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Parts 1 and 2: Genetics Principles of Inheritance Genetics is the scientific study of inheritance. “Scientific study” refers to the use of objective analysis; “inheritance” refers to the transfer of parental characteristics to offspring. There are three branches of Genetics: Classical, Molecular, Population. 1.) Classical Genetics considers the transmission of observable characteristics from one generation to the next.

2.) Molecular Genetics analyses the actual molecules involved in producing and transferring characteristics.

3.) Population Genetics investigates genetic patterns in populations over extended periods of time. Gregor Mendel is credited as being the “Father of Genetics” because he was the first person to successfully analyze inheritance patterns. He was not aware of cell structure and chromosomes. He conducted breeding experiments on the green pea plant and used mathematical data analysis. 2 His test organism was well chosen because: 1.) It possesses several easily distinguishable traits. [These include height, flower color, seed color, seed texture, pod shape, pod color, and flower position.]

2.) It is easy to control the fertilization and reproduction in this organism.

3.) The organism is small and it has a short generation time.

4.) The organism can reproduce by crossbreeding and by self-fertilization. Relevant Terminology: Parental Generation (P1) is the term given to the first generation being followed in a classical genetics investigation. Filial Generation (F1) is the term given to any generation that is generated during the course of the classical genetics investigation. The word filial refers to siblings; the members of a filial generation are siblings. Allele: the variant forms of genetic factors for one trait. True Breeding: possessing an identical pair of genetic factors for a trait. Hybrid: possessing a varying pair of genetic factors for one trait. Dominant: the variant of a genetic factor that is expressed in a hybrid organism. Recessive: the variant of a genetic factor that is not expressed in a hybrid organism. Genotype: the specific pair of genetic factors for a given trait. Phenotype: the physical manifestation of a genotype. Homozygous: a true breeding genotype. Heterozygous: a hybrid genotype. Genetic cross – a controlled breeding experiment

Mendel’s initial experiments were Monohybrid Crosses. In a Monohybrid Cross the inheritance of a single characteristic is followed. EXAMPLE of a monohybrid cross: The trait is height. Plant #1 is the result of several generations of controlled breeding; it has all tall ancestry. Plant #2 is also the result of several generations of controlled breeding; it has all short ancestry. In the first Monohybrid Cross, Plant #1 is crossed (mated) with Plant #2. All offspring (plant #3) from this cross are tall. This is the first filial (sibling) generation. Conclusion #1: The characteristic Tall is dominant to the characteristic short. In the follow-up experiment, members of the first filial generation (all tall, Plant #3) are crossed with each other to produce a second filial generation. The second filial generation included both tall and short plants, in a ratio of 3 Tall: 1 short. Conclusion #2: A pair of genetic factors controls each trait AND each parent contributes one member of his/her pair of genetic factors to their offspring. This is the Principle of Segregation. Proper notation of genetics crosses: Letters representing the genotypes are assigned to each plant described above. Parental Generation: TT (Tall) X tt (short) First Filial F1Generation: Tt (Tall) 3 Self-crossed F1 hybrids (Tt X Tt) yield the F2 Second Filial Generation: TT (Tall), Tt (Tall) and tt (short). The F2 genotypic ratio is 1:2:1. The F2 phenotypic ratio is 3:1. A Punnett Square is a chart that is used to predict the outcomes of a genetic cross. The gametes from one parent are listed horizontally; gametes from the second parent are listed vertically. Interior squares are filled in to represent the expected offspring. See the example that follows. Gamete from 1st Parent

Gamete from 1st Parent

Gamete from 2nd Parent Potential Offspring Potential Offspring Gamete from 2nd Parent Potential Offspring Potential Offspring

1.) Explain why Gregor Mendel, the "Father of Genetics", was more successful in his work than other plant breeders. 2.) Define: a. true breeding b. hybrid c. cross d. P1 (parental) generation e. F1 (first filial) generation f. F2 (second filial) generation g. dominant factor (allele) h. recessive factor (allele) 3.) Discuss the conclusions Mendel reached as a result of the crosses involving only one of his seven traits. 4.) Name the Principle that resulted from crosses that involved only one of the seven traits. 5.) At what point in meiosis does segregation occur?

6.) For any of Mendel's seven traits, cross true breeding parents, and predict the appearance of the F1 and F2 offspring. 7.) Define: a. locus b. allele c. monohybrid cross d. homozygous e. heterozygous f. phenotype g. genotype h. Punnett square i. probability 8.) List the possible gamete types for the following individual/genotypes. a. CC b. Cc c. cc 9.) Solve the following monohybrid cross problems. (a.) In squash an allele for white color (W) is dominant over the allele for yellow color (w). Give the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for the results of each of the following crosses: (1) W/W X w/w (2) W/w X w/w (3) W/w X W/w (b.) In human beings, brown eyes are dominant over blue eyes. Suppose a blue-eyed man marries a brown-eyed woman whose father was blue-eyed. What proportion of their children would you predict will have blue eyes? (c.) If a brown-eyed man marries a blue-eyed woman and they have ten children, all brown-eyed, can you be certain that the man is homozygous? If the eleventh child has blue eyes, what will that show about the father's genotype? 10.) Complete the following: a. State the purpose of a test cross. 6 b. If the result of a test cross yielded dominant and recessive offspring in a 1:1 ratio, what is the genotype of the parent whose genotype is unknown? c. If the results of a test cross yielded all dominant offspring, what is the genotype of the parent whose genotype is unknown? 11.) What conclusions did Mendel reach from the results of his crosses that involved two of the seven traits? 12.) Name the Principle that resulted from crosses that involved two of the seven traits. 13.) List the possible gamete types for the following individuals/genotypes. a.) FFGG b.) MmZZ c.) BbQq d.) kknn e.) ttDd 14.) Solve the following dihybrid cross problem. In peas an allele for tall plants (T) is dominant over the allele for short plants (t). An allele of another independent gene produces smooth peas (S) and is dominant over the allele for wrinkled peas(s). Calculate the phenotypic ratios and genotypic ratios for the results of each of the following crosses: (a) T/t S/s X T/t S/s (b) T/t s/s X t/t s/s (c) t/t S/s X T/t s/s (d) T/T s/s X t/t S/S

15.) The litter resulting from the mating of two short-tailed cats contains three kittens without tails, two with long tails, and six with short tails. What would be the simplest way of explaining the inheritance of tail length in these cats? Show genotypes. 16.) List all possible genotypes for each blood phenotype. A ___________________ B ___________________ AB ___________________ O ___________________ 17.) If a man with blood type B, one of whose parents had blood type O, marries a woman with blood type AB, what will be the theoretical percentage of their children with blood type B? 18.) Using flipping two pennies as an example, give examples of scenarios in which the sum and product rules would be appropriate to determine the outcome of the flips. 19.) Define: a. pleiotropy b. nondisjunction c. trisomy d. autosomes e. sex chromosomes f. X chromosome g. Y chromosome h. hemizygous i. X-linked gene j. sex-linked gene 7 20.) Work the following X-linkage problems. (a.) Suppose that an allele, b, of a sex-linked gene is recessive and lethal. A man marries a woman who is heterozygous for this gene. If this couple had a large number of normal children, what would be the predicted sex ratio of these children? (b.) Red-green color blindness is inherited as a sex-linked recessive. If a color-blind woman marries a man who has normal vision, what would be the expected phenotypes of their children with reference to this character? (c.) In cats short hair is dominant over long hair; the gene involved is autosomal. An allele, B1, of another gene, which is sex-linked, produces yellow coat color; the allele B2 produces black coat color; and the heterozygous combination B1/B2 produces tortoiseshell (calico) coat color. If a long-haired black male is mated with a tortoiseshell female homozygous for short hair, what kind of kittens will be produced? MOLECULAR GENETICS DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the universal genetic material. This statement means: 1.) It is found in all living organisms and it serves the same purpose in all organisms.

