This book is part of the Psychosocial Stress Series,...

This book is part of the Psychosocial Stress Series, edited by Charles R. Figley.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Nader, Kathleen.School rampage shootings and other youth disturbances : early preventative

interventions / Kathleen Nader. -- 1st ed.p. cm. -- (Psychosocial stress series)

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-415-87747-3 (hardcover : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-0-415-87748-0 (pbk. : alk. paper)1. Child psychology. 2. School shootings--Prevention. 3. School

violence--Prevention. I. Title.

BF721.N26 2012372.17’82--dc23 2011029456

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v

Contents

Series Editor’s Foreword vii

Acknowledgments ix

Contributors xi

Section i FactorS that contribute to School rampage/targeted ShootingS, other aggreSSion, and other Youth problemS

Chapter 1 SchoolShootingsandOtherYouthProblems:TheNeedforEarlyPreventiveInterventions 3Kathleen Nader

Chapter 2 YouthatRisk:TargetedShootings,OtherSchoolViolence,andSuicide 33Kathleen Nader and Wallis Nader

Chapter 3 TheSchoolEnvironment,SchoolRampageKillings,andOtherFormsofSchoolViolence 71John Eller

Chapter 4 AContinuumofYouthViolence 83Edmund Bruyere and James Garbarino

Section ii earlY preventive interventionS

Chapter 5 TeachingCopingandSocialSkillstoElementarySchoolChildren 103Christine Mello and Kathleen Nader



vi Contents

Chapter 6 TreatingInsecureandDisorganizedAttachmentsinSchool-AgedChildren 127Ellen Moss, Katherine Pascuzzo, and Valerie Simard

Chapter 7 PromotingEmpathyinSchool-AgedChildren:CurrentStateoftheFieldandImplicationsforResearchandPractice 159Kimberly Schonert-Reichl

Chapter 8 BullyingAmongChildrenandAdolescents:Social–EmotionalLearningApproachestoPrevention 205Dorothy L. Espelage and Sabina Low

Chapter 9 AQuick,FunMethodforTeachingKidsHowtoStopBeingVictims 221Israel C. Kalman

Chapter 10 EarlyInterventions:PreventingAggressionandEnhancingConnectionAmongYouthandAdults 245Kathleen Nader and William S. Pollack

Author Index 265

Subject Index 283



3

c h a p t e r 1School Shootings and Other Youth Problems

The Need for Early Preventive Interventions

Kathleen Nader

Schoolsafetyisimportanttolearningandtowellbeing(Allen,Cornell,Lorek, & Sheras, 2008; American Psychological Association [APA]Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008; Robers, Zhang, Truman, Snyder,2010).Aggression in schoolshas longbeenaproblem.Althoughbar-ricadedcaptiveeventsandrampageortargetedshootingsareinfrequentoccurrences(Borum,Cornell,Modzeleski,&Jimerson,2010;Daniels,Royster,Vecchi,&Pshenishy,2010a),theirlong-termimpactonschools,individuals,andfamiliescanbesignificant. Inadditiontoschoolpre-parednessforthepossibilityofsucheventsistheneedforearlypreven-tiveinterventionsthatreducethelikelihoodoftheiroccurrence.Becausesome of the traits, circumstances, and conditions associated with theindividualswhocommitsucheventsarealsoassociatedwithotheryouthdifficulties,engaginginearlyinterventionssuchasthosepresentedinthesecondhalfofthisbookmaypreventanumberofyouthandlateradultproblemsincludingaggression.

SectionIofthisbookexaminesschoolshooters,especiallyyouth-targetedschoolshooters,aswellasthefamily,school,andcommunityenvironmentalconditionsassociatedwithschoolshootings.Anumberofinterventionsmayassistthereductionofaggression,otherdelinquency,andpsychopathologyingeneralaswellasreducethelikelihoodoftar-geted(sometimescalledrampage)shootingsbythosewiththepotentialtocarrythemout.InSectionIIofthisbook,methodstoimprovesocial



4 Kathleen Nader

skills,copingskills,self-control,empathy,andenvironmentalconditionsforelementaryschoolchildrenaredescribed.Addressinginsecureanddisorganized attachments and creating supportive environments withincreasedconnectionamongindividualsarealsoimportanttothepre-ventionofschoolviolenceandotheryouth-relatedproblems.

SCHOOLSHOOTINGS

Incidence of Violence in Schools

In2006,homicidewasthesecondleadingcauseofdeathforyouthages10 to 24 (5,958 murdered; CDC 2009a) (Suicide was the third lead-ingcause foradolescents in2002;Gouldetal.,2006).The incidenceofviolence,includingviolenceresultingindeaths,isgreateroutsideofschools than within schools (National School Safety Center [NSSC],2006). Arrest rates for murder increased from 1980 to 1993 anddeclined through 1997 (Snyder, & Sickmund, 1999). The number ofyoutharrestedforcommittinghomicidesdecreasedfrom3,092(1993)to1,354(1998)(Brooks,Schiraldi&Ziedenberg,2000).

The1994Gun-FreeSchoolsActrequiresexpulsionofstudentscar-ryingfirearmstoschools.Duringthe1996–1997schoolyear,5,724stu-dentswereexpelled,and in1997–1998,3,927studentswereexpelledforcarryingweapons to school (NSSC,2006).Nevertheless, in2007,youthingrades9–12reportedcarryingagunorotherweapononschoolgrounds—28.5%malesversus7.5%offemales;5.2%carriedagunonschoolgrounds(CDC,2008b).

