Date post: | 03-Apr-2018 |
Category: |
Documents |
Upload: | thays-nogueira |
View: | 216 times |
Download: | 0 times |
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 1/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H
E . P . T h o m p s o n
"One has to pu t up wi th the crude Engl i sh method of
d ev e lo p men t , o f co u r se . "—Marx o n Darwin .
I
I N t h e l a s t y e a r o r t w o , a n a m b i t i o u s w o r k o f a n a l y s i s o f B r i t i s h h i s t o r y
a n d s o c ia l s t r u c t u r e h a s b e e n s e t i n t r a i n b y P e r r y A n d e r s o n a n d T o m
N a i r n i n New Left Review.1 T h i s w o r k a l s o b e a r s , t h o u g h m a i n l y b y
i m p l i c a t i o n , o n s o m e m a j o r a s p e c t s o f M a r x i s t t h e o r y a n d a n a l y s i s . T h e
p r e s e n t e s s a y i s c o n c e r n e d t o d i s c u s s s o m e o f t h e i ss u e s a n d t h e m e s
w h i c h t h e t w o a u t h o r s r a i s e .
T h e s e a rt i c le s , t a k e n t o g e t h e r , r e p r e s e n t a s u s t a i n e d a t t e m p t t o
d e v e l o p a c o h e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t o f B r i t i sh s o c i e t y . U n d o u b t e d l y
t h e s e m i n a l a r t i c l e i s A n d e r s o n ' s Origins of the Present Crisis. But , i f
N a i r n ' s w o r k i s l e s s i n s p i r e d , n e v e r t h e l e s s b o t h w r i t e r s c l e a r l y i n h a b i t
t h e s a m e m e n t a l u n i v e r s e . B o t h f e e l t h e m s e l v e s t o b e e x i l e s f r o m a n
" E n g l i s h i d e o l o g y " w h i c h " i n i t s d r o o l i n g o l d a g e . . . g i ve s r is e t o a
k i n d o f t w i l i g h t , w h e r e ' e m p i r i c i s m ' h a s b e c o m e m y o p i a a n d ' l i b e r a l i s m '
a s o r t o f b l i n k i n g u n c e r t a i n t y . "2
N a i r n e x t e n d s t h e i n d i c t m e n t :
"En g l i sh sep ara t en ess an d p ro v in c i a l i sm; En g l i sh b ack ward n ess an d
t rad i t ional i sm; Engl i sh re l ig ios i ty and moral i s t ic vapour ing ; pal t ry Engl i sh' empir ic i sm, ' o r ins t inct ive d is t rus t o f reason . . . . " 3
T h e r e is " t h e n u l l i t y o f n a t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n s , " t h e " s e c u l a r ,
i n s u l a r s t u l t i f i c a t i o n " o f B r i t i s h c u l t u r e , " t h e i m p e n e t r a b l e b l a n k e t o f
c o m p l a c e n c y " o f B r i t i s h s o c i a l l i f e , " t h e s t o n y r e c e s s e s o f B r i t i s h t r a d e
u n i o n c o n s e r v a t i s m , " a n d " t h e c e n t u r ie s o f s t a le c o n s t i p a t i o n a n d
s e d i m e n t a r y a n c e s t o r - w o r s h i p " o f B r it is h so c i e ty . T h e E n g l i s h i d e o l o g y
h a s —
"embraced a d i le t tan te l i terary cu l tu re descended f rom the ar i s tocracy and
the crudest of lum pen-bo urgeo is u t i l i tar ian ph i losoph ies , a nd held the mto g e th er i n a b i za r r e Jek y l l - an d -Hy d e u n io n o f a t t r ac t i o n an d r ep u l s io n . " '
" T h e v e r y u r b a n w o r l d " o f E n g l a n d " i s t h e i m a g e of t h i s a r c h a i c ,
b a s t a r d c o n s e r v a t i s m — a n u r b a n w o r l d w h i c h h a s n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h
u r b a n civilization, a s t h i s i s c o n c e i v e d i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s w i t h a n o l d a n d
u n i f i e d b o u r g e o i s c u l t u r e . "5
T h e s e j u d g m e n t s a r e r e s u m e d in A n d e r s o n ' s
Origins:
311
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 2/52
31 2 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1 9 6 5
' "The two great chemical elements of this blanketing English fog are' t radi t ionalism' and 'empiricism' : in i t , v isibi l i ty—of any social or historicalreal ity—is a lways z e r o . . . . A com prehensive, coagulated conservati sm isthe result , covering the whole of society with a thick pal l of simultaneousPhil ist inism (towards ideas) and mystagogy (towards inst i tut ions), forwhich England has jus t ly wo n an in ternat ional rep u ta t ion ."
A n d t h e e s s e n c e o f b o t h a u t h o r s ' a n a l y s i s o f L a b o u r i s m m a y b e f o u n d
i n A n d e r s o n ' s p h r a s e — " i n E n g l a n d , a s u p i n e b o u r g e o i s i e p r o d u c e d a
s u b o r d i n a t e p r o l e t a r i a t . " 6
N o d o u b t i n p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t s c e r t a i n o f t h e s e j u d g m e n t s m i g h t b e
s u s t a i n e d . B u t w h a t is e v i d e n t , w h e r e v e r s u c h j u d g m e n t s o b t r u d e , is t h e
l o o s e n i n g o f e m o t i o n a l c o n t r o l a n d t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f a n a l y s i s b y
c o m m i n a t i o n . T h e r e i s, a b o u t t h e m , t h e a i r o f a n i n v e rt e d P o d s n a p p e r y .
" W e E n g l i s h m e n a r e V e r y P r o u d o f o u r C o n s t i t u t i o n , S i r , " M r .
P o d s n a p e x p l a i n e d w i t h a s e n s e o f m e r i t o r i o u s p r o p r i e t o r s h i p :
" ' I t was Bestowed Upon Us By Providence. No Other Count ry i s soF a v o u r e d a s T h i s C o u n t r y . . . . '
" ' An d other count r ies , ' sa id the foreign gen t leman. 'They do how?'
" 'They do, Sir , ' returned Mr. Podsnap, gravely shaking his head; ' they
do—I am sorry to be obliged to say i t— as they do. ' "
B u t n o w t h e r o l e s a r e r e v e r s e d . M r . P o d s n a p ( w h o h a s s w e l le d t o
en g ro ss a l l Br i t i sh cu l tu re o v er t h e p as t 4 0 0 y ear s ) is b e in g a r r a ig n e d
in h i s t u rn .
" ' An d other count r ies , ' sa id Mr. Podsnap remorsefu l ly . 'They do how?'" 'They do , ' re tu rned Messrs . Anderson and Nai rn severely : 'They do—
we are sorry to be obliged to say i t—in Every Respec t B etter . The ir B ourgeoisRevolu t ions have been Mature . Thei r Class S t ruggles have been Sanguinary and Unequivocal . Thei r In te l l igen ts ia has been Autonomous andIn tegrated Ver t ical ly . Thei r Morphology has been Typological ly Concrete .Th e i r P ro l e t a r i a t h as b een Heg emo n ic ' "
T h e r e i s, i n d e e d , t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r a n a l y s i s a n u n d i s c l o s e d m o d e l o f
O t h e r C o u n t r i e s , w h o s e t y p o l o g i c a l s y m m e t r y o f f e r s a r e p r o a c h t o
B r i t i s h e x c e p t i o n a l i s m . S e t a g a i n s t t h i s m o d e l , t h e E n g l i s h w o r k i n g
c l a s s i s " o n e o f t h e e n i g m a s o f m o d e r n h i s t o r y , "7
t h e h i s to r i ca l ex p er i
e n c e o f t h e E n g l is h b o u r g e o i s i e h a s b e e n " f r a g m e n t e d , i n c o m p l e t e , "8
E n g l i s h in t e l l e c t u a ls h a v e n o t c o n s t i t u t e d " a t r u e i n t e l l i g e n t s i a . "9
Ev ery h i s to r i ca l ex p er i en ce i s o f co u r se i n a ce r t a in sen se u n iq u e . To o
m u c h p r o t e s t a t i o n a b o u t t h i s c a l ls i n t o q u e s t i o n , n o t t h e e x p e r i e n c e
( w h i c h r e m a i n s t h e r e t o b e e x p l a i n e d ) b u t t h e r e l e v a n c e o f t h e m o d e l
a g a i n s t w h i c h i t i s j u d g e d . ( W e m a y l e a v e a s i d e t h e p o i n t t h a t O t h e r
C o u n t r i es , if we su rv e y ad v a n c ed in d u s t r i a l n a t i o n s o v er t h e p a s t fifty
y ea r s , h av e n o t a lw ay s an d in ev ery r esp ec t d o n e Be t t e r t h a n th e Br i t i sh ,
d e s p i t e t h e i r v e r t i c a l i n t e l l i g e n t s i a a n d t h e i r h e g e m o n i c p r o l e t a r i a t . )
T h e A n d e r s o n - N a i r n m o d e l c l e ar ly a p p r o x i m a t e s m o s t cl os e ly t o t h e
F r e n c h e x p e r i e n c e , o r t o a p a r t i c u l a r in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h a t e x p e r i e n c e ;
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 3/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 313
a n d i n t h i s t h e y f o l l o w t h e m a j o r , p r e - 1 9 1 7 M a r x i s t t r a d i t i o n . W h e n s e t
b e s i d e t h i s , E n g l i s h e x p e r i e n c e f a i l s i n t h r e e i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s : ( 1 ) i n
t h e p r e m a t u r e , u n f u lf i ll e d c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e v o l u
t i o n . I n t h e e n s u i n g c o m p r o m i s e s o f 1 6 8 8 a n d 1 8 3 2, t h e i n d u s t r i a l
b o u r g e o i s i e f a i l e d t o a t t a i n t o a n u n d i s p u t e d h e g e m o n y , a n d t o r e m a k e
t h e r u l i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s o f s o c i e t y i n i t s o w n i m a g e . R a t h e r , a " d e l i b e r a t e ,s y s t e m a t i z e d s y m b i o s i s " t o o k p l a c e b e tw e e n t h e l a n d e d a r i s t o c r a c y a n d
t h e i n d u s t r i a l b o u r g e o i s i e , i n w h i c h , h o w e v e r , t h e a r i s t o c r a c y r e m a i n e d
a s s e n i o r p a r t n e r ; ( 2 ) B e c a u s e t h e s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e v o l u t i o n w a s
" i m p u r e , " a n d t h e s t r u g g l e w a s c o n d u c t e d i n r e l i g i o u s t e r m s , t h e
b o u r g e o i s i e n e v e r d e v e l o p e d a n y c o h e r e n t w o r l d - v i e w o r s e l f - k n o w l e d g e ,
a n d m a d e d o w i t h a n " i d e o l o g y " o f " e m p i r i c i s m " w h i c h h a s a p p a r e n t l y
c h a r a c t e r i z e d E n g l i s h i n t e l l e c t u a l c u l t u r e u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t d a y :
" . . . t he ideo log ical l egacy o f the Revo lu t ion was a lmos t n i l . . . . Because
of i t s 'pr imi t ive , ' pre-Enl ightenment charac ter , the ideology of the Revolu
t ion founde d no s ignificant t radi t ion, and le ft no major a f t e r -e ffe c ts . . . . "
( 3) A p r e m a t u r e b o u r g e o i s r e v o l u t i o n g a v e r is e t o a p r e m a t u r e w o r k i n g -
c l as s m o v e m e n t , w h o s e h e r o i c st r u g g l es d u r i n g th e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u
t i o n w e r e n u l l i f i e d b y t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y c o m m e n s u r a t e t h e o r e t i c a l
g r o w t h : " i t s m a x i m u m a r d o u r a n d i n s u r g e n c y c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e
m i n i m u m a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s o c i a l i s m a s a s t r u c t u r e d i d e o l o g y . " W h e n t h i s
m o v e m e n t fe ll a p a r t a f te r C h a r t i s m ( t h r o u g h " e x h a u s t i o n " ) t h e r e
f o l l o w e d a " p r o f o u n d c a e s u r a " i n E n g l i s h w o r k i n g - c l a s s h i s t o r y , a n d
t h e " m o s t i n s u r g e n t w o r k i n g c l as s i n E u r o p e b e c a m e t h e m o s t n u m b e d
a n d d o c i l e . " " M a r x i s m c a m e t o o l a t e , " w h e r e a s in O t h e r C o u n t r i e s" M a r x i s m s w e p t t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s . " T h e r e a f t e r , t h e p o s t - 1 8 8 0 L a b o u r
m o v e m e n t h a s n u ll if ie d i t s e n t i r e e x i s t e n c e b y e x p r e s s i n g o n l y c o r p o r a
t i v e ( a n d n o t h e g e m o n i c ) v i r t u e s , a n d b y b e c o m i n g s u b j e c t ( w i t h
F a b i a n i s m ) t o a n i d e o l o g y w h i c h m i m i c s , w i t h i m p o v e r i s h e d e q u i p m e n t ,
t h e b a n a l e m p i r i c i s m o f t h e b o u r g e o i s i e .