2.) The DNA within a cell determines all of the phenotypes that the cell (organism) can express.

3.) The DNA within a cell is transmitted to the new cells produced during cell division.

The following chart summarizes these concepts: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are nucleic acids. The monomer used to make DNA and RNA polymers is called a nucleotide. Each nucleotide is composed of:

-carbon ring shaped sugar (DNA and RNA nucleotides have different sugars)

The organic bases define the different nucleotides. Therefore, nucleotides are described by the base they contain. In DNA the bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. In RNA the bases are adenine guanine, cytosine and uracil. Adenine and guanine have similar molecular structures and are called purine type bases. Cytosine, thymine and uracil have similar structures and are called pyrimidine type bases. In living cells DNA exists in a polymerized state known as a double helix with the following standard features: 1.) Linear strands of nucleotides form by phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides.

2.) Two linear chains (called strands) attach to each other by forming hydrogen bonds between their respective organic bases.

3.) There is a specific pattern to hydrogen bond formation: Adenine can only attach to Thymine. Cytosine can only attach to Guanine. (Called complementary base-pairing.) As a result, in double stranded DNA, the total number of purines equals the total number of pyrimidines.

4.) When the two strands attach by hydrogen bonds, they must be anti-parallel (one appears inverted, compared to the other).

5.) The structure has a natural tendency to coil upon itself. Replication involves five basic steps. 1.) The template double helix unwinds and the two strands separate from each other. 2.) Nucleotide substrates (monomers) align themselves on the exposed nitrogenous bases along the interior portion of the helix. This alignment occurs according to the rules of base complementarity. 3.) The DNA polymerase enzyme catalyzes phosphodiester bonds between the newly added nucleotide substrates, creating new strands. 4.) Each original template strand forms hydrogen bonds with a newly created strand. 5.) Two separate double stranded molecules now exist.

(NOTE: This process precedes cell division, occurring during the S phase of the cell cycle.) Transcription is similar to replication, but not identical. There are two major differences between replication and transcription. Distinctions are: 1.) Replication is needed to give new cells/generations the same genetic potential that their parents had. For this reason, the entire DNA molecule is copied during replication. By contrast, transcription is only needed for those genes/characteristics the cell needs at a given time. Therefore, selected regions of DNA are marked by start and stop sequences; transcription occurs within those regions, exclusively.

2.) Double stranded DNA is the product of replication. Single stranded RNA is the product of transcription. Similarities in the sequence of events Replication and Transcription: 1.) The template DNA double helix unwinds in the designated region for transcription and the two strands separate from each other. 2.) RNA nucleotide substrates (monomers) align themselves on the interior portion of the helix, on one side of the DNA template. The alignment is according to the rules of base complementarity. 3.) The RNA polymerase enzyme catalyzes phosphodiester bonds between the newly added nucleotide substrates, creating an RNA strand. 4.) The newly synthesized RNA is separated from the DNA template and modified prior to further use. (NOTE: This process occurs whenever a cell needs to synthesize proteins. For example, it occurs during active growth phases.) Post Transcriptional Processing is necessary in eukaryotes. RNA is made (transcribed) in the nucleus then transported into the cytoplasm where it will be used to make proteins. The process of nuclear export can damage the fragile RNA molecule. Two stabilizing events protect RNA during nuclear export: 1.) The 5’ end of RNA is “capped” by adding a modified guanine nucleotide.

2.) The 3’ end of RNA receives a long chain of adenine nucleotides – the Poly A tail. Additionally, eukaryotes have a large amount of extraneous DNA & RNA. The extraneous nucleotides (called introns) are spliced out of the RNA before it is used in translation. Translation uses all types of RNA to synthesize peptides. mRNA is the template; it contains the message that the gene wishes the cell to express. tRNA is the adapter molecule that links mRNA with the amino acid monomers. rRNA builds ribosomes which serves as the assembly center for the polypeptide. Relevant Terminology Amino acid: monomer used to synthesize polypeptides. Codon: three nucleotides in mRNA that are read as one “word” to specify a single amino acid. Anticodon: three nucleotides on tRNA that attach to a specific complementary codon of mRNA. Genetic Code: the complete set of codon-amino acid relationships found in living organisms. There are Three Phases of Translation. 1. Initiation: A ribosome attaches to the mRNA. All coding segments of mRNA start with an AUG codon. Once the ribosome and mRNA are in place, the corresponding tRNA enters the ribosome, carrying the first amino acid, methionine. 2. Elongation: The tRNA that corresponds to the second codon enters the ribosome, bringing the second amino acid. The two amino acids attach to each other by forming a peptide bond. The first tRNA is no longer needed, so it dislodges from the ribosome. The ribosome rolls down the mRNA, so that a third codon can be read. REPEAT…..REPEAT…..REPEAT 3. Termination: At the end of the coding region, a codon that does not specify any amino acid will be encountered (a stop codon). The translation process stops and all of the components separate from each other. The Integrity of the Genetic Code. Any change in an organism’s genetic composition is called a mutation. If the alteration involves a single nucleotide, it is called a point mutation. There are several types of point mutations: 1. Frameshift Mutations: One base is added OR removed from the coding region. As a result, every codon is altered and it is impossible to produce the correct peptide. A phenotypic change will occur. 2. Silent Base Substitution: One nucleotide in one codon is different, but the new codon still specifies the same amino acid. No phenotypic change occurs. 3. Missense Base Substitution: One nucleotide in one codon is different. The new codon specifies a different amino acid. Most of the amino acids in the protein remain unchanged. A phenotypic change occurs. In some instances the phenotypic change is minor; in other cases it is significant. 4. Nonsense Base Substitution: One nucleotide in one codon is different. The new codon does not specify an amino acid. Peptide synthesis stops, therefore a phenotypic change occurs.