Onschoolproperty,7%–8%ofstudentssampledwerethreatenedor injured with a weapon in 1993, 1995, 1997, and 1998 (Kaufmanetal.,1999,2000).Althoughresponseratessuggest thatstatisticsareincomplete, a 2007 nationally representative sample of youth grades9–12 reported threat rates similar to the90s (CDC,2008b).That is,nearly8%ofyouth(7.8%)reportedbeingthreatenedorinjuredwithaweapononschoolpropertyoneormoretimesinthepast12months.Inaddition,12.5%ofreportingstudentswereinphysicalfightsinthepast12months(16.8%ofmalestudents;8.5%offemalestudentsfoughtonschoolproperty).Duringthe2008–2009schoolyear,anestimated55.6millionstudentswereenrolledinschools(prekindergartenthroughhighschool;Snyder&Dillow,2010).In2008,therewereapproximately1.2millionvictimsofnonfatalcrimesatschoolamongstudentsages12–18(e.g., 619,000 thefts, 629,800 violent crimes) (Robers et al., 2010). Againin2009,8%ofstudentsreportedbeingthreatenedorinjuredwithaweapon,suchasagun,knife,orclub,onschoolproperty.



5School Shootings and Other Youth Problems

School-associatedstudenthomicideratesdecreasedbetween1992and2006andhaveremainedrelativelystableinrecentyears(CDC,2008).In2008–2009,therewereapproximately38school-associatedviolentdeathsamong youth ages 5–18 (24 homicides; 14 suicides). Like other youthhomicides,mostschool-associatedhomicidesaregenerallygangordrugrelatedorotherwiseassociatedwithcriminalactivityorinterpersonaldis-putes(Borumetal.,2010).Targetedschoolshootingsarerare.Between1996and2005,17schoolshootingsperpetratedbystudents,withmul-tiplevictims,resultedindeathsof39youthand13adultsaswellas111physicalinjuries(Kaiser,2005;seeTable 1.1).Thenumbersofdeathsandinjuriesreporteddonotincludeothervictims,suchasthemanystudentsandfamilieswhosufferedpsychologicaltraumasandtraumaticgrief,aswell as loss of a sense of safety at school for students, teachers, otherschoolpersonnel,andparents.Inrecentyears,schoolshootingsandstab-bingshaveoccurredallovertheworld(Allenetal.,2008).

Manifestation of Aggression

Multiple pathways may lead to aggression (Cornell, 1990; Cornell,Benedek, & Benedek, 1987; Nader, 2008). Among factors associatedwithaggressionareenvironments(e.g.,home,community),attachmentissues,age,humiliation,moralsocialization,personality,neurobiology,pasttraumas,andinformationprocessing.Forexample,fromaninfor-mationprocessingperspective,Suttonetal.(1999)suggestthatmaladap-tivebehaviors(e.g.,persistentaggression)aretheresultofdeficitsinanyoneormoreofthestepsidentifiedbyCrickandDodge(1994)inachild’sbehavioral responses to social stimuli: (1) encodingof cues, (2) inter-pretationofencodedcues,(3)clarificationofgoals,(4)responseaccessor construction, (5) response decision, and (6) behavioral enactment(Peeters,Cillessen,&Scholte,2010).Nosinglefactorortraitexplainsviolence,andthetraitsidentifiedinshooterscanbefoundinthosewhodonotcommitaggression.Additionally,youth’sskills,traits,andstylescombineinacomplexwaytoinfluencebehavioralandsocialoutcomes(Angold & Heim, 2007; Nader, 2008). For example, genetic vulner-abilitiescombinewithhome,community,and/or traumaticadversitiesto result in specific typesofpsychopathology.Cumulativeor extremestressesmaycontributetoemotionalreactivity(Nader,2008;Sapolsky,1998;vanderKolk&Sapporta,1991).Oneskillmayinfluencemultipleinterrelatedskillsoroutcomes.Forexample,theabilitytotaketheper-spectiveofanotherisimportanttosocialskillsincludingtheabilitytoinfluenceothers,expressandunderstandhumor,anddisplayempathy(Semrud-Clikeman&Glass,2010).Empathyandmoraldevelopmentare



6 Kathleen Nader

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8 Kathleen Nader

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amongfactorsthatareimportanttoself-regulation.Ingeneral,bullying(e.g.,relationalorphysicalaggression) isassociatedwithmoraldisen-gagementand lackofemotionalunderstanding.However, thesociallyintelligent youthhas theoption touse this skill peacefullyor aggres-sively;somesocialintelligenceisneededinordertoengageinconcealedrelationalaggression(Peetersetal.,2010).Geneticpredispositionsmaycombinewithparentalmodelingsuchthatyoutharepronetoandlearnto resolve interpersonal conflict with antagonism/aggression. In suchcases, lackofsocialskillscombinedwithcoercivebehaviorsmayleadtopeerrejection,andnoncompliancemayleadtofailureinschool.Inturn,thesefailuresmayexacerbateproblems.Additionally,timeofonsetisafactor.Earlyonsetpatternsofaggressionemergebeforeage6andmaytranslateintoadultcriminality(Bennett,Elliot,&Peters,2005).Asearlyaskindergarten,elementaryschoolteachersmayassisttheincreaseof social skillsandself-control,aswellas thereductionof socialandbehavioralproblems.