O u r a u t h o r s b r i n g t o t h i s a n a l y s i s t h e ze s t o f e x p l o r e r s . T h e y s e t o u t
o n t h e i r c i r c u m n a v i g a t i o n s b y d i s c a r d i n g , w i t h d e r i s i o n , t h e o l d s p e c u l a
t i v e c h a r t s . A n d e r s o n n o t e s " t h e c o m p l e t e l a c k o f a n y s e r i o u s g l o b a l
h i s t o r y o f B r i t i s h s o c i e t y , " t h e " n e r v e l e s s n e s s o f o u r h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , "
" n o a t t e m p t h a s e v e r b e e n m a d e a t e v e n t h e o u t l i n e o f a ' t o t a l i z i n g 'h i s t o r y o f m o d e r n B r i t i s h s o c i e t y . " N a i r n fin ds t h a t t h e r e is n o t e v e n
" a r u d i m e n t a r y h i s t o r i c a l d e b a t e r e g a r d i n g t h e t o t a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f
B r i t i s h s o c i e t y . "
"Enmeshed in the dense web of a rchaic supers t ruc ture graf ted on toBri t i sh capi ta l ism . . . the wo rking c lass could no t d is tance i tse lf aggressive ly
f rom soc ie ty and cons t i tu te i t s own au tonomous movement towards soc ia lhegemony. The cut t ing ins t rument needed for th is task was lacking. Thatis , an in te l lec tua l s t ra tum torn adr i f t f rom the soc ia l consensus wi thsufficient force and capable of functioning as catalyst to the new force
s t r iv ing for express ion agains t the consensus ."
1 0
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 4/52
3 14 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1 9 65
T h e p r o b l e m is t o c r e a t e " t h e i n te n s e r a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d
a c t i v i t y " w h i c h a r e " t h e n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e s o f r e v o l u t i o n i n t h i s
s o c ie t y o f t o t e m i z e d a n d e m a s c u l a t e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s , "1 1
wi th i t s
" t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n t s i a o n c e b u r i e d e n t i r e l y i n t h e t r i b a l r i t e s o f
O x f o r d o r l it e ra r y L o n d o n . "1 2
W i t h A n d e r s o n a n d N a i r n ( t h e t o n e
i m p l i e s ) t h e i n t e n s e c u t t i n g i n s t r u m e n t h a s , a t l o n g l a st , a r r i v e d .
I I
T h i s is u n g e n e r o u s , fo r A n d e r s o n ' s Origins is a s t i m u l a t i n g s t u d y —
i n d e e d , a s a p r o v o c a t i o n , i t i s a tour de force. I f i t c anno t be accep ted a s
an h i s to r i ca l s t a t e m en t in i t s ow n r igh t , i t i s nev e r the le s s an in c i t e m en t
t o s t u d y a n d a t a n u n c o m m o n p i t c h o f c o n c e p t u a l i n t e n s i t y . I f i t i s
u n t r u e t h a t B r i t a i n i s M a r x i s t terra incognita, i t i s a l so t rue tha t such
a t t e m p t s a t h i s t o r i c a l s e l f - k n o w l e d g e m u s t b e m a d e a g a i n a n d a g a i n ,
w i t h e a c h a d v a n c e i n k n o w l e d g e a n d e a c h r e f i n e m e n t o f o u r a n a l y t i ce q u i p m e n t .
A q u e s t i o n w h i c h t r o u b l e s m e , h o w e v e r , is w h e t h e r t h e e q u i p m e n t
w h i c h t h e s e a u t h o r s b r i n g t o t h e i r t a s k h a s b e e n r e f i n e d , o r m e r e l y
s o p h i s t i c a t e d . W e m a y t u r n t o t h e f irst p r o p o s i t i o n a s t o E n g l i s h e x c e p -
t i o n a l i s m , i. e. t h e s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e v o l u t i o n a n d i ts o u t c o m e :
"W ha t k ind o f a Revo lu t ion was it ? It can, perhaps, be said that i t was aclash between two segments of a land-owning class , neither of which were
direct crys ta l l iza t ions of opposed economic in teres ts , but ra ther were
partially con t ingen t bu t predominantly intell igible lenses into which wider,
more radica l ly antagonis t ic soc ia l forces came in to temporary and dis tor ted focus ."
" B e c a u s e i t w a s p r i m a r i l y f o u g h t within a n d n o t between c la s se s , wh i l e
i t c o u l d a n d d i d d e s t r o y t h e n u m e r o u s i n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d j u r i d i c a l
o b s t a c l e s o f f e u d a l i s m t o e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , i t c o u l d n o t a l t e r t h e
b a s i c p r o p e r t y s t a t u t e i n E n g l a n d . " T h e o u t c o m e w a s t o t r a n s f o r m " t h e
b o d y o f l a n d o w n e r s i n t o a b a s i c a l l y c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s , " a n d " i t a c h i e v e d
t h i s b y p r o f o u n d l y t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e roles b u t n o t t h e personnel of the
r u l i n g c l a s s . "
"In this sense i t was a supremely successful capitalist revolut ion. At the
same time, however, i t left almost the entire social s tructure intact ."
Th i s i s on page 30 o f Origins. But on page 39 we a re to ld tha t th i s
" b i t t e r , c a t h a r t i c r e v o l u t i o n . . . t r a n s f o r m e d t h e s t r u c t u r e b u t n o t t h e
s u p e r s t r u c t u r e o f E n g l i s h s o c i e t y . "
W h i c h i s i t t o b e ? A n d w h i c h m o d e l a r e w e u s i n g ? I f i t i s a s i m p l e
b a s i s - s u p e r s t r u c t u r e m o d e l , t h e n i t i s d if fi cu lt t o c o n c e i v e " a s u p r e m e l y
s u c c e s s f u l c a p i t a l i s t r e v o l u t i o n " w h i c h n e v e r t h e l e s s d i d n o t a l t e r " t h e
b a s i c p r o p e r t y s t a t u t e i n E n g l a n d . " I a m n o t c l e a r a s t o t h e m e a n i n g o f
" s t a t u t e " i n t h i s c o n t e x t ; b u t if w e w e r e t o e x a m i n e t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n
o f f e u d a l p r o p e r t y t e n u r e a n d r e l a t i o n s w e w o u l d h a v e t o c o m m e n c e a n
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 5/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 315
a n a l y s i s o f " t h e R e v o l u t i o n " s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s e a r l i e r t h a n A n d e r s o n
a u t h o r i z e s . I f t h e p r i m a r y a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n w a s t o
" d e s t r o y t h e n u m e r o u s i n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d j u r i d i c a l o b s t a c l e o f f e u d a l i s m
t o e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , " t h e n h o w i s i t p o s s i b l e t o s a y t h a t i t
" t r a n s f o r m e d t h e s t r u c t u r e b u t n o t t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e o f E n g l i s h
s o c i e t y " ? I n a n y c a s e , t a k i n g 1 64 0 a n d 1 68 8 t o g e t h e r , i t i s c o m m o n l y
s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n o f o n e v e ry i m p o r t a n t i n s t i t u t i o n w a s c o n
s i d e r a b l y m o d i f i e d : t h a t is , t h e m o n a r c h y ; a n d t h a t h e r e w e h a v e a
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n b o t h i n r o l e a n d i n p e r s o n n e l .