Applications of Molecular Biology From 1940-1960, the structure and activity of DNA was discovered. By the mid 1970’s techniques were being developed to give scientists the ability to manipulate DNA for research purposes. Many new technologies branched out from these as the 20th century came to a close. The exciting consequence has been a tremendous increase in the depth of knowledge about the function of DNA, and a host of ways to apply these concepts and techniques. Some of the significant components in DNA technology include: Restriction Enzymes – make cuts in DNA based on very specific nucleotide sequences. Short DNA fragments are produced by restriction enzymes. Vector – a carrier that can transport a DNA fragment to a desired location. The combination of DNA fragment plus its vector is a recombinant (hybrid) DNA molecule. Plasmid – small, circular DNA molecule, found in bacteria, used as a vector. Transformation – the process of a plasmid being taken in by a host cell. When the host bacterial cell divides, the plasmid gets copied. Cloning – producing multiple copies of a gene. It occurs inserting the DNA fragment containing the gene into a vector, then transformation and cell division of the host cell. DNA library – is a complete collection of all of the DNA fragments from one genome. Each individual generates his/her own unique DNA library. DNA fingerprinting is an analysis of the unique fragments produced by individuals. Probe – a small segment of DNA known to include a gene of interest, and used to locate a comparable segment within a library. One of the most significant technical developments in the field of Molecular Genetics is the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). This technique allows quick, efficient cloning of a gene. It is effective with very small initial samples and it does not require a vector. Genomics is the branch of molecular biology that looks at the complete genome, tracking the proteins produced and how the genes are regulated. Mathematical/computational analysis of the differences in genomes among members of a species (or among different species) is called Bioinformatics. Bacteria range from the essential and useful, to the harmful. Essential bacteria: Some bacteria degrade organic compounds for energy, and without bacteria, the earth would have no soil in which to grow plants. Bacteria living in the gut can help animals break down food. These so-called ‘good bacteria’ help maintain the conditions necessary for food digestion. Some bacteria live on the root nodules of certain plants, for example, peas, beans and clover, and are able to ‘fix’ atmospheric nitrogen into a form that can be absorbed by the plant as a fertilizer. It is the living processes that bacteria use and the wastes they give off that can be used either for human benefit or that cause disease. Useful bacteria: Bacteria have long been used by humans to create food products such as cheese, yogurt, pickles, soy sauce and vinegar. We are also able to use bacteria to break down our sewage and to clean up oil spills. Escherichia coli (E. Coli) are able to double their number in 20 minutes. This makes them very useful tools in molecular biology and biochemistry, as they can be manipulated much faster than more complex and slower growing organisms. We can manipulate bacteria to grow a protein of interest, for example, insulin, and then grow them in large vats to produce a large quantity of the desired protein.

Harmful bacteria: Only a small handful of known bacteria are capable of causing disease. These bacteria are termed pathogenic. To cause disease, the bacteria must invade a living organism. Most bacteria will not invade another living organism, and many more bacteria are rendered harmless by our immune systems, while others, such as gut bacteria, are beneficial. In many developing countries, poor hygiene, limited access to clean water and poor (or no) sewage treatment leads to huge numbers of deaths from bacterial infections such as those that cause dysentery. The advent of antibiotics like penicillin has greatly reduced the number of deaths due to bacterial infections. However, increased use of antibiotics in many western countries has led to the adaptation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which can lead to outbreaks of so-called ‘super bugs’, such as Multi-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Scientists now believe that humans require contact with bacteria at an early age in order to ‘educate’ our immune systems between good and bad bacteria. The scientists believe that western societies’ obsession with antibacterial products has increased our chances of developing immune-related conditions such as asthma, allergies and eczema. Control of Gene Expression You are a multicellular organism, but began life as a single cell. The cell divided millions of times to produce the multicellular being that you are today. Our understanding of the precise chromosome transfer that occurs during mitosis tells us that all of the cells currently in your body have the same chromosomes. However, they perform very different tasks. Each different cell type uses/expresses its own subset of the total genetic information. A similar, but less complex situation exists for unicellular organisms. A bacterium living in your intestinal tract will have access to a certain set of nutrients, while the same type of bacterium would have access to a different set of nutrients if it was living in soil. Therefore, we would not expect the two to produce the exact same proteins. All living organisms must have systems to turn genes “ON” and “OFF”, based on need. The simple cellular structure and short life cycle of prokaryotes makes them a good tool for studying gene control mechanisms. Researchers by the names Jacob and Monod were the first to explain the prokaryotic gene control mechanism called the operon. Relevant Terminology: Constitutive gene: a gene that is expressed at a constant rate throughout the cell’s lifespan. Operon: segment of a bacterial chromosome that includes a cluster of genes with a common goal, and the promoter and operator sequences required to turn those genes off and on. Regulatory gene: a constitutive gene that codes for a repressor molecule. Repressor protein: the product of the regulatory gene; can stop the expression of structural genes in the operon. Promoter: the location where RNA polymerase attaches to initiate transcription. Operator: a chromosome segment located between the promoter and the structural genes, serves as the attachment site for the repressor protein. Structural gene: genes within an operon coding for the proteins needed to achieve the operon’s goal.

Operon Functions: In some operons, the goal is to degrade a nutrient source (catabolic). In these operons the default state is “off”, but can be induced to be turned “ON”. The Lac Operon of E. coli is such an inducible operon. In other operons, the goal is to synthesize a nutrient source (anabolic). In these operons the default state is “on”, but they can be repressed to be turned “OFF”. The Trp Operon of E. coli is such a repressible operon. Both cases (induction and repression of gene expression) are excellent examples of biofeedback. Inducible Operons: E. coli Chromosome Segment containing the Lac Operon 1. Describe each of the following as it applies to the composition of DNA. Monomer ________________________________________________________ Sugar ___________________________________________________________ Purines __________________________________________________________ Pyrimidines ______________________________________________________ Structure _________________________________________________________ 2a. Which portion of Watson and Crick’s double helix DNA structure forms complementary base pairs?

Promoter Operator Structural Genes (Z, Y, A) for Lactose Degradation

2b. Which types of bonds are involved in complementary base pairing? 2c. Draw the complementary strand of the following DNA strand. A------ C------ C------ G------ T------ T------ C------ A------ T------ 3. Describe the process of DNA replication. 4a. Define: a) template b) DNA polymerase c) DNA nucleotide substrates/DNA nucleoside triphosphates d) semi-conservative replication e) complementary base pairing

4b. Illustrate how the DNA molecule diagrammed below would be replicated. (HINT: There should be two products.) In each new strand, use red ink to represent the parental DNA and blue ink to represent the progeny DNA. C - G G - C A - T A - T C - G T - A G - C G - C 5. Distinguish between DNA and RNA by completing the following table. DNA

RNA

Sugar Bases Location in Cell Function Structure

PART 3: ANIMAL TISSUES A tissue is a group of cells that form a structural and functional unit. There are four types of vertebrate animal tissues are: 1) Nervous 2) Epithelial 3) Connective 4) Muscle Nervous Tissue – is composed of 2 types of specialized cells, neurons and glial cells. Neurons conduct electrochemical nerve impulses, and glial cells support and nourish neurons. A typical neuron has an enlarged cell body containing the nucleus, and 2 types of cytoplasmic extensions: 1) dendrites, which are specialized structures projecting from the cell body which receive impulses and transmit them towards the cell body. There may be many dendrites in a single neuron. 2) a single axon transmits electrochemical impulses away from the cell body, and may range in length from 1 mm to 1 m. Neurons interact and communicate between cells at junctions called synapses. Epithelial tissue: basic characteristics, function, and location 1. In any epithelium, one surface is typically free because it lines a surface or covers the body, and the other surface is attached to the underlying tissue by a non-cellular basement membrane. Epithelial cells fit tightly together to form a continuous layer, or sheet, of cells.