School Shootings With Multiple Deaths and/or Injuries

Inadditiontoschoolshootingsaimedatoneortwoindividualsbecauseofdisputes,powerseeking,organgactivities,thereareshootingsaimedatmultiplestudents.Suchshootings,sometimesreferredtoasrampageor targeted school shootings/attacks or barricaded captive situations(dependingonthecircumstances),maybeadultoryouthperpetrated.Althoughfullinformationaboutperpetratorsoftheseeventsisusuallynotavailable(e.g.,withheldforlegalreasons;lackofthoroughfindingspriortoevents)andnewspaperaccountsarenotalwaysaccurate(Borumetal.,2010;Lieberman,2006),someinformationisprovidedinthepsy-chologicalinvestigationsthatfollowtheseevents(seeChapter2).Aswillbediscussed in thepages to followand in the chapters of this book,whatisknownunderscorestheneedfor,amongotherthings,thetreat-mentoftraumas,complicatedgrief,andothermentaldisorders,aswellasthereductionofbullying,teachingyouthskillstodealwithbullyingandotheradversities,andtheprovisionofearlyinterventionsforfaultycaretaker–youthattachments.

CHILD-RELATEDVARIABLESTHATINFLUENCEDEVELOPMENT

Lifeprovidesnumerousstressorsforyouth.Earlyattachmentrelation-ships(Chapters6and10)helptoshapeayouth’songoingabilitytocope



12 Kathleen Nader

withstressandadversity.Thenatureofayouth’spersonality,neurobi-ology, social skills (e.g., perspective taking/empathy, social ease), andcopingskillsinfluencehowtheyrespondtostressors,includingthelike-lihoodofaggressionorsuicidality.

Neurobiology

AsdiscussedinChapter2,genetic(e.g.,lowMAOAactivity)andneu-rochemicalcharacteristicsareassociatedwithaggressionaswellaswithinternalizing(e.g.,serotoninsystemanddepression)andotherexternal-izingdisorders (Nader,2008).Changes inhormone levels, changes inreactivitytoneurochemicals(suchascortisolreactivity),specificbraininjury,andactivationofthefight–flightneurochemistryhavebeenlinkedto aggression (McBurnett, King, & Scarpa, 2003; Sapolsky, 1998).Serotonin deficiencies, for example, have been associated with lowmood,lackofwillpower,poorappetitecontrol,andthedysregulationofaggression(Grigorenko,2002;Schmidt&Fox,2002).Althoughcaremustbetakeninprescribingdrugsforyouth,thecorrectionofdeficitsbyuseofserotoninreuptakeinhibitorsdecreasesaggression,amelioratesanxiety,andinducessecureattachmentphenomena.Additionally,eventhoughfromaneurobiologicalperspectivemostaggressionisnotassoci-atedwithbraindeficits,whenthebrainisimplicatedintheexpressionofaggression,anumberofbraindeficits,especiallyrighthemisphericdefi-cits,arefoundtobeassociatedwithaggression(Kaiser,2005).Violenceandantisocialbehaviorshavebeen linked toabnormalprefrontalcir-cuitry,especiallyontherightside.

Previous traumatizationhasbeenamongassociationswithbehav-ioralproblemsincludingaggressionandsuicidality.Eitherover-activation(e.g.,fearorfight-inducingtraumas)orunder-activation(e.g.,neglect)ofimportantneuralsystemsduringcriticalperiodsmayprofoundlyaffectchild development (Perry, Pollard, Blakely, Baker & Vigilante, 1995).Forexample,extremestressmaydisruptthefunctioningofthecortex,which iscritically involved in inhibiting thestress responseaswellasin attention, organization, self-regulation, and planning (Rothbart &Rueda,2005;Stevensetal.,2007;Stein&Kendall,2004)(seeTraumaandAdversity,tocome).

Social and Coping Skills

Socialandcoping skillsdeficitshavebeenassociatedwithadjustmentproblemsandbehavioraldisorders(Chapter5).Nonproductivecoping




strategies have moderated the relationship between personality char-acteristics and delinquency (Hasking, 2007; Chapter 5). Aspects ofself-regulationareassociatedwithsocialandcopingcompetence—forexample, the ability to delay gratification and to inhibit reactions isimportanttocopingandsocialinteraction(Posner&Rothbart,2007).Research indicates that,compared toyouthwithpoorself-regulation,youthwithgoodself-regulationscorehigheronmeasuresofsocialcom-petence,aswellasacademicachievement,grades,andcoping(Buckner,Mezzacappa,&Beardslee,2009).Theyscoreloweronbehavioralprob-lems,anxiety,anddepression.Youthhigh inself-regulationappear torespondinmoreadaptivemannerstorealpastandhypotheticalstress-ors. Buckner et al. (2009) suggest that self-regulation skills may helpchildrencopewithadversity inmanners thathelp toalleviatedistressandtoresolveproblems.

Evidencesuggeststhatinterventionscanintegratepreventionofsui-cideandviolencebyfocusingontheirjointriskandprotectivefactors.Among these factors are coping skills and family functioning (Lubell&Vetter,2006).Althoughithasbeensuggestedthat,undercontinuedharassment,anyonemighteventuallyeruptintoviolence,becomeself-destructive,orsufferothersevereadverseemotionaleffects(seeDanielset al., 2010b), well-developed coping skills reduce the likelihood ofaggression(Chapter5).