I n f a c t , t h e s e n s e o f A n d e r s o n ' s a n a l y s i s a p p e a r s t o b e t h a t t h e
Rev o lu t io n e f f ec t ed certain c h a n g e s i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e ,
r e m o v i n g c r u c i a l o b s t a c l e s t o c a p i t a l i s t d e v e l o p m e n t a t h o m e a n d i n t h e
c o l o n i e s ; b u t t h a t t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n s o c i a l f o r c e s w a s i n o t h e r
resp ec t s i n d ec i s iv e , l eav in g p a r t s o f t h e f eu d a l (o r p o s t - f eu d a l , t r an s i
t i o n a l - p a t e r n a l i s t ? ) s u p e r s t r u c t u r e i n t a c t . T h i s i s — a s a d e s c r i p t i o n —
e v i d e n t l y t r u e , a l t h o u g h s c a r c e ly o r i g i n a l .T h e r e is , h o w e v e r , a f u r t h e r a m b i g u i t y w h i c h g r o w s in i m p o r t a n c e
a s t h e i r a n a l y s i s m o v e s f r o m t h e s e v e n t e e n t h t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
D e s p i t e d i s c l a i m e r s , n e i t h e r A n d e r s o n n o r N a i r n a p p e a r t o b e a b l e t o
a c c e p t , au fond, t h e n o t i o n o f a n a g r a r i a n c l a s s , w h e t h e r r e n t i e r s o r
e n t r e p r e n e u r s , a s a t r u e b o u r g e o i s i e . 1 3 W h i l e t h e l a n d o w n e r s a r e
a c c r e d i t e d a s a " b a s i c a l l y c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s " i n Origins, a n d w e a r e t o l d ,
f u r t h e r , t h a t " t h e r e w a s . . . f r o m t h e s t a r t n o f u n d a m e n t a l , a n t a g o n i s t i c
c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o l d a r i s t o c r a c y a n d t h e n e w b o u r g e o i s i e , " y e t
i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y d e v e l o p m e n t s t h e a r i s t o c r a c y a n d
in d u s t r i a l mid d le c l ass a re d esc r ib ed as "d i s t i n c t so c i a l c l as ses" wh icha f te r 18 3 2 u n d e r w e n t " s y m b i o s i s , " i n w h i c h p r o c e s s t h e b o u r g e o i s i e
e f f ec t i v e ly cap i tu l a t ed t o t h e a r i s to c racy ( " i t s co u rag e h ad g o n e , " " i t
wo n two mo d es t v i c to r i es , l o s t i t s n e rv e an d en d ed b y lo s in g i t s
i d e n t i t y " ) . W i t h N a i r n t h e c o n t r a s t i s e v e n m o r e p o i n t e d : t h e l a n d
o w n e r s a r e " p r o t a g o n i s t s o f a d i s t i n c t i v e c i v i l i z a t i o n , h a l f - w a y b e t w e e n
t h e f e u d al a n d t h e m o d e r n . . . a c iv i l iz a t i o n . . . i n s p i te o f i ts b o u r g e o i s
t r a i t s q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e n e w s o c i a l o r d e r " : t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c
p o l i t i c a l e l i t e , i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d e t h o s , w e r e " t h e e m a n a t i o n o f a d i s
t i n c t so c i a l c l as s , i n d ep en d e n t o f an d sep ara t e f ro m th e m ain co n f l i c ts
a n d c o n c e r n s o f u r b a n , c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y . "1 4
M o r e o v e r , e a c h d i s t i n c t
" c l a s s " p r o j e c t e d a d i s t in c t i v e i d e o l o g y : " t r a d i t i o n a l i s m . . . w a s t h en a t u r a l i d e o l o g i c a l i d i o m o f t h e l a n d e d c l a s s , e m e r g i n g w i t h B u r k e ;
1 5
" e m p i r i c i s m , " o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , " f a i th f u l ly t r a n s c r i b e s t h e f r a g m e n t e d ,
i n c o m p l e t e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e E n g l i s h b o u r g e o i s i e ' s h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . "
I n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b o t h c o n g e a l e d i n t o t h e s a m e s u f f o c a t i n g f o g .
Th e p ro b lem s in v o lv ed h ere ce r t a in ly a re n o t easy . I t i s a s t r a in o n
o n e ' s s e m a n t i c p a t i e n c e t o i m a g i n e a c l a s s o f bourgeois s c a t t e r e d a c r o s s
a co u n t ry s i d e a n d d w el l i n g o n th e i r e s t a t es , an d i t is eas i e r t o see i n
m e r c a n t i l e c a p i t a l " t h e o n l y t r u l y b o u r g e o i s k e r n e l o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n . "
B u t if w e f o rg e t t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e F r e n c h m o d e l w h i c h t h e t e r m
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 6/52
31 6 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
i n t r o d u c e s , a n d t h i n k r a t h e r o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t m o d e o f p r o d u c t i o n , t h e n
c l e a r l y w e m u s t fo l l o w M a r x i n s e e i n g t h e l a n d o w n e r s a n d f a r m e r s a s a
v e r y p o w e r f u l a n d a u t h e n t i c c a p i t a l i s t n e x u s . W e c a n n o t s a y t h a t t h e
r e v o l u t i o n " m a d e p o s s i b l e t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e b o d y of l a n d
o w n e r s i n t o a b a s i c a l ly c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s " b e c a u s e , w h e r e w o o l o r t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f c o m m o d i t i e s f or L o n d o n a n d u r b a n m a r k e t s p r e d o m i n a t e d , t h i s p r o c e s s w a s a l r e a d y v e r y w e l l a d v a n c e d . B u t , e q u a l l y ,
w e c a n n o t s a y t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n e f f e c t e d a d r a m a t i c a c c e l e r a t i o n i n
t h i s p r o c e s s : t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f s o c i a l f o r c e s w a s s u c h t h a t t h e f u l l
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f r e v o l u t i o n w e r e d e l a y e d f o r n e a r l y a h u n d r e d y e a r s .
W h a t w a s a t i ss u e , f r o m o n e a s p e c t , w a s e x a c t l y a c a p i t a l i s t r e d e f in i
t i o n o f " t h e b a si c p r o p e r t y s t a t u t e , " f r o m " a n c i e n t r i g h t " t o " n a t u r a l
l a w " a n d p u r c h a s e ; o f t h e m o d e a n d r a t i o n a l e o f p r o d u c t i o n , f r o m
q u a s i- s e lf - s uf f ic i e n c y t o t h e m a r k e t i n g o f c o m m o d i t i e s f or p r o f i t ; a n d
o f p r o d u c t i v e r e l a t i o n s , f r om t h e o r g a n i c c o m p u l s i o n s o f t h e m a n o r a n d
g i l d t o t h e a t o m i z e d c o m p u l s i o n s o f a f r e e l a b o u r m a r k e t . A n d t h i sen t a i l e d a co m p re h e n s iv e co n f l i c t an d r ed ef in i t i o n a t ev ery lev e l , a s
o r g a n i c a n d m a g i c a l v i e w s o f s o c i e t y g a v e w a y b e f o r e n a t u r a l l a w , a n d
a s t h e a c q u i s i t iv e e t h i c e n c r o a c h e d u p o n a n a u t h o r i t a r i a n m o r a l
e c o n o m y . A n d , f r o m a n o t h e r a s p e c t , t h e r e a l m o v e m e n t w a s e n o r m
o u s l y c o m p l e x a n d p r o t r a c t e d , c o m m e n c i n g ( f o r h i s t o r i c a l c o n v e n i e n c e )
w i t h t h e g r e a t m o n a s t i c w o o l f a r m e r s o f D o m e s d a y , a n d p a s s i n g t h r o u g h
t h e e n f e e b l e m e n t o f t h e b a r o n s i n t h e w a r s , t h e g r o w t h of " f r e e l a b o u r , "
t h e e n c l o s u r e o f t h e s h e e p - w a l k s , t h e s e i z u r e a n d r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
C h u r c h l a n d s , t h e p i ll a g i n g o f t h e N e w W o r l d , t h e d r a i n a g e o f f e n s , a n d ,
t h e n c e , t h r o u g h r e v o l u t i o n , t o t h e e v e n t u a l a c c e l e r a t i o n o f e n c l o s u r ea n d t h e r e c l a m a t i o n o f w a s t e s .
T h e m o v e m e n t w h i c h s o o f t e n a p p e a r s t o r e p r o d u c e i ts e lf is t h a t u p o n
wh ich E i l een Po w er co m m en te d , w i th r e fe re n ce t o t h e f in an cia l c r i s i s
o f t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h i c h " d e p r e s s e d t h e a p e x , w h i l e it b r o a d e n e d
t h e f o u n d a t i o n s , o f t h e E n g l i s h m i d d l e c l a s s e s . " A l r e a d y , t h r e e c e n t u r i e s
b e f o r e t h e r e v o l u t i o n , s h e n o t e s a n " o r g a n i c t e n d e n c y " w i t h i n t h i s
m i d d l e c l a s s : " t h o u g h i t w a s c o n t i n u a l l y r e c r u i t e d f r o m t h e l a n d , it
t e n d e d a l w a y s t o g o b a c k t o t h e l a n d , t a k i n g i t s f o r t u n e w i t h i t . " 1 6
I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d e v e n t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f E n g l i s h c a p i t a l i s m
if o n e p e e r s o u t , t h r o u g h P a r i s i a n e y es , a t t h e b a c k w a r d " p r o v i n c e s , "s e e i n g i n t h e l a n d o w n e r s o n l y a f e u d a l a r i s t o c r a c y " w i t h b o u r g e o i s
t r a i t s . " T h e C o t s w o l d w o o l h a m l e t s , t h e r u r a l r e b u i l d i n g o f t h e s i x
t een th cen tu ry , h av e l e f t ev id en ce t o t h i s d ay o f a s ty l e , a so l id i t y , a
d i s p e r s a l o f o p u l e n c e .
T h e R e v o l u t i o n c o n f i r m e d a t i tl e n o t t o n e w p r o p e r t y b u t t o p r o p e r t y
w h i c h a l r e a d y e x i s t e d — a t i t le w h i c h w a s m e n a c e d b y t h e u n r e g u l a t e d
e x a c t i o n s o f t h e m o n a r c h y , a n d w h i c h h a d n o s e c u r e s a n c t i o n i n t h e
a u t h o r i t a r i a n a n d m a g i c a l i d e o l o g y w h i c h h a d o u t l i v e d i ts f e u d a l h o s t .
B u t , o n c e r e v o l u t i o n c o m m e n c e d , a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t t h r e a t t o p r o p e r t y
a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e L e v e l l e r L e f t . I r e t o n ' s f a m o u s o u t b u r s t ( " A l l t h e
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 7/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 317
m a i n t h i n g I s p e a k f o r , i s b e c a u s e I w o u l d h a v e a n e y e t o p r o p e r t y " )
p re f igure s the s e t t l e m en t o f 1688 . A nd th i s s e t t l e m en t reg i s t e r s no t so m e
h a l f - w a y h o u s e b e t w e e n " f e u d a l i s m " a n d " c a p i t a l i s m , " n o t s o m e
a d j u s t m e n t o f i n t e r e s t s b e t w e e n a t e n a c i o u s f e u d a l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e a n d
a n e m b r y o n i c c a p i t a l i s t b a s e , b u t a n a r r a n g e m e n t e x q u i s i t e l y a d j u s t e d
t o t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f s o c i a l f o r c e s a t t h a t t i m e — s o d e l i c a t e l y d e s i g n e d ,and ye t , i n i t s ambigu i t i e s , so f l ex ib le , tha t i t was to endure no t on ly
t h r o u g h a h u n d r e d y e a r s o f c o m p a r a t i v e s o c i a l s t a si s b u t a l s o t h r o u g h
the nex t f i f ty yea rs o f the dua l revo lu t ions .