2. Functions of epithelia include: 1) protection (skin), 2) absorption (digestive tract), 3) secretion (of hormones, enzymes, sweat) by glands, and 4) sensation (taste buds and nasal receptors are specialized chemical receptors).

3. Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines body cavities. The outer layer of the skin, and the linings of the digestive, respiratory, excretory (kidney tubules), and reproductive tracts are formed from epithelia.

4. In naming epithelia: If the epithelial tissue is one cell layer thick, it is a “simple” epithelium; if composed of >1 cell layer, it is a “stratified” epithelium. Depending on the shape of the 2

epithelial cell in the epithelial tissue, the tissue may be composed of one of 3 types of cell: 1) squamous = flat; 2) cuboidal = cube-shaped (square box); or 3) columnar = column-like, cylindrical. Therefore, the entire name of a single epithelium would include 3 terms: 1) cell shape 2) whether 1 or >1 cell layer and 3) the term “epithelium” For example: simple squamous epithelium; stratified squamous epithelium; simple columnar epithelium; pseudostratified columnar epithelium. Note: The linings of blood and lymph vessels are referred to as “endothelium”, due to their embryonic origin, but are composed of simple squamous epithelial cells. Connective Tissue: All connective tissues are composed of sparsely distributed cells embedded in an intercellular substance, which the cells secrete. The intercellular substance contains 1) tiny fibers made of protein and 2) a thin polysaccharide gel (the matrix). Some of the major classes of connective tissues are 1) Blood, 2) Cartilage, and 3) Bone. Other connective tissues are: loose CT, dense CT, elastic CT, reticular CT, and adipose (fat) tissue. 1. Blood cells = erythrocytes (RBCs) and leukocytes (WBCs) in plasma, a watery solution containing salts, proteins, hormones, and other components; functions to transport O2 (by RBCs) and nutrients to cells, and waste products (including CO2) away from cells; WBCs protect the body from infection; blood is located within the circulatory system (heart plus blood vessels) 2. Cartilage cells = chondrocytes, located in pits (cavities) = lacunae in the intercellular substance, made of rubbery polysaccharides (matrix) and protein fibers. Cartilage functions to provide flexible support and reduces friction, depending on its location. It is located at the ends of some bones (ribs), within some joints, the tip of the nose, the external ear, the larynx, rings of the trachea, etc. Also, cartilage forms the embryonic skeleton of vertebrates, which is mostly replaced by bone tissue during development. Some adult vertebrates (sharks and rays) have cartilaginous skeletons. 3. Bone cells = osteocytes, located in lacunae. The cells deposit various calcium salts which form the matrix; fibers are made of protein. Bones function 1) to support and protect internal organs, 2) as a calcium reservoir, and 3) as attachment sites for skeletal muscle. Location: forms the skeletal tissue of adult vertebrates. 4. Fat cells = adipocytes. The main role of adipocytes is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body and produces hormones involved in the regulation hunger. Muscle Tissue: The 3 types of Muscle Tissue are all composed of contractile muscle cells (fibers). 1. Skeletal muscle is composed of skeletal muscle cells. F: under voluntary control – you can decide to contract it or not, to move the bones that it is attached to. L: is directly or indirectly (by ligaments) attached to the skeleton.

2. Smooth muscle is composed of smooth muscle cells. F: involuntary movement of internal organs; propulsion of substances. L: forms the walls (not the linings) of the digestive tract, uterus, blood vessels, and other tube-like internal organs. It is not attached to bones.

3. Cardiac muscle is composed of cardiac muscle cells. F: involuntary contractions of the heart propel blood throughout the body. L: In the walls of the heart (the only location in the body).

The organ systems in human beings are the 1) integumentary, 2) skeletal, 3) muscular, 4) nervous, 5) endocrine, 6) cardiovascular, 7) immune/lymphatic, 8) respiratory, 9) digestive, 10) urinary and 11) reproductive systems. 1. Define each of the following: a. tissue b. simple tissue c. complex tissue d. organ 2. List the four categories of vertebrate animal tissues. 3. List the function and location of epithelial tissue. 4. Describe the three shapes of epithelial cells. 5. Define the terms simple and stratified. 6. How are epithelial tissues named? 7. Define the terms: a. intercellular substance b. matrix c. fibers 8. Give the function, characteristics and location of the following connective tissues: a. cartilage b. bone c. blood 9. State the function and location of the three classes of muscle tissue, in any order. a. b. c.

10. List the 11 organ systems in humans, their major function and the major components of each system. Organ system Components Major function 11. List the common and scientific name of the organisms used to describe the evolutionary trends in the organ systems. REPRODUCTION

Higher organisms use the nervous system to elicit quick responses to stimuli. Long-term balance of bodily functions is maintained by using hormones. Hormones are chemicals, produced and secreted by the glands in order to achieve homeostasis. In most cases, a hormone affects a tissue other than the gland by which it was produced. Hormones can be categorized according to the location of action. 1.) Autocrine: the target tissue is the same tissue/gland that produces the hormone.

2.) Paracrine: the target tissue may be a tissue close to the secreting gland or one that is distant from the secreting gland.

3.) Endocrine: the target tissue is distant from the secreting gland. The Endocrine System is a network of glands and organs that produce hormones which travel through the blood stream to their target tissues. The glands of the endocrine system include pineal, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal, kidney, testes, and ovary.

Mechanisms of Action: There are four ways that hormones affect target tissues: 1.) They alter the membrane permeability of the target cells.

2.) They activate essential enzymes within target cells.

3.) They activate a second messenger molecule, like cAMP, which will initiate a cascade of reactions.