Empathy

Empathy is a multidimensional concept that encompasses cognitiveaswellasemotionaldimensions, includingtheabilitytotaketheper-spectiveofothers, to correctly identify their subjective reality, and toexperienceappropriateaffectiveresponses totheperceptionofothers’emotional states (e.g., empathic concern, sharing the emotions of theother;Grynberg,Luminet,Corneille,Grèzes,&Berthoz,2010).MartinHenleysuggeststhatlackofsocialskilldevelopmentandinadequaciesofemotionalintelligencehandicapdisruptiveyouth,suchasthosewhobully,talkback,orrefusetofinishtasks(interviewinHopkins,2004).Theseyouthmayhaveshortcomingsintheirabilitiestounderstandtheimpactoftheirbehaviorsonothersaswellastocontrolimpulses,antici-pateconsequences,andmanagestress.

Alexithymiareferstoadeficitintheabilitytoidentifyanddescribeone’sownemotions,aswellasatendencytodealwithsuperficialthemesandtoavoidemotional/affectivethinking(suchavoidanceisreferredtoasexternally oriented thinking)(Frewenetal.,2008;Grynbergetal.,2010).Alexithymiahasbeenfoundinsometraumatizedindividualsand



14 Kathleen Nader

in associationwith somatic andothermental illnesses (Frewen et al.,2008).Evidencesuggestsacorrelationbetweenempathy(e.g.,perspec-tivetaking,empathicconcern)andtheabilitytoidentifyanddescribepersonal emotions aswell as anegative associationbetween empathyand externally oriented thinking (i.e.,when empathy is higher, exter-nally oriented thinking is lower) (Grynberg et al., 2010; Guttman &Laporte,2002).Youthwhoperpetratesocialcruelty(e.g.,relationalorovertlyaggressivebullying)tendtolackempathy,compassion,andper-spectivetaking(Cunningham,2007).

Processingof facialexpressionsandother indicatorsofemotion isimportanttohumaninteraction(Douglas,&Porter,2010).Traumaticordepressivereactionsmayinterferewithcomponentsofempathysuchasinformationprocessing(e.g.,perspectivetakingandaccuraterecognitionofothers’emotions).Forexample,individualswhoexperienceviolenceorexclusionmayattributemaliciousintenttoothersmoreoftenthantheirpeers,eveninambiguoussituations(Crick&Dodge,1996).Depressivesymptoms have been associated with negative interpersonal expecta-tions and perceptions, biased information processing in interpersonalinteractions, and maladaptive relationship-oriented beliefs (Hammen&Rudolph,2003).Forexample,depressedindividualsmoreoftenthanothersseesadnessandlessoftenseehappinessinneutralfaces(Douglas&Porter,2010).Cognitivebiasesmaycontributetoaggression(Nader,2008).Aggressiveyouthmayhavebiasesthatendorsethevalueofaggres-sion. Aggressive individuals tend more often to demonstrate a hostileattributionbias(Georgiou&Stavrinides,2008).Thatis,theymoreoftenseehostileintentinambiguousorneutralsituationsthanothers.

ENVIRONMENTALFACTORS

Family, school, community, and national environments influence out-comessuchaseffectivecopingoraggression,exclusionorsupport,andriskorresilienceinyouth.Forexample,socioeconomicstatus(SES)andcommunityviolencehavebeen implicated (Klein&Cornell,2010).Anumberofschoolenvironmentalfactorshavebeenlinkedtoschoolvio-lence(seeChapter3;“TheCaringSchoolCommunityProject,”Chapter7;and“PeacefulSchoolsProject,”Chapter8).School size, climateorsocial atmosphere, connection, the cycle of victimization and aggres-sion,bullyingandanatmospherethatcondonesit,amongotherfactors,have been linked to school outcomes (Gregory, Cornell, Fan, Sheras,Shih,&Huang,2010).Creatingasafeenvironmentandenhancingrap-portbetweenadultsandstudents isapartofprevention,aswellasapart of avertingpotential aggression.AsChapters 2 and8 elaborate,




programs that reduce theacceptabilityofbullyingbehaviors, increaseperceived adult responsiveness, and promote conflict resolution havebeen linked to reductions inbullyingandotheraggression.Providingyouthwithmethodsofcopingwithaggressorshasalsoproveneffective.

The School Environment—School Size

Among the multiple school-related factors that influence behavioralandmentalhealthoutcomes(Werblow,Robinson,&Duesbery,2010),schoolsizeisassociatedwithmixedfindingsinfluencedbydifferencesinstudymethods(e.g.,variableinclusion,sourceofdata)andinschoolandcommunitycharacteristics.Forexample,demographicssuchasSES(e.g.,lowSES),ethnicmake-upofschools(e.g.,ethnicdiversity/homo-geneity),andlocalcrimerates(e.g.,highcrime)areassociatedwithout-comes(e.g.,antisocialaggressiveness,externalizingbehaviors;seeKlein&Cornell,2010forasummary).Inaddition,thefrequencyofproblemsmustbedistinguishedfromthepercentagerateoftheiroccurrence.Thatis, largerschoolsmayhavemorereportedbehaviorproblemsbutmayhaveasmallerpercentageofproblemsfortheirpopulationthansmallerschools. For example, Klein and Cornell (2010) found a higher fre-quencybutalowerrateofrecordedbullyingoffensesinlargerschools.Morestudyisneededtodiscoverthemeaningoffindings.Forexample,doincreasedbullyingdisciplineviolationsreflectstricterenforcementinraciallydiverseschoolsortheimpactofdiversity?Isschoolsize,loca-tion,ordemographicsthekeyfactorinoutcomes?Inthecaseofphysicalattacks,KleinandCornell(2010)foundthatthedangerdidnotappeartobelinkedtourbanlocationorschoolsize,butinsteadtothepropor-tionoflow-income,minoritystudents.

