jointly with provisions for adequate compensation,
(ii) collective rights of the community to freely use the plant resources to be recognized
and institutionalised, (iii) documentation of traditional knowledge and practices and their
registration, (iv) use of knowledge possessed by the communities to be used for research
and commerce only with the prior permission of the community, and (v) to suitably
amend the existing IPR laws to accommodate the interests and requirements of the
community (Anonymous, 2002).
To evolve sustainable management strategies that ensure livelihoods of local
Bhotia community and at the same time conserve the plant resources which form the
basis of their livelihoods, a number of motivators and demotivators were identified for
different stakeholders. The stakeholders were local inhabitants, Forest Department, local
communities / Van Panchayat etc., markets and forests / environment. Depending upon
the nature of the motivators and demotivators a number of strategies have been
formulated. For example, when stakeholders are local inhabitants, the motivators are free
and easy access to resources, continuous demand, optimum level of resource base, easy
access to markets, and availability of institutional support. On the other hand
demotivators are excessive control, restrictive regulatory mechanism, depleted resource
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base and absence of markets. And the strategy suggested includes facilitatory role of
government, respect for customary and traditional rights of the local inhabitants.
Multiplicity of authorities and too many acts and regulations often result in loss of
resources rather than to conserve them. Further, none of the Acts in India takes into
account the delicate and harmonious quasi symbiotic relationship between local
communities and nature. Limited biotic interference promotes sustainability and
prevention of such interference lead to loss of resources and even threatens ecosystems.
This quasi-symbiotic relationship is gradually diminishing because of abandonment of
traditional lifestyle by the local inhabitants in Dharchula region. For example, due to
increased migration from the traditional villages to the plains coupled with reduced level
of biotic interference, many rare plant species have made remarkable comeback in the
abandoned cultivation fields and grazing grounds in some of the valleys of Dharchula
range. At the same time limited and greatly reduced level of biotic interference has put a
check on spread of invasive species. A number of action plans were outlined for the
sustainable management of plant resources in Dharchula region, some of them include:
(i) plant collection rights to be leased out to the community in perpetuity with a provision
to renew them every 2-3 years depending upon status of the resource in wild, (ii) local
communities to be given control over the plant resources so that they get sense of
ownership and, therefore, responsibility towards them, (iii) control and regulatory regime
to be put in place in consultation with and with active participation of the community,
(iv) government to act as facilitatory agency in bringing the communities and
pharmaceutical and other companies together and assist in signing Memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) between them to remove uncertainties in the market for the
products, and (v) necessary arrangements to be made available to train local inhabitants
in sustainable non-destructive harvesting methods and in identifying markets for new
species that are used traditionally.
Conclusions
Based on the observations and investigations provided in the thesis, the following
conclusions are drawn:
1. The ethnobotanical studies of Dharchula range revealed that over 80 species
belonging to 40 families form the basis of livelihoods of Bhotia community. This
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indicates high taxonomic diversity is essential for sustaining the livelihood of
community and the loss in the taxonomic diversity may endanger the unique plant
culture of the region.
2. Many of the species documented are confined to highly specialised ecological niches.
Ecological diversity of the region is very high, which is essential for maintaining high
taxonomic diversity. Any disturbance in ecology may endanger many species which
in turn endanger the livelihoods of the community. In other words, ecosystems of
these ranges are ecologically fragile. 3. There is a convergence in traits associated with plant species belonging to
taxonomically divergent families due to adaptation to short-growing season in alpine
and sub-alpine ranges.
4. Phytochemical diversity amongst the plants species used by the Bhotia community is
extremely high and this diversity is perhaps associated with the taxonomic diversity.
The chemical constituents isolated from plant species documented belong to large
number of varied groups of natural products. Consequently, some of the compounds
can be used as taxonomic markers which may be useful in standardization of drugs, in
detection and prevention of adulteration and traffic in plant species.
5. Information documented on the therapeutic value of plant species suggests that
remedial functions of the plant species are also diverse. This provides a broad base
for the development of wide range of pharmaceuticals through biotechnological tools.
6. Out of the total 80 species, 38 species fall under threatened category. This indicates
that Dharchula range is one of the hottest hot spots. Unless immediate steps are taken
to secure these threatened species, there may be genetic wipe out caused by
anthropogenically mediated activities like excess and destructive harvesting coupled
with management strategies conceived without the knowledge of biology of the
species and without understanding plant culture.
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7. The new information has been documented for 16% of the species. This implies that
the economic potential of the plant resources of the region is very high and the
probability of discovering a new drug or product of industrial values through
biotechnological approach is extremely high. Therefore, rich plant diversity of
Dharchula range not only forms the basis of livelihood of Bhotia community but it is
also a treasure that can provide new remedies for diseases for which no drug is
available. In other words, the region has high biotechnological potential.
8. The value of medicinal plants in Dharchula ranges in terms of direct benefits is of the
tune of Rs 68,500 – 69,600 per ha per year. And the value in terms of their ecosystem
services and ecological goods, particularly with respect to prevention of soil erosion
and landslides, moisture retention and nutrient cycling may be of the tune of several
hundreds of crores. In other words, the economic potential of the region is very high
and require sustainable management strategies for not only the practical realization of
the economic potential of the resources but also their conservation.
9. There are inherent limitations in the existing IPR regimes when applied to the
traditional knowledge. Any IPR regime aimed at protecting traditional knowledge
possessed by the communities must incorporate customary laws and collective rights
of the communities and must have provisions for patenting of knowledge in the name
of communities with adequate compensation provisions.
10. The sustainable strategies for utilization and management of plant resources and
associated traditional knowledge in fragile ecosystem like Dharchula alpine and sub-
alpine ecosystems must take into account appropriate motivators and demotivators for
all the stakeholders. Therefore, a single strategy does not ensure sustainable
management of resources. This is because of unique interdependence or strong
interactions amongst the stakeholders and different type of motivators and
demotivators. Consequently, action plans suggested involve active, not passive,
participation of the communities in decision making, formulation of plans and in their
implementation and also in formulation of guidelines and control regimes besides
giving the communities control over resources.
326
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