4.) They form a complex with a carrier and together, influence a gene’s rate of expression Primary Functions of Endocrine Glands: Pineal: located in the brain; produces melatonin; may be involved in sleep-wake cycles and in reproductive cycles. Hypothalamus: located in the brain; regulates pituitary function. Pituitary: called the “master gland” because it influences many other glands and organs. *** The anterior lobe releases six essential hormones (adrenocorticotropin, growth hormone, prolactin, luteinizing, follicle stimulating, thyroid stimulating). *** The posterior lobe releases oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone. Thyroid: secretes calcitonin, thyroxine, and tri-iodothyronine; affects metabolism and neuronal functions. Parathyroid: regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the blood with parathormone. Thymus: secretes for hormones that boost the production of T-cells and function of the immune system. Pancreas: secretes four hormones, including insulin and glucagon, which regulate the body’s use of carbohydrates. Adrenal: association of two separate tissues. *** The outer/cortex region secretes cortisol, aldosterone, and adrenal androgens. *** The inner/medulla region secretes epinephrine. Testes: produce testosterone and inhibin, which control the development of male phenotypic characteristics. Ovaries: produce estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin, which regulate female phenotypic characteristics. Secretion and Transport Some glands respond to the neural or physiological signal to secrete a hormone within seconds, others respond weeks after the signal is received. The amount of hormone secreted is typically very small; the standard range of amounts is picograms – micrograms. There is also variability in the mechanism of hormone transport. While some hormones travel through the blood on protein carrier molecules, others are free-floating. In order to ensure homeostasis, feedback mechanisms regulate hormone secretion rates and amounts. There are some instances in which a hormone is secreted in direct response to a physiological need. In other instances, a hormone may have a cyclic pattern of high and low secretion rates. Sleep-wake cycles and reproductive cycles are classic examples of biological rhythms controlled by cyclic hormone release. The Mammalian Reproductive Cycle In mammalian females, a cyclic pattern of rising and falling hormone levels follows the onset of puberty. Ovarian follicles are cell clusters within the ovaries that contain a cell that has the potential to complete meiosis and produce ova (eggs). These cells are primary oocytes, waiting for hormonal trigger to complete the meiotic process. During the first half of each menstrual cycle, the levels of FSH and LH increase. FSH causes a small number of follicles to mature (try to continue meiosis). Maturing follicles release estrogen. Estrogen causes the lining of the uterus to get thicker. It also causes the mucus in the cervix to get thin & stretchy and to become very nurturing to sperm. A high level of estrogen is reached, and it triggers the hypothalamus to release a sudden, large amount of LH. One of the follicles, ideally the one with the “best” egg, bursts open. This burst of a follicle, releasing an ovum is called ovulation.

The egg/ovum is caught by the fallopian tube. If sperm are present in the fallopian tubes while there is a “ripe” egg, fertilization may occur. The tissue that was surrounding the egg is called the corpus luteum. It starts to produce HCG and progesterone. Both of these hormones will protect an embryo, if fertilization occurs. If no sperm are present, the egg and the accumulated uterine lining will be flushed out during the next menstrual period. In mammalian females, the hormonal triggers needed to induce egg maturation and ovulation become irregular and eventually ceases to occur. This process is called menopause. Physiological signs of hormonal irregularity typically occur between the ages of 45 – 55. Once menopause is completed, the female is no longer fertile. In mammalian males, a relatively consistent level of fertility will remain throughout adulthood. Typically, in a man’s forties, there will be a gradual decrease in sperm production rates (number of sperm produced) and in the quality of sperm samples (motility rates, normal chromosome contents). In most cases the production of sperm does not completely cease. Describe the processes of human fertilization and early development. 1. Sperm structure: head (nucleus and acrosome), midpiece (mitochondrion), and flagellum. The head of the sperm consists of the nucleus and a cap (acrosome) containing enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the egg.

2. Zygote: formed from the fusion of a secondary oocyte and a sperm cell.

3. The second meiotic division is completed after fertilization.

4. Development begins after fertilization. HOMEWORK 1) Define hormone. 2) What are the major differences between hormonal and neural responses? 3) For each type of hormone indicated below, indicate whether they use ducts to deliver the hormones they produce and describe their effect on proximal and distal tissues. 4. HORMONE CLASSIFICATION

SECRETE INTO DUCTS: YES / NO

DISTANCE FROM SECRETION -> TARGET

Autocrine Paracrine Endocrine ENDOCRINE GLAND

LOCATION IN BODY

HORMONE(S) PRODUCED

BODY FUNCTION AFFECTED

Pineal Hypothalamus Pituitary Thyroid Pancreas Adrenal Kidney Testes Ovaries

7) List four different affects hormones have on their target tissues. (A) _______________________________________________________ (B) _______________________________________________________ (C) _______________________________________________________ (D) _______________________________________________________ 8) Define Homeostasis. 9) What is the role of glands and hormones in maintaining homeostasis? 10) List four things that can affect gland and hormone function. (A) _____________________________________________________ (B) _____________________________________________________ (C) _____________________________________________________ (D) _____________________________________________________ 11) Describe the processes of human fertilization and early development. 12) Describe the processes involved in fertilization. 13) Trace the generalized pattern of early development of the embryo from zygote through early cleavage and formation of the morula and blastula. 14) Identify the significance of gastrulation in the developmental process. 15) Define organogenesis.

16) Summarize the fate of each of the 3 germ layers. (1089) a. ectoderm b. mesoderm c. endoderm 17) Describe the general course of early human development, including fertilization, the fates of the trophoblast and inner cell mass, implantation, and the role of the placenta.

18) Contrast postnatal with prenatal life. 19) Describe changes that occur at or shortly after birth that allow the neonate to live independently.

Describe the processes involved in fertilization. 1. Contact and recognition

2. Sperm entry is regulated to prevent 1) interspecific fertilization and 2) polyspermy

3. Fertilization activates egg to begin the stages of development Sperm and egg pronuclei fuse and DNA synthesis is initiated Trace the generalized pattern of early development of the embryo from zygote through early cleavage and formation of the morula and blastula. 1. Cleavage: the zygote undergoes a series of rapid mitotic cell divisions without a cell growth phase.

2. Successive blastomeres (cells) are smaller and smaller, since the total cell volume remains constant.

3. Blastomeres are the building blocks for development.

4. Morula: a solid ball of up to 32 cells (blastomeres).

5. Blastula: a hollow ball of up to several hundred cells (blastomeres). Identify the significance of gastrulation in the developmental process. 1. Gastrulation (the formation of a gastrula from a blastula) forms 3 germ layers: outer layer = ectoderm, middle layer = mesoderm, and inner layer = endoderm.

2. Formation of the archenteron and blastopore occurs during gastrulation.

3. Archenteron: in some groups, will form the digestive tract

4. Blastopore: opening of the archenteron which, depending on the species, may develop either into the mouth or the anus. Organogenesis is the process by which the internal organs of an organism develop from endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm. Organogenesis is the process by which the internal organs of an organism develop from endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm. Summarize the fate of each of the germ layers. 1. Ectoderm: nervous system, sense organs, outer layer of skin (epidermis)

2. Mesoderm: notochord, skeleton, muscles, circulatory system, inner layer of skin (dermis)

3. Endoderm: lining of the digestive tube and respiratory system Describe the general course of early human development, including fertilization, the fates of the trophoblast and inner cell mass, implantation, and the role of the placenta. a. Fertilization occurs in the oviduct

b. The blastocyst (mammalian blastula) implants in the endometrium (lining) of the uterus

c. Outer cell mass of the blastocyst = trophoblast --> eventually forms the chorion and amnion, and later, the placenta

d. Inner cell mass of the blastocyst --> eventually forms the developing embryo

REPRODUCTION Higher organisms use the nervous system to elicit quick responses to stimuli. Long-term balance of bodily functions is maintained by using hormones. Hormones are chemicals, produced and secreted by the glands in order to achieve homeostasis. In most cases, a hormone affects a tissue other than the gland by which it was produced.

Hormones can be categorized according to the location of action. 1.) Autocrine: the target tissue is the same tissue/gland that produces the hormone.

2.) Paracrine: the target tissue may be a tissue close to the secreting gland or one that is distant from the secreting gland.