T h e b e n e f i c ia r i e s o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t w e r e e x a c t l y th o s e p e o p l e w h o w e r e
r e p r e s e n t e d i n P a r l i a m e n t : t h a t i s , t h e m e n o f s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p e r t y ,
a n d e s p e c i a l l y l a n d e d p r o p e r t y .1 7
T i t l e t o t h e e n j o y m e n t o f t h e i r p r o p e r t y
w a s s e c u r e d b y t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i m p e d i m e n t a w i t h w h i c h t h e C r o w n
w a s s u r r o u n d e d , a n d b y t h e r u l e o f a L a w w h i c h w a s b o t h d i s p a s s i o n a t e
i n i t s a d j u d i c a t i o n o f s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p e r t y - r i g h t s a n d p a s s i o n a t e l y v e n g e
f ul a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o t r a n s g r e s s e d a g a i n s t t h e m . A t t h e s a m e t i m e a l i m i t e da n d m a n i p u l a t e d f r a n c h i s e , a n d s u c h r e s t r i c t i v e m e a s u r e s a s t h e T e s t
a n d C o r p o r a t i o n A c t s , h e d g e d o u t t h e p e t t y m a n u f a c t u r e r s , a r t i s a n s ,
e t c . T h e d i m i n i s h e d c h a r i s m a of c r o w n a n d a r i s t o c r a t i c r a n k h e l p e d t o
h o l d t o g e t h e r t h e s o c i a l o r d e r , w i t h o u t ( t h a n k s t o t h e J a c o b i t e d i s t r a c
t i o n ) a f f o r d i n g a b a s e f o r t h e r e - a s s e r t i o n o f t h e o l d a u t h o r i t y . T h e l i m p
m a g i c o f a s o r d i d l y - E r a s t i a n c h u r c h ( i t s e l f u n d e r t h e l o c a l c o n t r o l o f
t h e g e n t r y ) s u p p l e m e n t e d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e p r o p e r t i e d o v e r t h e
p e o p l e . I n L o c k e t h e g e n t r y f o u n d a n a p o l o g i s t f o r t h e s e t t l e m e n t , w i t h
h i s n a t u r a l i s t i c t h e o r y o f t h e d e l e g a t i o n o f p o w e r s t o t h e c h i e f m a g i s
t r a t e i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f p o s s e s s i v e i n d i v i d u a l i s m .I n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a g r a r i a n c a p i t a l i s m c a m e f u l l y i n t o i t s
i n h e r i t a n c e . A r o u n d t h e g e n t r y w e r e g r o u p e d ( a s A n d e r s o n r e m i n d s u s )
t h o s e " a ff in a l g r o u p s " — n o t o n l y m e r c a n t i l e c a p i t a l i sm p r o p e r b u t a l s o
t h a t w i d e l y d i s p e r s e d m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y w h i c h s t i l l s o u g h t p r o t e c
t i ve s h e l t e r f r o m t h e S t a t e . A s c e n d a n t a g r a r i a n c a p i t a l i s m i n v o l v e d n o t
o n l y r e n t - r o l l s , i m p r o v e m e n t , e n c l o s u r e s , b u t a l s o f a r - r e a c h i n g c h a n g e s
i n m a r k e t i n g , m i l l in g , t r a n s p o r t , a n d i n t h e m e r c h a n t i n g o f e x p o r t s a n d
i m p o r t s ; w h i l e t h e g e n t r y w e r e a b l e t o e m p l o y a p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v a n t -
c l a s s , i n t h e l e s s e r c l e r g y , c o u n t r y l a w y e r s , s u r g e o n s , s u r v e y o r s , t u t o r s ,
e t c . T h e " c o m p l e x i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n " o f l a n d e d , m e r c a n t i l e , a n d i n d u s t r i a l w e a l t h , t o w h i c h A n d e r s o n d r a w s a t t e n t i o n , h a s l o n g b e e n a c o n
c e r n o f o u r " n e r v e l e s s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , " a n d t h e d e l i c a t e m e c h a n i s m s
— e c o n o m i c ( c r e d i t a n d b a n k i n g , t h e l a n d o w n e r s ' i n t e r e s t i n c o a l ,
t r a n s p o r t , t i m b e r , e t c . ) , s o c i a l ( m a r r i a g e s e t t l e m e n t s ) , a n d p o l i t i c a l
( p u r c h a s e o f p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e , o r o f l a n d a s a s t e p t o w a r d s t h i s ) —
b y w h i c h t h is w a s re g u l a t e d h a v e n o t g o n e u n e x a m i n e d . T h e c o m e d y o f
m a n n e r s a t t e n d a n t u p o n t h i s p r o c e s s of a d j u s t m e n t b e t w e e n s ty l es w a s
i n f a c t a c e n t r a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e .
E v e n a c u r s o r y a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e s o u r c e s m u s t d i s p e l a l l d o u b t s
a s t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y g e n t r y m a d e u p a s u p e r b l y
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 8/52
318 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
succes sfu l an d s e lf -conf iden t c ap i t a l i s t c l a s s . Th ey com bin ed , in the i r
s ty le o f l i f e , f ea tu re s o f an ag ra r i an and u rban cu l tu re . In the i r we l l -
s t o c k e d l i b r a ri e s , m o n t h b y m o n t h , " M r . U r b a n " o f t h e Gentleman's
Magazine ke p t th em in f o rm ed o f the af fai rs o f the T o w n ; the i r e l eg an t
p r o v i n c i a l c a p i t a l s a n d s o l i d m a r k e t t o w n s a f f o r d e d s o m e s o c i e t y i n t h e
u n f a s h i o n a b l e m o n t h s ; t h e i r s o n s w e r e u r b a n i z e d a t O x f o r d a n dC a m b r i d g e , a n d o n t h e t o u r o f E u r o p e , t h e i r d a u g h t e r s a n d w i v e s w e r e
u r b a n i z e d i n t h e L o n d o n s e a s o n . T o c o m p e n s a t e f or t h e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e
c o u n t r y s i d e t h e i r g r e a t h o u s e s w e r e e x p a n d e d t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h o s e
e x t e n d e d s o c i a l e x c h a n g e s ( l i k e s e l e c t u r b a n s a m p l e s ) w h i c h p r o v i d e
m a t t e r f o r t h e n o v e l s o f f a s h i o n . I n B a t h , H a r r o g a t e , S c a r b o r o u g h , e t c . ,
t h e y p r o d u c e d p e c u l i a r m o n u m e n t s t o a c i v i li z a t io n in w h i c h a
s o p h i s t i c a t e d u r b a n i z a t i o n w a s a p e r i o d i c p a s s a g e - r i g h t , f o r t h e
a d o l e s c e n t , f o r t h e m a r r i a g e a b l e , t h e m a t r o n l y , a n d t h e g o u t - r i d d e n .
A b o u r g e o i s i e w h i c h h a d n o t y e t l e a r n e d h y p o c r i s y , t h e y v a l u e d e a c h
o t h e r , n o t i n t h e s c a l e s o f b r e e d a n d a n t i q u i t y b u t i n r o u n d a n n u a l s u m s .N o r w a s t h i s t h e l im i t o f e c o n o m i c r e c k o n i n g . T h e r e is , p e r h a p s , a n
i m p o r t a n t m o m e n t of t r a n s i t i o n a r o u n d t h e m i d - c e n t u r y w h e n m o r e
a n d m o r e o f t h e g e n t r y ( i n c l u d i n g t h e g r e a t a r i s t o c r a t i c m a g n a t e s )
ceased to conce ive o f the i r func t ion in passive t e r m s ( a s r e n t - c o l l e c t o r s
a n d a s p a r k - k e e p e r s , w i t h a m o r e o r l e s s s t a b l e r e v e n u e ) , b u t t o o k u p ,
i n s t e a d , a f a r m o r e aggressive a g r a r i a n p o s t u r e , b o t h i n t h e i r c a p a c i t y
a s s u b s t a n t i a l f a r m e r s i n t h e i r o w n r i g h t a n d i n t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h o s e
i m p r o v e m e n t s a m o n g t h e i r t e n a n t s u p o n w h i c h t h e i r h o p e s o f a n
e x p a n d i n g i n c o m e m u s t b e f o u n d e d . A g la n c e a t t h a t m o s t r e m a r k a b l e
o f t r a d e j o u r n a l s , t h e Annals of Agriculture, i n w h o s e p a g e s n o b l e m e n ,
c l e rg y , a n d c o m m o n e r s e n g a g e i n d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m e r i t s o f m a r l i n g ,
e n c l o s u r e c o s t s , a n d s t o c k - b r e e d i n g , s e rv e s t o i m p r e s s u p o n o n e t h e
p r o f o u n d l y c a p i t a l i s t s t y le of t h o u g h t o f t h e c la s s — z e s t f u ll y a c q u i s i
t iv e a n d m e t i c u l o u s i n a t t e n t i o n t o a c c o u n t a n c y .
M o r e o v e r , t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t e t h o s h a d a n o u t c o m e o f
m o r e f a r - r e a c h i n g i m p o r t a n c e . I t i s c o m m o n l y s u p p o s e d ( t h i s i s o v e r
l o o k e d b y A n d e r s o n a n d N a i r n b u t n o t , a s i t h a p p e n s , b y K . M a r x )
t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f E n g l i s h i d e o l o g y i n t h e l a t e e i g h t
e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s n e i t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l i s m n o r e m p i r i c i s m b u t a n a t u r a l i s t i c
p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y , m o s t n o t a b l y w i t h A d a m S m i t h . B u t — b e c a u s e o f
t h e e v e n t s o f 18 3 2 a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t c on f li c t b e t w e e n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n te r e s ts o v e r t h e C o r n L a w s — w e p e r s i s t e n t l y
f o r g e t t h a t laissez faire e m e r g e d , n o t a s t h e i d e o l o g y o f s o m e m a n u f a c
t u r i n g l o b b y , n o t a s t h e i n t e l le c t u a l y a r n t u r n e d o u t b y t h e c o t t o n
m i l l s , b u t i n t h e g r e a t a g r i c u l t u r a l c o r n - b e l t . S m i t h ' s a r g u m e n t is
d e r i v e d , v e r y l a r g e ly , f r o m a g r i c u l t u r e ; a m a i n o p p o n e n t w a s t h e
p a t e r n a l i s t r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e c o r n t r a d e w h i c h — w h i l e i n a n a d v a n c e d
s t a g e o f r e a l d e c o m p o s i t i o n — w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s s u p p o r t e d b y a s u b s t a n t i a l
b o d y of p a t e r n a l i s t e c o n o m i c t h e o r y a n d a n e n o r m o u s fo r ce o f p o p u l a r
( a n d u r b a n ) f e e l i n g . T h e a b r o g a t i o n o f t h e o l d m o r a l e c o n o m y o f
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 9/52
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 10/52
320 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1 9 6 5
soc ia l order capable of guarantee ing soc ia l s tabi l i ty and keeping the
prole tar ia t in i t s p lace ."