Although small and larger school-size are discussed here, someresearchsuggestsanoptimalschoolsizerelatedtosomeoutcomes.Sixstudies found an “inverted U” relationship between school size andachievement. Achievement increased with school size up to an opti-mumsize thenbegan todeclineas school size exceeded theoptimum(Leithwood&Jantzi,2009).

Small SchoolsProponents of small schools suggest the following upper limits forschools:(a)forelementaryschools,therecommendedrangeis300to400students;and(b)forsecondaryschools,therangeis400to800(Cotton,1996;Leithwood&Jantzi,2009;Werblow&Duesbery,2009).Manyinvestigatorsconcludethatnoschoolshouldhavemorethan400or500students.Relatedtoachievementandstudentattendanceandretention



16 Kathleen Nader

rates,LeithwoodandJantzi(2009)concludedthatespeciallystrugglingandeconomicallydisadvantagedstudentsbenefitfromsmallerschools.Abodyof researchhasdemonstrated that small schools have greaterparent participation, better student engagement in school (i.e., moreparticipation,identification,andconnectionwithschool),morepositiveschoolclimates,warmerrelationshipsbetweenadultsandstudents,moreopportunity for school involvement, better school achievement, andfewerbehavioralproblems(Abbott,Joireman,&Stroh,2002;Cotton,1996;Klein&Cornell,2010;Leithwood&Jantzi,2009;Werblow&Duesbery,2009).

Larger SchoolsArguments in favor of large schools point out their economic andresourcebenefits.Inadditiontoeconomicaladvantages(e.g.,bulkpur-chasing; Klein & Cornell, 2010), large schools sometimes provide agreatervarietyofcourses(Leithwood&Jantzi,2009;Monk&Haller,1993).Althoughfindingsaremixedforachievement,someresearchsug-gestshigherscoresformiddleandhighschoolstudentsinlargerschools(Klein&Cornell,2010).

Some evidence suggests an absence of correlation between largeschool size and some externalizing problems (e.g., bullying; Klein &Cornell,2010).InalargeVirginiastatewidestudyofhighschoolsizeandvictimization,accordingtoschoolrecords,therelationshipbetweenschool size and bullying, threat, and attack violations was negative(Klein&Cornell,2010).Thatis,largerschoolshadalowerrateofvio-lationsthansmallerschools.Becauseschoolprincipalsandtheirassis-tants canonlydealwithafixednumberofdiscipline cases eachday,itispossiblethatlessseriouscaseswerenotrecorded.Studentreportsoftheirownvictimizationshowednocorrelationswithschoolsize.Incontrast,anationallyrepresentativelongitudinal studyof2,232elemen-taryschoolchildrendemonstratedthatschoolsizewasassociated withanincreasedriskofbeingvictimizedbybullying (Bowesetal.,2009).

The School Environment—Peer Victimization

Vying for social status is among normal human behaviors. Vying forstatus is among forms of bullying and relational aggression as well.Victims, bullies, and bully-victims are at risk for a number of nega-tive outcomes, such as absenteeism, alcohol abuse, antisocial behav-iors,cigarettesmoking,anduseofother formsofviolence,aswellaspoorpsychosocialadjustment,pooracademicachievement, loneliness,rejection,depression,anxiety, andpoor self-esteem (Beran&Lupart,




2009; Hawker & Boulton, 2000; Nansel, Overpeck, Haynie et al.,2003;Nansel,Overpeck,Pillaetal.,2001;Phillips,2007).Findingsforprevalenceofbullyingareinfluencedbydefinitionalcriteria(Cornell&Bandyopadhyay,2010). Ina studyofprevalence ratesofbullyingvic-timizationreportedforthe2monthspriortoquestioning,inanation-allyrepresentativesampleofgrades6–10,Wang,Ionnatti,andNansel(2009)statedthat12.8%ofstudentsreportedbeingphysicallybullied,36.5%wereverballybullied,41.0%relationallybullied,and9.8%cyberbullied.Bullyingandtheimpactofhumiliationandhelplessnessaredis-cussedinmoredetailinChapter2.

Vying for Social StatusAccording toKaiser (2005), all adolescentprimates, especiallymales,strive for social status.Foranimalsandhumans,aggressionhasbeenlinked to social status. Rough and tumble (R&T) play, for example,demonstratesthislink(Nader,2008).R&Tbehaviorcombines(1)gentlecontact such as open-handed hitting, pushing, or teasing; (2) positiveaffectsuchassmilingorlaughing;and(3)remainingtogetheraftertheroughact(Pellegrini,2003).Aggressivebehavior,incontrast,combines(1)hardcontactsuchasclosed-handedhittingorkicking;(2)negativeaffectsuchasfrowningorcrying;and(3)separationaftertheaggres-siveact.Although,R&Tandaggressionareseparatesystems,andtheyappeartobelinkedtodifferentneuralandendocrinecontrols,Pellegrini(2003) demonstrated that R&T practices are used to establish domi-nance inadolescence.R&Tpermits youth to evaluate the strengthofothersor toestablish theirowndominance. Inmostmammalianspe-ciesandcultures,malesengageinmoreR&Tthanfemales(Pellegrini&Smith,1998).Females,incontrast,primarilyuseverbalratherthanphysicalmeanstogainorkeepresources.Foradolescents,thestrongerboymayescalatetheintensityofbehaviorssuchasfightingiftheweakerboydoesnotyieldorshowdistress.Vyingforstatushasbeenapartofbullyingandrelationalaggression.