3.) Endocrine: the target tissue is distant from the secreting gland. The Endocrine System is a network of glands and organs that produce hormones which travel through the blood stream to their target tissues. The glands of the endocrine system include pineal, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal, kidney, testes, and ovary. Mechanisms of Action: There are four ways that hormones affect target tissues: 1.) They alter the membrane permeability of the target cells.

2.) They activate essential enzymes within target cells.

3.) They activate a second messenger molecule, like cAMP, which will initiate a cascade of reactions.

4.) They form a complex with a carrier and together, influence a gene’s rate of expression. Primary Functions of Endocrine Glands: Pineal: located in the brain; produces melatonin; may be involved in sleep-wake cycles and in reproductive cycles. Hypothalamus: located in the brain; regulates pituitary function. Pituitary: called the “master gland” because it influences many other glands and organs. *** The anterior lobe releases six essential hormones (adrenocorticotropin, growth hormone, prolactin, luteinizing, follicle stimulating, thyroid stimulating). *** The posterior lobe releases oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone. Thyroid: secretes calcitonin, thyroxine, and tri-iodothyronine; affects metabolism and neuronal functions. Parathyroid: regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the blood with parathormone. Thymus: secretes for hormones that boost the production of T-cells and function of the immune system. Pancreas: secretes four hormones, including insulin and glucagon, which regulate the body’s use of carbohydrates. Adrenal: association of two separate tissues. *** The outer/cortex region secretes cortisol, aldosterone, and adrenal androgens.

*** The inner/medulla region secretes epinephrine. Testes: produce testosterone and inhibin, which control the development of male phenotypic characteristics. Ovaries: produce estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin, which regulate female phenotypic characteristics. Secretion and Transport Some glands respond to the neural or physiological signal to secrete a hormone within seconds, others respond weeks after the signal is received. The amount of hormone secreted is typically very small; the standard range of amounts is picograms – micrograms. There is also variability in the mechanism of hormone transport. While some hormones travel through the blood on protein carrier molecules, others are free-floating. In order to ensure homeostasis, feedback mechanisms regulate hormone secretion rates and amounts. There are some instances in which a hormone is secreted in direct response to a physiological need. In other instances, a hormone may have a cyclic pattern of high and low secretion rates. Sleep-wake cycles and reproductive cycles are classic examples of biological rhythms controlled by cyclic hormone release. The Mammalian Reproductive Cycle In mammalian females, a cyclic pattern of rising and falling hormone levels follows the onset of puberty. Ovarian follicles are cell clusters within the ovaries that contain a cell that has the potential to complete meiosis and produce ova (eggs). These cells are primary oocytes, waiting for hormonal trigger to complete the meiotic process. During the first half of each menstrual cycle, the levels of FSH and LH increase. FSH causes a small number of follicles to mature (try to continue meiosis). Maturing follicles release estrogen. Estrogen causes the lining of the uterus to get thicker. It also causes the mucus in the cervix to get thin & stretchy and to become very nurturing to sperm. A high level of estrogen is reached, and it triggers the hypothalamus to release a sudden, large amount of LH. One of the follicles, ideally the one with the “best” egg, bursts open. This burst of a follicle, releasing an ovum is called ovulation. The egg/ovum is caught by the fallopian tube. If sperm are present in the fallopian tubes while there is a “ripe” egg, fertilization may occur. The tissue that was surrounding the egg is called the corpus luteum. It starts to produce HCG and progesterone. Both of these hormones will protect an embryo, if fertilization occurs. If no sperm are present, the egg and the accumulated uterine lining will be flushed out during the next menstrual period. In mammalian females, the hormonal triggers needed to induce egg maturation and ovulation become irregular and eventually ceases to occur. This process is called menopause. Physiological signs of hormonal irregularity typically occur between the ages of 45 – 55. Once menopause is completed, the female is no longer fertile. In mammalian males, a relatively consistent level of fertility will remain throughout adulthood. Typically, in a man’s forties, there will be a gradual decrease in sperm production rates (number of sperm produced) and in the quality of sperm samples (motility rates, normal chromosome contents). In most cases the production of sperm does not completely cease. Describe the processes of human fertilization and early development.

1. Sperm structure: head (nucleus and acrosome), midpiece (mitochondrion), and flagellum. The head of the sperm consists of the nucleus and a cap (acrosome) containing enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the egg.

2. Zygote: formed from the fusion of a secondary oocyte and a sperm cell.

3. The second meiotic division is completed after fertilization.

4. Development begins after fertilization.

Describe the processes involved in fertilization. 1. Contact and recognition

2. Sperm entry is regulated to prevent 1) interspecific fertilization and 2) polyspermy

3. Fertilization activates egg to begin the stages of development Sperm and egg pronuclei fuse and DNA synthesis is initiated Trace the generalized pattern of early development of the embryo from zygote through early cleavage and formation of the morula and blastula. 1. Cleavage: the zygote undergoes a series of rapid mitotic cell divisions without a cell growth phase.

2. Successive blastomeres (cells) are smaller and smaller, since the total cell volume remains constant.

3. Blastomeres are the building blocks for development.

4. Morula: a solid ball of up to 32 cells (blastomeres).

5. Blastula: a hollow ball of up to several hundred cells (blastomeres).

Identify the significance of gastrulation in the developmental process. 1. Gastrulation (the formation of a gastrula from a blastula) forms 3 germ layers: outer layer = ectoderm, middle layer = mesoderm, and inner layer = endoderm.

2. Formation of the archenteron and blastopore occurs during gastrulation.

3. Archenteron: in some groups, will form the digestive tract

4. Blastopore: opening of the archenteron which, depending on the species, may develop either into the mouth or the anus.

Organogenesis is the process by which the internal organs of an organism develop from endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm. Summarize the fate of each of the germ layers. 1. Ectoderm: nervous system, sense organs, outer layer of skin (epidermis)

2. Mesoderm: notochord, skeleton, muscles, circulatory system, inner layer of skin (dermis)

3. Endoderm: lining of the digestive tube and respiratory system Describe the general course of early human development, including fertilization, the fates of the trophoblast and inner cell mass, implantation, and the role of the placenta.

a. Fertilization occurs in the oviduct

b. The blastocyst (mammalian blastula) implants in the endometrium (lining) of the uterus

c. Outer cell mass of the blastocyst = trophoblast --> eventually forms the chorion and amnion, and later, the placenta

d. Inner cell mass of the blastocyst --> eventually forms the developing embryo

1) Define hormone. 2) What are the major differences between hormonal and neural responses? 3) For each type of hormone indicated below, indicate whether they use ducts to deliver the hormones they produce and describe their effect on proximal and distal tissues. HORMONE CLASSIFICATION

SECRETE INTO DUCTS: YES / NO

DISTANCE FROM SECRETION -> TARGET

Autocrine Paracrine Endocrine

4) Define Endocrine System. 5) Identify each gland shown in the figure below. 6) Complete the table. ENDOCRINE GLAND

LOCATION IN BODY

HORMONE(S) PRODUCED

BODY FUNCTION AFFECTED

Pineal Hypothalamus Pituitary Thyroid Pancreas Adrenal Kidney Testes Ovaries

7) List four different affects hormones have on their target tissues. (A) _______________________________________________________ (B) _______________________________________________________ (C) _______________________________________________________ (D) _______________________________________________________ 8) Define Homeostasis. 9) What is the role of glands and hormones in maintaining homeostasis? 10) List four things that can affect gland and hormone function. (A) _____________________________________________________ (B) _____________________________________________________ (C) _____________________________________________________ (D) _____________________________________________________ 11) Describe the processes of human fertilization and early development.