T h i s is no t a gen u in e d ia lec t i ca l pa ra do x , i t i s a d ia l ec t i ca l t r i c k : tw o
f o r c e s (w e a r e t o l d ) w e r e s o i n c o m p a t i b l e i n i n t e r e s t s a n d o u t l o o k t h a t
n o c o m p r o m i s e w a s p o s s i b l e b e t w e e n t h e m ; b u t , w h e n w e h a v e t u r n e d
our head we f ind they have fused. T h e lo g i c a l d e c e p t i o n i s c o v e r e d o v e r
b y a n i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t t h i s w a s n o t a g e n u i n e f u s i o n , s i n c e " t h e a r i s t o c
racy su rv ived , in the face o f the inev i t ab le po l i t i c a l and ideo log ica l
f e e b l e n e ss o f t h e e m e r g e n t b o u r g e o i s i e , a s t h e g o v e r n o r s o f t h e m o s t
d y n a m i c c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m i n t h e w o r l d :
"And landowning c ivi l iza t ion survived wi th them, as a mode of l iv ing,
a cul ture and language , a type of personal i ty and psychology, a whole
d o m i n a n t e t h o s . "1 8
I n t h i s " s y m b i o s i s " o f t w o c l a s se s t h e a r i s t o c r a c y e m e r g e d a s t h e
"master," k e e p i n g " c o n t r o l o f t h e S t a t e a n d it s m a i n o r g a n s , " a n dr e m a i n i n g a s " t h e v a n g u a r d o f t h e b o u r g e o i s i e . " T h e f a i l u r e o f t h e
b o u r g e o i s i e ( w h i c h a t t h i s s t a g e o f A n d e r s o n ' s a r g u m e n t b e c o m e s a
" m i d d l e - c l a s s " s u b o r d i n a t e t o a n a r i s t o c r a t i c " r u l i n g - c l a s s "1 9
) t o
a c h i e v e a n u n c h a l l e n g e d h e g e m o n y a n d t o r a t i o n a l i z e S t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s
is t h e m a i n h i s t o r i c a l o c c a s i o n f o r t h e " p r o f o u n d , p e r v a s i v e b u t c r y p t i c
c r i s i s " which a f f l i c t s Br i t i sh soc ie ty : " the l iv ing pa l impses t wh ich i s the
r u l i n g b l o c i n B r i t a i n is n o w d e c a y i n g f r o m i ts i m m e m o r i a l a c c r e t i o n s . "2 0
I t i s o f course pos s ib le to s ee Br i t a in in th i s way a f t e r wa tch ing S i r
A l e c D o u g l a s - H o m e o n t e l e v i s io n . A n d i f t h i s a n a l y s i s r e l a t e s t o t h e
p e r p e t u a t i o n o f a c e r t a i n a r i s t o c r a t i c style, a n d c e r t a i n a r c h a i c i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n t i n u i t i e s , t h e n it is b o t h t r u e a n d i m p o r t a n t . B u t f a r m o r e t h a n
t h i s is s u g g e s t e d : " a w h o l e d o m i n a n t e t h o s , " " g o v e r n o r s , " " c o n t r o l o f
t h e S t a t e , " " v a n g u a r d , " o r ( a t a n o t h e r p o i n t i n Origins) " h e g e m o n i c
c l a s s " w h i c h w a s " f a c e d w i t h t h e r i s e o f t h e b o u r g e o i s i e . "2 1
T h u s t h i s
i s no t o f fe red a s an ana lys i s o f s ty le s bu t o f the rea l movement and
equ i l ib r ium of soc ia l fo rces . A n d a s such i t v /i ll no t do . I w i l l no t l a bo ur
t h e p o i n t t h a t M a r x s a w " t h i s m o s t b o u r g e o i s o f n a t i o n s " i n a v e r y
d i f fe r e nt w a y . W h a t i s o b j e c t i o n a b l e — a p a r t f r o m t h e e l i si o n o f w h o l e
h i s t o r i c a l c l a u s e s — i s t h e w a y w e s l i d e a r o u n d i n a s h i f t i n g t e r m i n o l o g y
w h o s e t r e a c h e r o u s i n s t a b i l i t y is d i s g u i s e d b y a c e r t a i n m e t a p h o r i c a l
v i r t u o s i t y .
I t i s t r u e t h a t a n y o n e w h o a t t e m p t s t h i s k i n d o f c l a ss a n a l y s i s o f
m o d e r n B r i t is h h is t o r y b e c o m e s i n v o lv e d in t e r m i n o l o g i c a l c o n f u s i o n ;2 2
t h e a m b i g u i t i e s f o r c e t h e i r w a y i n t o t h e a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e t h e r e
i n t h e h i s t o r y . B u t o n e w a y o f a p p r o a c h i n g t h i s is t o p l a y , f o r a m o m e n t ,
a h i s t o r y - g a m e i n w h i c h w e s u p p o s e t h a t A d i d n o t h a p p e n a n d B
( w h i c h d i d n o t h a p p e n ) d i d . I h a v e s u g g e s t e d , i n The Making of the
English Working Class, t h a t i n 18 3 2 a r e v o l u t i o n a r y o u t b r e a k w a s
a v e r t e d o n l y a t t h e e l e v e n t h h o u r . T h e r e w e r e r e a s o n s , b u t n o t o v e r
w he lm ing o ne s , wh y th i s wa s ave r t ed . If i t ha d no t been , then i t i s
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 11/52
T H E PECULIARITIES O F T H E E N G L I S H 321
r e a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t r e v o l u t i o n w o u l d h a v e p r e c i p i t a t e d a v e r y
r a p i d p r o c e s s o f r a d i c a l i z a t i o n , p a s si n g t h r o u g h a n d b e y o n d a J a c o b i n
e x p e r i e n c e ; a n d w h a t e v e r f o r m a c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n a n d e v e n t u a l
s t a b i l i z a t i o n m i g h t h a v e t a k e n i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t m a n y e i g h t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y i n s t i t u t i o n s c o u l d h a v e s u r v i v e d — t h e H o u s e o f L o r d s , t h e
E s t a b l i s h e d C h u r c h , t h e m o n a r c h y , a n d t h e j u r i d i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y e l it e ,w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e b e e n s w e p t a w a y , a t l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y . N o w i f i t
h a d h a p p e n e d i n t h i s w a y t h e m o d e l - b u i l d e r s a t l e a s t w o u l d n o w b e
sa t i s f i ed ; 1832 wo uld be the E n g l i s h b o u r g e o i s r e v o l u t i o n , a n d 1 6 4 0
w o u l d h a v e fa l le n i n t o n e g l e c t, a s a " p r e m a t u r e " o u t b r e a k , a s o r t o f
a m a l g a m o f H u g u e n o t w a r s a n d F r o n d e . T h e te n d e n c y to i m p l y t h a t
some k ind o f " feuda l " soc ie ty ex i s t ed in Br i t a in un t i l t he eve o f 1832
( a s w i t n e s s t h e q u a i n t n o t i o n t h a t p e e p s f r o m t h e e d g e s o f s o m e M a r x i s t
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , t h a t " f e u d a l i s m " p r e v a i l e d
i n F r a n c e i n 17 8 8) w o u l d h a v e b e e n r e i n f o r c e d .
Le t us now pu t the p ieces back and s t a r t the game wi th a d i f fe ren tmove . In th i s ca se we wi l l suppose tha t 1832 happened a s i t d id , bu t ( l e s s
p l a u s i b l y ) 1 6 4 0 d i d n o t — t h a t t h e L a u d i a n r e a c t i o n w a s l es s p r o v o c a t i v e ,
t h a t C h a r l e s c a p i t u l a t e d b e f o re t h e G r a n d R e m o n s t r a n c e , a n d t h a t a
c i r c u m s c r i b e d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o n a r c h y w a s e s t a b l i s h e d , b l o o d l e s s l y ,
i n 1 64 0 , w i t h o u t M a r s t o n M o o r , t h e L e v e l l e r f e r m e n t , t h e e x e c u t i o n o f
t h e K i n g , a n d t h e G l o r i o u s R e v o l u t i o n . I n t h i s e v e n t t h e m o d e l - b u i l d e r s
would be whol ly a t a los s fo r the R e v o l u t i o n ; a n d , p a r a d o x i c a l l y ,
m i g h t p e r f o r c e b e b e t t e r h i s t o r i a n s , f o r t h e y w o u l d h a v e t o c o n s t r u c t ,
f r o m t h e W a r s o f t h e R o s e s , t h e T u d o r M o n a r c h y ( is t h e r e a p r e m a t u r e
R o b e s p i e r r e i n H e n r y V I I I , a d i c t a t o r s h i p o f t h e b o u r g e o i s i e ? ) , t h ea t t a in de r o f roy a l m in i s t e r s , t he re l ig iou s conf l ic t s o f the s ix teen th an d
seve n tee n th cen tu r i e s , an d f rom 1832 , p ieces o f th a t g rea t a rc h wh ich
i n f a c t, i n t h e e p o c h a l s e n s e , m a k e u p t h e b o u r g e o i s r e v o l u t i o n .