Peer Reinforcement and the Cycle of ViolenceAggressorsandvictimshelptoshapeeachother’sbehaviors,andpeersreinforcethepattern(Nader,2008;Chapter8).Inalongitudinalstudy,Schwartzetal. (1993) found thataggressiveboys targetedyouthwhowerenotwell regarded.Thepeergroupenvironment fosteredchronicvictimization by offering positive regard to aggressors for agonisticbehaviors towards victims but not for aggression toward nonvictims.Additionally, in theSchwartzetal. study,boys reinforced theaggres-sive behaviors of their attackers, for example, by permitting domina-tionorgivingupobjects.Astimeprogressed,peersrarelyrewardedand



18 Kathleen Nader

frequentlyrefusedpersuasionattemptsbyvictimboys.Themoreboyswerevictimized,thelesspeerslikedthem.Thus,earlyvictimizationmayresultinadditionalorongoingvictimizationbyexclusionorotherformsof relational aggression aswell as overt aggression. In turn, repeatedvictimizationmay lead tohumiliationand rage thatultimately eruptsintoviolence.Chronicallyvictimizedboyshavebeenamongthosewhohavecommittedschoolshootings(includingtargetedschoolshootings)or suicides (Seals & Young, 2003). Exposure to school shootings (orsuicides)cantraumatizeyouth.Ahistoryoftraumaisamongthefactorsassociatedwithsubsequentaggressivenessinyouth(Greenwald,2002;Nader,2008).

Averted School ShootingsA number of targeted shootings (or shooting rampages) have beenaverted.Anexaminationofschoolswhereplannedshootingshavebeenavertedhasdemonstratedsomeofthemeasuresthatcanbetakentopre-vent in-schoolviolence(O’Toole&Critical IncidentResponseGroup,2000).MethodsusedareelaboratedinTable 1.2.Zero tolerancepoli-cies that impose severe sanctions (e.g., suspension or expulsion) evenforminoroffenses inhopesofpreventingmore seriousoneshavenotproveneffectiveinpreventingschoolviolence(Allenetal.,2008;APAZeroToleranceTaskForce,2008;Borumetal.,2010).Threatassess-mentmethodshavereceivedgreaterendorsement.Youthoftencommu-nicate their plans for targeted acts of violence. High-level threats arespecificanddetailed;theindividualhastakenstepstocarryouttheplan(Danielsetal.,2010b).Creatingasafeenvironmentinwhichyouthfeelfreetotellwhattheyhavebeentoldoroverheardisimportant.Inaddi-tiontoestablishingagoodrapportwithallstudents,makinganefforttoestablisharelationshipwithat-riskyouthorthosewhohaveshownwarningsignsisalsoimportant.Respondingimmediatelytoanyreportsof potential rampages is essential. As documented by student reportsandschoolrecords,Cornell,Sheras,Gregory,andFan(2009)foundthatschoolsusingtheVirginiathreatassessmentmethodreportedlessbully-ing,greaterwillingnesstoseekhelprelatedtothreatsofviolenceorbul-lying,morepositiveperceptionsofschoolclimate,andfewerlong-termsuspensionsthanschoolsusingotherthreatassessmentapproaches.

Home and Community Environments

A number of home and community issues influence aggressive andother outcomes in youth. When combined with adversity, parentalmental health, parenting and attachment styles (Chung & Steinberg,




TAblE 1.2 TargetedSchoolViolencePrevention

Method Aspects of the Method

Safeclimate MaintainingasafeandpositiveschoolclimateMutualrespectbetweenadultsandstudentsRapportbuilding—developingpositiveconnectionswithstudents,treatingstudentswithdignityandrespect,compassionateinteractions,accentuatingstudents’strengths,openandtrustingrelationshipswithfamilies

Thevisiblepresenceofschoolpersonnelthroughouttheschool

Encouragementforstudentstocommunicaterumors/concernsorweapons

Useofatrained,uniformedschoolresourceofficerStafftraining Watchfulness—ever-presentawarenessofconditionsin

andaroundtheschool• reportinganyaltercation,behavioralchanges,

indicatorsofmentalillness,orsuspectbodylanguage• takingallthreatsseriously

Crisisplanning• methodsofresponse• planningandpracticeforworstcasescenarios• planningfortheaftermathofevents

AnticipatingpoliceandmediaresponseLiaison Clearcommunicationandliaisonwithlawenforcement

andmentalhealthprofessionalsbefore,during,andafteranevent

Threatassessment(e.g.,seeVirginiaThreatAssessmentModel,DallasThreatofViolenceRiskAssessment)

Useofathreatassessmentteam(e.g.,principalorassistantprincipal,schoolresourceofficerorlawenforcementofficer,andapsychologist,counselor,orsocialworker)

Usingamultidisciplinaryapproach—employmentofallschoolpersonnel,lawenforcement,andmentalhealthprofessionals

Usingaproblem-solvingapproachMaintainingorder—lookingforevidenceInvestigation,triggeredbyastudent’sthreateningbehaviororbehaviors(notcharacteristics)thatareofconcern

Assessmentofyouth’sintentorideasofattack—communicationofintent,interestinotherattacksorattackers,interestinandaccesstoweapons,beliefthatviolenceisanacceptablewayofdealingwiththings

Continued



20 Kathleen Nader

2006;Fletcher, Steinberg,&Williams-Wheeler,2004), familyhistoryandstructure(Langenkamp&Frisco,2008;Scaramella,Sohr-Preston,Callahan, & Mirabile, 2008), and peer and community influences(Chung&Steinberg,2006;Lairdetal.,2001)affectmentalhealthout-comes.Forexample,acrossracialandeconomicdemographicgroups,the combination of strong supervision and positive parental involve-mentisprotectiveagainstoutcomessuchasaggressionanddelinquency(Chung&Steinberg,2006;Nader,inpress).Discussionsofattachment,adversity,andsupportfollow.