12) Describe the processes involved in fertilization. 13) Trace the generalized pattern of early development of the embryo from zygote through early cleavage and formation of the morula and blastula. 14) Identify the significance of gastrulation in the developmental process. 15) Define organogenesis. 16) Summarize the fate of each of the 3 germ layers. (1089) a. ectoderm b. mesoderm c. endoderm

17) Describe the general course of early human development, including fertilization, the fates of the trophoblast and inner cell mass, implantation, and the role of the placenta.

18) Contrast postnatal with prenatal life. 19) Describe changes that occur at or shortly after birth that allow the neonate to live independently.

MOLECULAR TRANSPORT All cells/organisms must carry supplies such as water and nutrients (including gases) from the environment into the cells and tissues that need them for metabolism. They also need to carry metabolic waste out of cells into the environment. In microbes, protists (unicellular eukaryotes) and many small invertebrates, diffusion through the cell membrane/body surface is an adequate mechanism for these tasks. Larger, multicellular plants and animals require body systems to perform internal transport.

Transport in Animals Since diffusion is largely adequate for most of the internal transport in smaller-bodied organisms, no circulatory system has evolved in them. For instance, Cnidarians and flatworms have no specific circulatory system but nutrients directly diffuse from gastrovascular cavity into cells. Arthropods and most mollusks have an open circulatory system in which a heart pumps hemolymph (blood + interstitial fluid) through vessels into open reservoirs (sinuses, all sinuses together = hemocoel) where tissues bathe allowing diffusion of materials to happen between hemolymph and cells. Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system in which blood and lymph are circulated in two separate systems, meeting for material exchange at selected points. Closed Circulatory Systems Blood is always contained within heart and vessels, not in open reservoirs. Heart pumps blood into vessels that branch off to capillaries that run through tissues. Diffusion of

materials happens between capillaries and cells via interstitial fluid. The thymus, spleen and liver are accessory organs in vertebrate circulatory system. The circulatory system has both transport and homeostatic functions – transport: nutrients from digestive/respiratory systems or storage organs to tissues; hormones from endocrine glands to tissues; waste from tissues to excretory organs – homeostatic: maintenance of fluid balance, blood/osmotic pressure, blood pH; defense; heat distribution etc. Blood Composition and Blood Vessel Structure Blood is composed of plasma (55% of volume) and cellular material. Plasma contains water, proteins, salts, hormones, nutrients, waste etc. Cellular component includes RBC (mainly for O2 transport by hemoglobin), WBC (defense) and platelets (blood clotting). Arteries with thick walls (i.e., thicker smooth muscle layer between outer coat and endothelium than veins) carry blood from heart to capillaries/organs through arterioles. The thicker walls provide strength as blood with a higher pressure travels in arteries rather than in than veins. Capillaries are only one cell thick for ready diffusion of materials. Thicker walls in arteries and veins than capillaries prevent diffusion/loss of materials from blood, as well. Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrate Hearts Life on land requires terrestrial vertebrates to exhibit higher metabolic rates than aquatic organisms exhibit. The increased metabolic rate necessitates certain specific characteristics in the structure of their hearts. Group # Atria # Ventricles # Circuits Is oxygen-

rich blood separate from oxygen-poor blood?

Fish 1 1 1 No Amphibians 2 1 2 Partially Reptiles 2 2 2 Primarily or

Fully (organism specific)

Bird/mammals 2 2 2 Fully

Pathway of Blood Flow in the Human Heart 1.) Superior and inferior vena cava bring oxygen-poor blood from the body to the atrium. 2.) Tricuspid valve opens/shuts for atrio-ventricular flow. 3.) Ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary artery for pulmonary circuit/circulation (heart-lung) as pulmonic valve (a semilunar) prevents backflow from pulmonary artery. 4.) Pulmonary veins from each lung bring oxygen-rich blood to atrium. The mitral valve opens/shuts for atrio-ventricular flow. 5.) Ventricle pumps blood into the aorta for the systemic circuit (from the heart to the whole body) as aortic valve (a semilunar) prevents backflow from aorta. Lymphatic tissues and organs of the immune system The Lymphatic system runs throughout the body, collects interstitial fluid and returns it to blood, absorbs lipids from digestive tract, and is a part of immune system. Lymph, lymphocytes, lymphatic capillaries and vessels, and lymphatic tissue (lymph nodes and nodules) constitute lymphatic system. Tonsils, thymus and spleen are also largely composed of lymphatic tissue and considered part of lymphatic system. Gas Exchange When the molecules in an organism have been transported to the appropriate tissue/cell, those molecules must enter the appropriate cells or body fluid. Of all of the molecules that must be transported and exchanged in order to maintain homeostasis, oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange is perhaps the most critical. All living organisms have the ability to exchange gases with their environment. There are three basic forms of gas exchange that can occur. Diffusion and osmosis play a significant role in the process of gas exchange. In these events, gases move freely according to a concentration gradient. There are three major metabolic pathways used by living organisms to achieve gas exchange. These include aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, and photosynthesis. A. aerobic respiration - requires oxygen input, releases CO2

B. anaerobic respiration – does not require oxygen input, releases CO2

C. photosynthesis - requires CO2 input, releases oxygen When we speak of gas exchange, the gas can be a component of the air surrounding the organism, or it can be dissolved in the water surrounding an aquatic organism. If an organism cannot obtain sufficient gases from its environment, or if it cannot dispose of gaseous waste products, the organism’s metabolic processes will be compromised. Gas exchange in animals: In aquatic animals the respiratory organ is called a “gill”. The gill is a thin membranous structure, supported by the buoyancy of water. The outer surface of the gill is exposed to the water, while the inner surface is in close contact with the organism’s circulatory system or internal body cavities.

1.) In very small aquatic invertebrates, simple diffusion through the body wall is an effective method of gas exchange. Because of their small size all of the body tissues can receive necessary gasses through the skin. These organisms do not possess true gills.

2.) In some small aquatic organisms there are external gills. These are fleshy extensions of the epidermis. Animals that exhibit external gills are typically amphibians, such as the mudpuppy salamander.

3.) Most species of fish have true internal gills, with exterior slits to allow exchange with the surrounding water.