I a m o b j e c t i n g t o a m o d e l w h i c h c o n c e n t r a t e s a t t e n t i o n u p o n o n e
d r a m a t i c e p i s o d e — t h e R e v o l u t i o n — t o w h i c h al l t h a t g o e s b e f o r e a n d
a f t e r mus t be re l a t ed ; and which ins i s t s upon an idea l type o f th i s
R e v o l u t i o n a g a i n s t w h i c h al l o t h e r s m a y b e j u d g e d .2 3
M i n d s w h i c h
t h i r s t f o r a t i d y p l a t o n i s m v e r y s o o n b e c o m e i m p a t i e n t w i t h a c t u a l
h i s t o r y . T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n w a s a f u n d a m e n t a l m o m e n t i n th e
h i s t o r y o f t h e W e s t , a n d i n i t s r a p i d p a s s a g e t h r o u g h a g a m u t o f
e x p e r i e n c e s i t a f f o r d e d i n c o m p a r a b l e i n s i g h t s a n d p r e f i g u r e m e n t s o f
subsequen t conf l i c t s . Bu t because i t was a g igan t i c expe r i ence i t was
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a t y p i c a l o n e . S o f a r f r o m a n a d v a n c e d , e g a l i t a r i a n ,
l e f t - J acob in p ha se be in g an in t r ins ic pa r t o f an y fu lf il led bo urg eo i s
r e v o l u t i o n , r e c e n t r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e r o l e o f t h e P a r i s i a n c r o w d , t h e
a c t u a l s o c i a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e c t i o n s a n d o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e
T e r r o r a n d o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y a r m i e s ,2 4
as we l l a s in to the na t iona l
e m e r g e n c y o f w a r d i c t a t o r s h i p , c a l l s i n t o q u e s t i o n h o w f a r i t i s m e a n i n g
f u l t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e J a c o b i n i s m o f t h e Y e a r I I a s a n a u t h e n t i c
" b o u r g e o i s " e x p e r i e n c e a t a l l . A n d c e r t a i n l y t h e industrial b o u r g e o i s i e
11—TSR
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 12/52
32 2 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
c a n n o t b e c r e d i t e d w i t h b e i n g e i t h e r t h e " v a n g u a r d " o f J a c o b i n i s m o r
t h e m a j o r s o c i a l f o r c e u p h o l d i n g t h i s p r o f o u n d l y a m b i g u o u s p o l i t i c a l
m o m e n t .
I t h a p p e n e d i n o n e w a y i n F r a n c e , i n a n o t h e r w a y i n E n g l a n d . I a m
n o t d i s p u t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e d if f e r e n c e — a n d o f t h e d i ff e re n t
t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h e n s u e d — b u t t h e n o t i o n o f t y p i c a l i t y . W h e n t a k e n t oE n g l a n d t h e m o d e l s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y n u d g e s o n e t o w a r d s a n a t t e m p t t o
e x p l a i n 1 83 2 a n d t h e f r a c a s a b o u t t h e C o r n L a w s , t a k e n t o g e t h e r , a s a
k i n d o f p u s i l l a n i m o u s , l o w - p r e s s u r e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e c o n fl ic t i n
F r a n c e . T h e t e r m " a r i s t o c r a c y " a f f or d s t h e b r i d g e : b o t h w e r e c o n f li c ts
b e t w e e n a r i s t o c r a t s a n d b o u r g e o i s , b u t h o w p e t t y a n d i n c o n c l u s i v e d o e s
t h e o n e a p p e a r b e s i d e t h e o t h e r ! T h e p r o f o u n d d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e l i f e -
s i t u a t i o n s o f a n a r i s t o c r a t i c order a n d a c a p i t a l i s t gentry (as wel l as o f
t h e d i s a f f e c t e d g r o u p i n g s ) b l u r s i n t o a n a c c e p t a b l e s c h e m a t i c milange.
On e may o f fe r a d i f f e ren t ex p lan a t io n as t o wh a t t h e co n f l i c t o f 1 8 3 2
w a s a b o u t . D e s p i t e a l l t h a t h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d , s i n c e M a r x ' s t i m e , a s t ot h e o p e r a t i o n o f e l i te s , b u r e a u c r a c i e s , e t c . , M a r x i s t s g e n e r a l l y se e k t o
r e d u c e p o l i t i c a l p h e n o m e n a t o t h e i r " r e a l " c l a s s s i g n i f i c a n c e , a n d o f t e n
fa i l , i n an a ly s i s , t o a l l o w su f f i c i en t d i s t an ce b e tween th e o n e an d th e
o t h e r . B u t i n f a c t t h o s e m o m e n t s i n w h i c h g o v e r n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a p p e a r
a s t h e d i r e c t , e m p h a t i c , a n d u n m e d i a t e d o r g a n s o f a " r u l i n g - c l a s s " a r e
e x c e e d i n g l y r a r e , a s w e l l a s t r a n s i e n t . M o r e o f t e n t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s
o p e r a t e w i t h a g o o d d e a l o f a u t o n o m y , a n d s o m e t i m e s w i t h d i s t in c t
i n t e r e s t s o f t h e i r o w n , w i t h i n a g e n e r a l c o n t e x t o f c l a s s p o w e r w h i c h
p r e s c r i b e s t h e l i m i t s b e y o n d w h i c h t h i s a u t o n o m y c a n n o t w i t h s a f e t y
b e s t r e t c h e d , a n d w h i c h , v e r y g e n e r a l l y , d i s c l o s e s t h e q u e s t i o n s w h i c h
a r i s e f o r e x e c u t i v e d e c i s i o n . A t t e m p t s t o s h o r t - c i r c u i t a n a l y s i s e n d u p
b y e x p l a in i n g n o t h i n g . 2 5
A n a l y s i s o f t h e g o v e r n i n g e l i te i n E n g l a n d b e f o r e 1 83 2 m u s t s u r e l y
p r o c e e d a t th i s l e v e l. T h e s e t t l e m e n t o f 16 8 8 i n a u g u r a t e d a h u n d r e d
y ear s o f co mp ara t iv e so c i a l s t a s i s , so f a r a s o v er t c l as s co n f l i c t o r t h e
m a t u r a t i o n o f c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s w a s c o n c e r n e d . T h e m a i n b e n e f i c i a r i e s
w e r e t h o s e v i g o r o u s a g r a r i a n c a p i t a l i s t s , t h e g e n t r y . B u t t h i s d o e s n o t
m e a n t h a t t h e g o v e r n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d , i n a n u n q u a l i fi e d
m a n n e r , t h e g e n t r y a s a " r u l i n g - c l a s s . " A t a l o c a l l e v e l ( t h e m a g i s t r a c y )
t h e y d i d s o i n a n a s t o n i s h i n g l y n a k e d m a n n e r . A t a n a t i o n a l l e v e l
( d e s u e t u d e o f t h e o l d r e s t r i c t i o n s o n m a r k e t i n g , t h e f a c i l i t a t i o n o fe n c l o s u r e s , t h e e x p a n s i o n o f e m p i r e ) t h e y f u r t h e r e d t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . B u t
a t t h e s a m e t i m e a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d o f s o c i a l s t a s i s is c o m m o n l y o n e
i n w h i c h r u l i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s d e g e n e r a t e , c o r r u p t i o n s e n t e r , c h a n n e l s o f
in f lu en ce s i l t u p , an e l i t e en t r en ch es i t se l f i n p o s i t i o n s o f p o wer . A
d i s t a n c e o p e n e d u p b e t w e e n t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e m i d d l e a n d l e s se r
g e n t r y ( a n d a s s o c i a t e d g r o u p s ) a n d c e r t a i n g r e a t a g r a r i a n m a g n a t e s ,
p r iv i le g e d m e r c h a n t c a p i t a l is t s , a n d t h e i r h a n g e r s - o n , w h o m a n i p u l a t e d
t h e o r g a n s o f t h e S t a t e i n t h e i r o w n p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t . N o r w a s t h i s a
s i m p l e " c l a s s " t e n s i o n b e t w e e n a n a r i s t o c r a c y o f g r e a t m a g n a t e s a n d
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 13/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 323
t h e l e s s e r g e n t r y . C e r t a i n m a g n a t e s o n l y w e r e o n t h e " i n s i d e , " a n d
i n f l u e n c e s w u n g a c c o r d i n g t o f a c t i o n a l p o l i t i c s , t h e d i p l o m a c y o f t h e
g r e a t f a m i l y c o n n e c t i o n s , c o n t r o l o f b o r o u g h s , a n d t h e r e s t .
Th i s i s t o say t h a t t h e ex erc i se o f p o wer i n t h e seco n d h a l f o f t h e
e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s v e r y m u c h a s t h a t i n v e r t e d - M a r x i s t , S i r L e w i s
N a m i e r , d e s c r i b e d i t i n The Structure of Politics—although heu n a c c o u n t a b l y n e g l e c t e d t o g o o n a n d c h a r a c t e r i z e it a s a s o p h i s t i c a t e d
s y s t e m o f b r i g a n d a g e . I t s h o u l d b e s e e n l e s s a s g o v e r n m e n t b y a n
a r i s t o c r a c y ( a d i s t i n c t e s t a t e w i t h a c o m m o n s t y l e o f l i f e a n d o u t l o o k ,
a n d w i t h i n s t i t u t i o n a l l e g i t i m a t i o n ) t h a n a s a parasitism— a r a c k e t ,
w h i c h t h e K i n g h i m s e l f c o u l d n o t b r e a k i n t o e x c e p t b y b e c o m i n g t h e
c r o u p i e r . I t w a s n o t w h o l l y a p a r a s i t i s m : t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e n a t i o n
h a d t o b e c a r r i e d o n , f r o m t i m e t o t i m e t h e " i n d e p e n d e n t " g e n t r y —
a n d t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n p a r l i a m e n t — h a d t o b e a p p e a s e d , t h e r e w e r e
e v e n o c c a s i o n s ( a l t h o u g h o n e a ft e r a n o t h e r t h e s e a r e c a l l e d i n q u e s t i o n
as t h e d i sc ip l es o f Namier b reak in to t h e a rch iv es o f t h e l a s t o f t h e g rea t
mafiosi) w h e n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e n a t i o n o r t h e c l a s s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e
f a m i l y o r f a c t i o n , w e r e c o n s u l t e d . N o r w a s i t only a p a r a s i t i s m : b e i n g
c o n d u c t e d u p o n s o g i g a n t i c a s c a l e , f r o m b a s e s i n p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c
w e a l t h o f s u c h m a g n i t u d e , a n d c o m m a n d i n g in f lu e n ce w h i c h r e a c h e d ,
b y t h e m o s t d i r e c t m e a n s , i n t o t h e a r m y , t h e n a v y , t h e c h a r t e r e d c o m
p a n i e s , t h e C h u r c h , t h e L a w , i t w a s b o u n d t o c o n g e a l i n t o s o m e t h i n g
t h a t l o o k s a l m o s t l i k e a n e s t a t e ; t o s u r r o u n d i t s e l f i n a c o c o o n o f
i d e o l o g i c a l a p o l o g e t i c s ; a n d t o n o u r i s h a s t y l e o f l i f e , o f c o n s p i c u o u s —
i n d e e d , s p e c t a c u l a r — c o n s u m p t i o n w h i c h is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a t r u e
a r i s t o c r a c y . I n d e e d , t h e s e g r e a t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l b r i g a n d s c a m e , n o t
w i t h o u t r e a s o n , t o c o n f u s e t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e i r F r e n c h , P r u s s i a n , a n de v e n R u s s i a n c o u s i n s — a c o n f u s i o n w h i c h w a s t o c o s t E u r o p e d e a r
d u r i n g t h e w a r s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , a l l t h i s d o e s n o t q u i t e m a k e u p a n a r i s t o c r a c y , c o n
ce iv ed o f a s a ru l i n g c l ass . I t wa s . . . n o th in g b u t itself. A u n i q u e
f o r m a t i o n . O l d C o r r u p t i o n . I t c o u l d s c a r c e l y h a v e s e e n t h e e i g h t e e n t h
c e n t u r y o u t if t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n h a d n o t o c c u r r e d , p r o v i d e n t i a l l y ,
t o s a v e i t . I f i t c o m m a n d e d i m m e n s e i nf l u e nc e , it r a i s e d a l s o i m m e n s e
r e s e n t m e n t s . I t a l i e n a t e d t h e s i s t e r s a n d t h e c o u s i n s a n d t h e a u n t s o f
t h o s e w h o h a d n o t o b t a i n e d p r e f e r m e n t , t h e o f f i c e r s w h o h a d n o t b e e n
p r o m o t e d , t h e c l er g y w h o h a d n o t f o u n d p a t r o n s , t h e c o n t r a c t o r s w h oh a d n o t o b t a i n e d o r d e r s , t h e t a l e n t e d w h o h a d b e e n p a s s e d o v e r , t h e
w i v e s w h o h a d b e e n s n u b b e d . S o m e t h i n g o f t h i s c a n b e se e n i n t h e
i r r e s p o n s i b l e ze s t w i t h w h i c h m a n y o f t h e p r o p e r t i e d s u p p o r t e d W i l k e s .