TAblE 1.2 (Continued ) TargetedSchoolViolencePrevention

Method Aspects of the Method

Assessmentofyouth’sabilitytocarryoutanattackAssessmentofyouth’smentalstate—hopelessness,desperation,and/ordespair

Cognizanceofwhetherothersareworriedaboutthestudent’spotentialforviolence

Examinationofcircumstancesthatmightinfluencethelikelihoodofattack

Assessmentofwhetherthecasecanberesolvedasatransientthreat

Immediatesecuritymeasures,ifdeemedappropriate—notificationoflawenforcement,warningpotentialvictims,and/orotherintervention

Bullyingprevention Teacher/staffawarenessofbullyingasaproblemTeacher/staffwillingnesstointerveneEquippingstudentstodealwithbullying

Crisisintervention Communicatingwithasuspectedshooterinacalm,nonconfrontationalmannertodeescalateemotionsoftheassailant;useofgoodlisteningskills

Trainednegotiatorsnegotiatingthereleaseofanyhostages

RestoringsafetyDeescalatingthesituation—assuringstudentsthattheyaresafe,enlistingmentalhealthservices

Evaluatingpsychologicaltraumariskandrespondingtopsychologicalneeds

Note: FromAllen,K.,Cornell,D.,Lorek,E.,andSheras,P.,2008;Borum,R.,Cornell,D.,Modzeleski,W.,andJimerson,S.,2010;Cornell,D.,2006;Cornell, D., & Sheras, P., 2006; Daniels, J., Royster,T.,Vecchi, G., &Pshenishy, E., 2010; Daniels, J.,Volungis,A., Pshenishy, E. Gandhi, P.,Winkler,A.,Cramer,D.,&Bradley,M.,2010;seeChapter9thisbook.




AttachmentResearch on parent–child/infant attachment has demonstrated theimportance of early attachment relationships (Cassidy & Shaver,1999). Caregiver–youth relationships evolve over time and continuetoinfluencewell-beingandfunctioning.Infantsandchildrenwhoarevaluedandsensitivelycaredfordevelopqualities(e.g.,goodself-con-fidence and self-esteem, reasonable trust, empathy, and the capacityto self-reflect and to self-soothe) that enhance the ability to be pro-ductive,competent(personallyandinterpersonally),andresilient(i.e.,thefacilitytodowellinthefaceofadversity;seeFosha,2003;Knox,2003a,b;Main,1995;Nader,2008).Childrenwithsecureearlyandongoingattachmentsaremoreresistanttostressandarelessvulner-able toproblembehaviorsandotherpsychopathology (Fosha,2003;Weinfield, Sroufe, Egeland, & Carlson, 1999; Chapter 6). They aremorelikelytoreboundtowardadequatefunctioningfollowingaperiodoftroubledbehavior.Incontrast,insensitive,frightening,orconfusingcaremayresultinthelackofresilienceandinbehavioral,temperamen-tal,andemotionaldifficulties.Disorganized/disorientedattachments,for example, predict later chronic disturbances of affect regulation,stress management, hostile-aggressive behavior, a predisposition torelationalaggression,andriskofanumberofmentaldisorders(Lyons-Ruth&Jacobvitz,1999;Schore,2003).Notably,aswillbediscussedinChapter6,insecureordisorganizedattachmentshavebeenassoci-atedwithaggression,lowself-esteem,depressive,anxiety,dissociative,somatic,externalizing, internalizing,andoverallpsychopathology inchildhood, adolescence, and young adulthood, as well as to vulner-abilities to a number of disturbances including PTSD and being ledintoactsofviolence(e.g.,terrorism)(Hesseetal.,2003;Lyons-Ruth,Zeanah, & Benoit, 2003; Muller, Sicoli, & Lemieux, 2000; Scheff,1997; Volkan, 2001; see Nader, 2008 for a summary). Adolescents’insecure–dismissing attachmentsalsohavebeenlinkedtoexternaliz-ingproblems (e.g., aggressionordelinquency, conduct disorder, andsubstanceabuse;Allen&Land,1999).

Trauma and AdversityTraumaticreactionsareassociatedwithanumberofmentalhealthprob-lemsincludingaggressionorsuicidality.Overtaggression(e.g.,bullyingand other assaults, childhood abuse), relational aggression (e.g., rela-tional bullying, exclusion, depersonalizing gossip), and other traumas(e.g.,witnessingdomesticviolence,traumaticdeathsoflovedones)oftenareamongtheexperiencesofthosewhocommittedmultipleshootings



22 Kathleen Nader

at schools (Henry, 2009; Nader, 2008). For example, the UT clocktowershooter’sfatherabusedhim.Incarceratedviolentadolescentssig-nificantlymoreoftenthannothavehistoriesofviolenttraumas(Ford,2002).Anumberofclinicianshaveobserved that severe, repeated,orvaried traumas damage the core self or personal spirit (Ford, 2002;Kalsched,1996;Knox,2003a;Nader,2008;Pearlman,2001;Wilson,2004).Asnoted,dysregulationofemotionandbehaviormayalsoresult(Ford&Courtois,2009;vanderKolk,2005).