In terrestrial animals respiratory structures are more advanced. Living on land necessitates this evolutionary characteristic, therefore tracheal systems and lungs developed. 1.) Small invertebrates exchange gases directly through the integument or “skin.” 2.) Insects possess tracheal systems. There are spiracles (openings to outside), linked to tracheal tubes, which branch internally into tracheoles. Tracheoles exchange gases directly with muscles. Contraction of internal muscles within the abdominal region facilitates gas movement. 3.) Vertebrates possess a respiratory system, including lungs as the primary organ of gas exchange. a. Anatomy: trachea, bronchus, bronchioles, alveoli, lung.

b. Gas exchange occurs in the alveolus; it is a small spherical air sac surrounded by a network of capillaries.

c. Breathing is the mechanism by which air is moved into and out of the lungs. Air intake is called inhaling (or inspiration) and air release is called exhaling (or expiration).

d. The muscles involved in breathing are the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. The diaphragm is located below the lungs; when it contracts, the chest cavity expands and the lungs fill with air. When the diaphragm relaxes the chest cavity compresses and air is expelled. The intercostal muscles are located between the ribs and are responsible for forced inhalation and forced exhalation. Molecular aspects of gas exchange: Most of the carbon dioxide collected by blood as it travels through body tissues is converted into carbonic acid (by the action of an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase). The carbonic acid is subsequently converted into bicarbonate molecules and hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions attach to hemoglobin in the red blood cells, ultimately causing the hemoglobin to release the oxygen molecules it carries into tissues that require oxygen.

1.) Why do unicellular organisms need internal transport mechanisms? 2.) Why do multicellular organisms need internal transport systems? 3.) What type of internal transport is used in cnidarians (like hydra) and in Platyhelminthes (flatworms). 4.) What is the difference between an open circulatory system and a closed circulatory system? 5.) What is hemolymph? 6.) What is Blood Plasma? 7.) Describe the structure and function of each of the cell types found in blood. Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells,Platelets 8.) Complete the following table: Arteries Veins Arterioles Capillaries Function 9.) What physiological features and environmental conditions correlate with the number of chambers found in a vertebrate heart? 10.) What is the pulmonary circuit? 11.) What is the systemic circuit?

12.) Describe the function of each of the following: Lymph, Lymphatic Vessel, Lymphatic Tissue 13.) Use the following terms to label the mammalian heart diagram. (A) Aorta (B) Right Pulmonary Artery (C) Right Ventricle (D) Left Atrium (E) Left Pulmonary Artery (F) Right Atrium (G) Left Ventricle (H) Superior Vena Cava (I) Inferior Vena Cava 14.) Using the figure of the human heart, place arrows inside each chamber/vessel to indicate the pathway of blood flow. 15.) What gas is taken in by mammals and what gas is released? What structures are involved in the process? 16.) Use the following table to compare evolutionary advancements in respiratory systems. Respiratory Structure

Representative Organism

Brief Description of Structure’s Anatomy How does it allow gas exchange to occur?

Body surface Tracheal tubes Gills Lungs 17. Label the structures of the human respiratory system.

19. Describe the role of each of the following in the human respiratory system. Molecule: Role in Respiration: Hemoglobin Oxyhemoglobin Carbon Dioxide Carbonic Anhydrase 20. Describe the causes and consequences of the following d

Respiratory Disease Causes/Physiological Characteristics

Asthma Cystic Fibrosis Bronchitis Lung Cancer

Diseases. Use internet resources if necessary.

NUTRITION

Nutrition is the process of intake and use of nutrients. Autotrophs are organisms that synthesize their own food from simple, inorganic components. The best example of autotrophy is the intake of carbon dioxide and by plants, using these to synthesize carbohydrates. Heterotrophs are organisms that consume complex materials, including autotrophs and tissues from other heterotrophs for food. Nutrients are the substances in food that provide energy, fuel metabolic activities, and serve as building blocks for growth and repair. The basic food/nutrient categories include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, minerals, vitamins and water. There are many uses for each of these nutrient categories. Among them are: 1.) Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are all energy sources and structural components in cells. 2.) Minerals are structural components of tissues and metabolites, cofactors of enzymes, and anessential part of body fluids. 3.) Vitamins are antioxidants, components of coenzymes. 4.) Water is an essential cellular component/reactant, and is the medium in which all metabolic reactions occur. Digestive systems perform the functions of ingestion (intake of food), digestion (breakdown to absorbable components), absorption (passage of molecules/nutrients into the circulatory system), and egestion/elimination (egestion is exhibited by simpler organisms while elimination is exhibited by more complex organisms). Simple organisms like the unicellular protozoans use phagocytosis for food intake and digest it intracellularly, and then they egest waste by exocytosis. Cnidarians and flatworms have one digestive opening that is used for ingestion and for egestion. It is usually called a mouth, although both ingestion and egestion occur through it. They start digestion extracellularly in a gastrovascular cavity but continue and complete the digestive process intracellularly in food vacuoles. Annelids have a complete digestive tract, which means there are separate openings for ingestion and egestion. There is regional differentiation along the internal digestive “tube” for certain aspects of the process to occur in specific regions. The organs of the vertebrate digestive tract are composed of four tissue layers: 1.) mucosa – an epithelial tissue that lines lumen plus some connective tissue; it is greatly folded for increased secreting and absorbing surface area, 2.) submucosa – surrounds mucosa and is rich in blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves, 3.) muscle layer – sets of circularly (inner) and longitudinally (outer) arranged smooth muscle, 4.) visceral peritoneum - the outer connective tissue. Peristalsis is a wave of muscular contractions, which ensures unidirectional movement of food along the digestive tract, from the ingestion site to the elimination site. Sites of digestion include the mouth, stomach and small intestine. Both mechanical and chemical digestion occur in the mouth and in the stomach. Gastric enzymes in the stomach are activated by acidic pH (1-3). In the small intestine chemical digestion is completed and most of the absorption occurs. The pH in small intestine is neutral, ranging from 6-8 for optimal enzymatic activity. Within the small intestine, there are fingerlike projections on the inner epithelium called villi. There are also microvilli - cytoplasmic foldings on individual cells of villi. These increase the surface area for absorption. Each villus lining is one cell thick

and it contains a network of capillaries and one lymph vessel, called a lacteal, for efficient absorption. Lacteals absorb broken down lipids, while capillaries absorb a variety of other nutrients/molecules. The large intestine (colon) absorbs water, sodium ions and bacteria-synthesized vitamins K and B. The large intestine also stores feces until elimination is required. Major digestive agents and their functions: Digestive agent

Production Site Substrate the agent acts on

Product of agent + substrate

Mucus Mucosa Lubricates food, prevents damage to the the mucosa

Bolus, chyme

Amylase Salivary Glands - mouth

Starch Maltose, small polysaccharides

Pepsin Stomach Protein Short polypeptides Amylase Pancreas Polysaccharides

(starch/glycogen) Maltose, other disaccharides

Trypsin Pancreas Polypeptides Short polypeptides, peptides

Lipase Pancreas Lipids Glycerides (mono & di), glycerol, fatty acids

Amylase Small intestine Polysaccharides Maltose,

other disaccharides Maltase (& other disaccharidases)

Small Intestine Maltose ( & other disaccharides)

Glucose, galactose, fructose, etc.

Peptidase Small Intestine Small peptides Amino acids