N o r w a s i t o n l y e l e m e n t s i n t h e C i t y o f L o n d o n a n d t h e n a s c e n t i n d u s
t r i a l b o u r g e o i s i e w h i c h r e g a r d e d O l d C o r r u p t i o n w i t h a b a l e f u l e y e .
T h e d i s t a n c e w h i c h h a d o p e n e d u p , a f t e r t h e A m e r i c a n s e c e s s i o n ,
b e t w e e n t h e b r i g a n d a g e a n d t h e g e n t r y f r o m w h o m , i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s ,
t h ey d e r iv ed th e i r p o wer , can b e seen in t h e s t r en g th o f Wy v i l l ' s
A s s o c i a t i o n m o v e m e n t i n t h e c o u n t i e s — t h o s e c o u n t y m e e t i n g s f o r
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 14/52
324 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
r e f o r m w h i c h w e r e o n e o f t h e o n l y o c c a s i o n s , i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
w h e n t h e g e n t r y a s s e m b l e d a n d e x p r e s s e d t h e m s e l v e s a s a c l a s s .
T h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n s a v e d O l d C o r r u p t i o n , f o r e v i d e n t r e a s o n s .
( H e r e a t l e a s t I a m i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h A n d e r s o n a n d N a i r n . ) T h e
d i s a ff e c ti o n o f g e n t r y a n d f a r m e r s e v a p o r a t e d i n t h e h ig h n o o n o f
e n c l o s u r e s a n d o f c o r n p r i c e s . P i t t ( w h o h a d o n c e b e e n a C h o s e n S o n
o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n i s t s ) ef fe ct ed s o m e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n i n t h e S t a t e . T h e
i n d u s t r i a l b o u r g e o i s i e w e r e k e p t i n g o o d h u m o u r — t h e i r m a c h i n e r y
p r o t e c t e d , t r a d e u n i o n s r e p r e s s e d , p r o t e c t i v e l a b o u r l e g i s l a t i o n d i s
m a n t l e d .2 6
T h e " s y m b i o s i s " o f l a n d a n d c o m m e r c i a l a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g
w e a l t h c o n t i n u e d a t p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c l e v e l s . B u t O l d
C o r r u p t i o n e m e r g e d f r o m t h e w a r s , d e s p i t e a ll m o d i f i c a t i o n s , v e r y
m u c h a s i t w e n t i n t o t h e m . I n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s , t h r o u g h i t s i n v o l v e m e n t
w i t h E u r o p e a n r e a c t i o n , i ts r e p r e s s i o n o f d e m o c r a t i c i m p u l s e s ( a n d
t h e i r a u t o - s u p p r e s s i o n a m o n g t h e g e n t r y a n d m i d d l e c l a s s e s ) , i t s
s p a w n i n g o f f u n d - h o l d e r s i n t h e N a t i o n a l D e b t , a n d t h e a c c e s s i o n o fm y s t i c i s m t o t h e id e o l o g y o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , it e m e r g e d i n a m o r e
p a r a s i t i c f o r m t h a n it h a d t a k e n b e f o r e . A n d C o b b e t t , i n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g
i t a s O l d C o r r u p t i o n o r " t h e T h i n g , " m a y h a v e b e e n a b e t t e r M a r x i s t
t h a n t h e M a r x i s t s w h o h a v e t r i e d t o p u t h i m r i g h t .
T h u s o n e m u s t o b s e r v e c a u t i o n i n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e c o n f l i c t o f 1 8 3 2 .
T h e e n e m y o f t h e r e f o r m e r s w a s n o t a n a r i s t o c r a t i c e s t a t e , n o r t h e
e n t i r e a g r a r i a n c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s , b u t a s e c o n d a r y c o m p l e x o f p r e d a t o r y
i n t e r e s t s . W h i l e t h e i n d u s t r i a l b o u r g e o i s i e h a d p a r t i c u l a r g r i e v a n c e s
a n d p l a y e d a f ar m o r e a c t i v e p a r t t h a n i t h a d d o n e , a s a g r o u p , i n
p r e v i o u s r e f o r m a g i t a t i o n s , a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t o f t h e g e n t r y w e r ed i s af f e ct e d a l s o . F r o m t h e 17 7 0s o n w a r d s t h e r e f o r m m o v e m e n t h a d
a l w a y s f o u n d s u p p o r t a m o n g t h e g e n t r y ; a n d f r o m t h i s m i l i eu m a n y o f
i ts l e a d e r s w e r e d e r i v e d — C a r t w r i g h t , W y v i l l , B u r d e t t , H u n t — w h i l e
C o b b e t t a l w a y s h a d a n a u d i e n c e a m o n g t h e f a r m e r s . I n t h e c r u c i a l
g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n s w h i c h p r e c e d e d 1 8 3 2 O l d C o r r u p t i o n h e l d o n t o m o s t
o f i t s o w n r o t t e n b o r o u g h s , b u t t h e c o u n t i e s ( w h e r e , a d m i t t e d l y , t h e r e
w e r e m a n y u r b a n v o t e s ) w e r e c a r r i e d f o r r e f o r m . A n d r e f o r m w a s
e n a c t e d i n p a r l i a m e n t b y o n e f a c t i o n o f g e n t r y a n d g r e a t m a g n a t e s
a g a i n s t a n o t h e r .
W h e n i t c a m e t o t h e p u s h , O l d C o r r u p t i o n f o u n d t h a t it h a d l i t tl eb e h i n d i t , b e y o n d w h a t i t s o w n l a r g e s s e c o u l d b u y — a n d t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s
o f S t a t e itself. I f t h e r e h a d r e a l ly b e e n a d i r e c t c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n
a g r a r i a n a n d i n d u s t r i a l b o u r g e o i s i e , t h e n r e v o l u t i o n m u s t h a v e o c c u r r e d .
Bu t in fac t , a s the c r i s i s d i s c losed i t s e l f i t appea red inc reas ing ly tha t
" t h e T h i n g " a n d t h e p e o p l e w e r e " a t i s s u e . " A n d t h is a l s o e x p l a i n s w h y
i t i s s o t e m p t i n g t o s a y t h a t " t h e m i d d l e c l a s s e s " w e r e t h e b e n e f i c ia r i e s
o f t h e 1 8 3 2 s e t t l e m e n t . I f t h e i n d u s t r i a l b o u r g e o i s i e h a d b e e n e x c l u d e d
f r o m t h e p o l i t i c a l g a m e i n 1 68 8 i t w a s n o t b e c a u s e t h e i r p r o p e r t y w a s
i n d u s t r i a l b u t b e c a u s e i t w a s p e t t y . A s t h e i r p r o p e r t y b e c a m e m o r e
s u b s t a n t i a l t h e y f el t a c o r r e s p o n d i n g a c c e s s i o n o f r e s e n t m e n t ; b u t t h i s
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 15/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 3 2 5
r e s e n t m e n t w a s s h a r e d b y m a n y o f t h e i r c o u s i n s ( a n d s o m e t i m e s l i t e r a l l y
c o u s i n s ) i n t h e c o u n t r y a n d t h e C i t y . 1 8 32 c h a n g e d , n o t o n e g a m e f o r
ano the r bu t the ru le s o f the game , re s to r ing the f l ex ib i l i ty o f 1688 in a
g r e a t l y a l t e r e d c la s s c o n t e x t . I t p r o v i d e d a f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n w h i c h
new and o ld bourgeo i s cou ld ad jus t the i r conf l i c t s o f in te re s t w i thou t
re so r t to fo rce . These conf l i c t s , no t on ly o f d i rec t in t e re s t bu t o f ou t look ,
s ty le o f l i f e , r e l ig ion , we re cons ide rab le ; bu t so a l so were the a t t rac t ive
f o r c e s . W e m a y s e t t h e c o n f l i c t s u r r o u n d i n g t h e C o r n L a w s o n o n e s i d e ;
b u t o n t h e o t h e r ( a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ) w e m u s t s e t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a
c o m m o n e n e m y , i n C h a r t i s m , a n d t h e r a i l w a y b o o m t o w h i c h a p a r l i a
men t s t i l l ove rs tocked wi th gen t ry gave t a rdy b le s s ing and in the
r e w a r d s o f w h i c h t h e g e n t r y s h a r e d .