SupportSomeindividualsneedmorealonetimethanothers.Some individualshave less regard for others than the average person. Nevertheless, allindividualsneedagoodsupportsystem.Forexample,researchsuggeststhatmentalhealthoutcomesfollowingadversitieshavebeenbetterwithincreasedlevelsofsocialsupport(Kilpatricketal.,2007;Scheeringa,inpress).Researchhasnowdemonstratedthatthecombinationofstruc-ture(consistentenforcementofschooldiscipline)andsupport(availabil-ity of caring adults) in schools is associated with lower bullying andvictimizationrates(whenschoolsize,ethnicity,andlow-incomearecon-trolledfor;Gregoryetal.,2010).

National Influences

Societies and religions differ in their emphasis on independence orconnectedness–interdependence (Hofstede, 1980; Shiang, 2000). Theimportanceofcompetitivenessandfamemayberelatedtothisorienta-tionand/ortothemediathatinfluencestheirdesirability.Pushingchil-dren to outdo their peers is sometimes motivated by a desire to giveachildanadvantage in life. Ifcompetitiondoesnot includeagoalofenhancingeachindividual’spersonaltalentsandskills,somemaybenefitwhile others suffer from its effects. Emphases on, for example, com-petitionand independence influenceyouth’smotivationssuchas thoserelatedtoratingtheirpersonalworth,valuingothers,andcommittingoravoidingaggression.Inadditiontothosevaluestaughtandmodeledinthehome,muchofthenationalvaluesystemisshapedorreinforcedbyelectronicmedia.

MediaAlthough entertainment media can have a positive (e.g., increasinghelpingbehaviors)oranegativeeffectonyouth,acrossstudies,violentmedia,inTV,movies,videogames,music,andcomicbooks,havebeen




linkedtoaggressivethoughtsandbehaviors,angryfeelings,andarousallevels(Nader,2010).Well-designedresearchhasrepeatedlyshownthatthe effects of watching electronic media violence (i.e., the intentionalinjuryorirritationofapersonbyanotherpersonorcharacter)increasesthe risk of behaving aggressively right after viewing and years later(Andersonetal.,2010;Huesmann,2007,2010;Bushman&Huesmann,2006).Evenaftercontrollingforearlyaggressiveness,habitualexposuretomediaviolence inmiddle-childhoodpredicted increasedaggressive-ness1,3,10,15,and22yearslater(Huesmann,2007).

IMPLICATIONS

Multiplefactorsinfluenceaggressivebehaviorsandothermentalhealthdisturbances.Anumberofyouthandenvironmentalcharacteristicshavebeenidentifiedasrelevanttothemanifestationofaggressionandotherdisturbances. In part, because children exhibiting persistent disrup-tivebehaviorsaremore likely tobecomedelinquents,anddelinquentsaremore likelytobecomechronic,serious,orviolentoffenders,someobserversbelievethatprovidinginterventionsasearlyasthepreschoolleveliscriticalinpreventingtheemergenceofdisruptivebehaviorsandchilddelinquency(Loeber,Farrington,&Petechuk,2003).Infact,pre-vention begins with the child’s beginnings. Early and ongoing secureattachmentrelationshipsandotherparentingpracticesmayenabletheskills and habits to live without resorting to aggression (Chapter 6).Additional interventionscanbeused inpreschoolandthroughouttheelementaryschoolyearstoassistprevention.

Anumberofearlyinterventionsareassociatedwithpreventionofaggressiveandotherbehavioralandmentalhealthdisturbances.Amongthem are teaching youth social skills, coping skills, and empathy, aswellascreatingenvironmentsthatenhancesupportandsecureattach-ments,donottoleratebullying,provideskillsfordealingwithbullies,andinstillhealthycompetition.Tobeeffective,interventionsmustbeaimedatbothsidesoftheproblem—would-bekillersandtheenviron-ments thatproduce them. Someof thewell-known targeted/rampageshootershavebeenvictimsofbulliesbeforelashingoutinviolence.Aswillbeclear inthechaptersofSectionI,bullyinginschoolsmustbeaddressedearly.ManyoftheinterventionsdiscussedinthechaptersofSectionIIofthisbookmayassistbulliesandtheirvictimswhomightbecomeviolent.

As discussed in Chapter 2, rejecting experiences such as earlyinsecureattachments,bullying,andotherhumiliationsmayengenderintensefeelingsofhelplessnessandhopelessness,rage,andvulnerability



24 Kathleen Nader

thatleadtoself-destructivebehaviors,violence,orvulnerabilitytobemanipulated by others who intend harm. Those who train terroristsoftenchoosefromthosewhohavesufferedsevereorongoingtraumas,abandonment, or other repeated humiliations (Scheff, 1997; Volkan,2001). Early interventions may reduce vulnerabilities and increaseskills that provide choices other than aggression. As Chapter 9 willdemonstrate, youth can learn to respond toaggressors in away thatmakestheircontinuedaggressionless likely.Valuingofothersandofuniquenesscanbelearnedinandoutsideofschools.Aswillbeshown(Chapters3and10),increasingconnectionamongandbetweenyouthandadults in schools andathome is an important aspectofpreven-tion.Tobemosteffective,interventionsbeginearlyandincludeparents,schools,andcommunities.

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