I t i s t rue tha t the ro le in a l l t h i s o f the indus t r i a l bourgeo i s i e was no t
e spec ia l ly he ro ic . They l e f t the longes t and ha rdes t pa r t o f the ag i t a t ion
t o t h e p l e b e i a n R a d i c a l s ; t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y c o n d u c t w a s i n t h e h a n d s o f
a s e c t i o n o f t h e g e n t r y a n d l a w y e r s , a n d t h e y s l i p p e d i n t h r o u g h t h e
b r e a c h w h i c h t h e s e c o n t e s t a n t s m a d e . I n t h i s t h e y w e r e n o t w h o l l y
u n t y p i c a l o f o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l b o u r g e o i s : m i l l - o w n e r s , a c c o u n t a n t s ,
c o m p a n y - p r o m o t e r s , p r o v i n c i a l b a n k e r s , a r e n o t h i s t o r i c a l l y n o t o r i o u s
f o r t h e i r d e s p e r a t e p r o p e n s i t y t o r u s h , b a n d o l i e r s o n t h e i r s h o u l d e r s , t o
t h e b a r r i c a d e s . M o r e g e n e r a ll y t h e y a r r i v e o n t h e s c e n e w h e n t h e
c l i m a c t i c b a t t l e s o f t h e b o u r g e o i s r e v o l u t i o n h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n f o u g h t .
T h e r e a f t e r t h e y e n l a r g e d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e p r e t t y m u c h i n s t e p w i t h
t h e i r a d v a n c e m e n t i n r e a l s o c i o - e c o n o m i c p o w e r . T o e x a m i n e t h i s
s t a t e m e n t w o u l d r e q u i r e , n o t a n e x e rc i s e i n t h e o r e t i c a l v i r tu o s i t y , b u t a
c l o s e , s c r u p u l o u s , a n d , a l a s , e m p i r i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e a c t u a l h i s t o r y ,o f t h e k i n d w h i c h h a s b e e n o f f e r e d , f o r o n e i m p o r t a n t m o m e n t ( 1 8 6 7 ) ,
b y R o y d e n H a r r i s o n .2 7
I t w o u l d r e q u i r e a s o c i o l o g i c a l a n a t o m y o f t h e
c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e " m i d d l e c l a s s e s " — s m a l l g e n t r y , f a r m e r s , i n d u s t i i a l
e n t t e p i e n e u r s w i t h d i v e r s e i n t e i e s t s , h i g h a n d l o w f i n a n c e , p r o f e s s i o n a l
g r o u p s ( i n d e p e n d e n t a n d s a l a r i e d ) , c i v i l s e r v i c e , i n s t i t u t i o n s o f i m p e r i a l
i s m — t h e i r c o n f l i c t s a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n s , d i f f e r i n g o u t l o o k s a n d s t y l e s .
I t w o u l d r e q u i r e a l s o e x a m i n a t i o n i n s t r i c t l y p o l i t i c a l t e r m s , a s t h e
surv iv ing pos i t io ns o f the o ld p r iv i l ege were e rod ed , a s d i f feren t in t e re s t s
s e l e c t e d o n e o r t h e o t h e r o f t h e t w o f o r m a t i v e p a r t i e s a s t h e i r p r o
t a g o n i s t , a s t h e m e d i a t i o n s o f t h e p a r t y s y s t e m b e c a m e m o r e c o m p l e x ,a n d a s t h e a p p e a l t o ( a n d t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f ) a m i d d l e - c l a s s p u b l i c
o p i n i o n b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e g a m e . O n e m i g h t f i n d , i n t h e
p o l i t i c a l t r a j e c t o r y o f J o s e p h C h a m b e r l a i n , f r o m t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t
r a d i c a l i s m o f t h e c o m p e t i t i v e fa m i l y b u s i n e s s , t h r o u g h m u n i c i p a l a n d
e v e n t u a l l y S t a t e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , a n d , t h e n c e ( a s t h e a r m a m e n t s i n d u s
t ry , w i th i t s St a t e co nt ra c t s an d i t s im br ic a t io n w i th f inance-capital ,
g rew in impor tance ) to imper ia l i sm, and , f ina l ly , w i th the ha rden ing o f
w o r l d c o m p e t i t i o n , t o p r o t e c t i o n i s m a n d i m p e r i a l r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , a
f i g u r em e n t — w h i c h is a l m o s t t o o p a t — o f t h e p r o c e s s .
A n d e r s o n w i l l h a v e i t t h a t t h e " c o u r a g e " o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l b o u r g e o i s i e
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 16/52
326 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1 9 6 5
h a d g o n e a f t e r 1 8 3 2 . B u t w h a t n e e d d i d t h e s e b o u r g e o i s h a v e o f c o u r a g e
w h e n m o n e y s e r v e d t h e m b e t t e r ? W h y s h o u l d t h e y t a k e u p a r m s a g a i n s t
p r i m o g e n i t u r e w h e n , w i t h i n c r e a s i n g r a p i d i t y , l a n d w a s b e c o m i n g o n l y
o n e i n t e r e s t b e s i d e c o t t o n , r a i l w a y s , i r o n a n d s t e e l , c o a l , s h i p p i n g , a n d
f in an ce ? C lass es d o n o t ex i s t a s ab s t r a c t , p l a to n i c ca t eg o r i es , b u t o n ly
a s m e n c o m e t o ac t i n ro l es d e t e rmin ed b y c l ass o b j ec t iv es , t o f ee l
t h e m s e l v e s t o belong t o c l as ses , t o d e f in e t h e i r i n t e res t s a s b e tween
th emse lv es an d as ag a in s t o th e r c l as ses . In t h e case o f t h e co n f l i c t s
b e t w e e n 1 7 6 0 a n d 1 8 3 2 t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n l y m o m e n t s w h e n t h e g e n t r y
a n d t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s a p p e a r t o o ff er t h e p o l e s a r o u n d w h i c h a n t a g o n i s
t i c c l as s i n s t i t u t i o n s , i d eo lo g ies , an d v a lu e - sy s t ems mig h t d ev e lo p . Su ch
c l a s s i n s t i t u t i o n s c a n i n d e e d b e s e e n, i n t h e m a g i s t r a c y a n d C h u r c h o n
t h e o n e h a n d , a n d i n U n i t a r i a n o r Q u a k e r m e e t i n g s a n d i n t h e g r o w t h
o f a m i d d l e - c l a s s p r e s s o n t h e o t h e r . T h e P r i e s t l e y R i o t s i n B i r m i n g h a m
i n 1 79 1 s h o w t o w h a t e x t r e m e s t h i s c l a s s a n t a g o n i s m m i g h t h a v e
g ro wn . Giv en th i s o r t h a t , a l l mig h t h av e h ap p en ed in a d i f f e ren t way .Bu t i n f ac t i t d id n o t . Af t e r t h e F ren ch Rev o lu t io n ev an g e l i c i sm b lu r red
s o m e o f t h e d i ff e re n c e s b e t w e e n t h e E s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d N o n c o n f o r m i t y
( t h e c o m m o n p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h d i sc i p l i n in g t h e l o w e r o r d e r s f a c i l i t a t e d
t h e m o v e m e n t ) . 2 8 S o m e of t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s t o o k th e i r p l a c e s o n t h e
B e n c h . C o a l a n d c a n a l s b r o u g h t t h e t w o t o g e t h e r , a s d i d c o m m i s s i o n s
i n t h e V o l u n t e e r s , c o m m o n s e r v i c e a g a i n s t L u d d i s m , c o m m o n r e s e n t
m e n t a g a i n s t i n c o m e t a x . T h e y s h a r e d , a l t h o u g h w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s
o f i n t e n si t y , a c o m m o n r e s e n t m e n t a g a i n s t O l d C o r r u p t i o n . H e n c e a ll
h a p p e n d a s i t d i d . G i v e n t h e m o s t p e r f e c t m o d e l o f r e l a t i o n s t o t h e
m e a n s o f p r o d u c t i o n ( " b a s i s " ) , n o o n e , i n 1 76 0 o r 1 7 90 , c o u l d h a v e b e e n
c e r t a i n a s t o h o w t h e c u l t u r a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m a t i o n s w o u l d i n
fac t t ak e p l ace . Bu t , h ap p en in g as i t d id , i t r eg i s t e red th e f ac t t h a t t h ese
were n o t t o t ak e t h e f i e ld o f h i s to ry as c l as s an t ag o n i s t s , an d th a t t h e
" s y m b i o s i s " o f t h e t w o s o c i a l g r o u p s w a s a l r e a d y w e l l a d v a n c e d .
I n w h a t s e n s e , t h e n , c a n w e a c c e p t t h e N a i r n - A n d e r s o n t h e s i s t h a t
t h e a r i s t o c r a c y e m e r g e d f ro m a l l t h i s a s t h e " m a s t e r , " t h e " v a n g u a r d , "
i n " c o n t r o l o f t h e S t a t e " ? I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e 1 83 2 s e t t l e m e n t p e r m i t t e d
t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f c e r t a i n " a r i s t o c r a t i c " i n s t i t u t i o n s , a r e a s o f p r i v i l e g e ,
an a r i s to c ra t i c s ty l e o f l if e . I t a l so a f fo rd ed s o m e co n t r ib u t io n to t h e
" e t h o s " o f t h e r u l i n g g r o u p ( a l t h o u g h n o t t h e " d o m i n a n t e t h o s " ) a n d
t o n o r m s o f l e a d e r s h i p w h i c h ( a s A n d e r s o n n o t e s ) w a s t o p r o v e v a l u a b l e
i n t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f e m p i r e . B u t w h e n w e m o v e c l o s e r a j u d g m e n t
mu s t b e mo re q u a l i f i ed . At t h e l ev e l o f l o ca l g o v ern men t ( ex cep t i n t h e
c o u n t r y s i d e ) a r i s t o c r a t i c i n f l u e n c e w a s l a r g e l y d i s p l a c e d : t h e L o r d
L i e u t e n a n c y e f f e c t u a l l y d i s a p p e a r e d ; t h e m a g i s t r a c y w a s p a r t l y t a k e n
o v e r ; t h e B o a r d o f G u a r d i a n s a n d t h e o r g a n s o f m u n i c i p a l g o v e r n m e n t
w e r e s a t i s f a c to r i l y u r b a n b o u r g e o i s i n s t i t u t i o n s ; t h e p o l i c e f o rc e ( o n e
o f t h e fir st- fruits o f 18 3 2 ) w as o n an acc ep t ab l e b o u r g e o i s -b u re au cr a t i c
m o d e l . A t a n a t i o n a l l e v e l t h e r e c o r d h a s b e e n a m b i g u o u s . I f a r i s t o
c r a t i c m o d e s h a v e b e e n p e r p e t u a t e d i n t h e C i t y , t h e y h a v e b e e n v e r y
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 17/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 327
much l e s s ev iden t in the g rea t in s t i tu t ions o f indus t r i a l c ap i t a l i sm. I f
O l d C o r r u p t i o n st il l p r e s id e s o v e r O x f o r d a n d C a m b r i d g e , y e t L o n d o n ,
the c iv ic un ive rs i t i e s , t he t echn ica l co l l eges , e t c . , have long deve loped
up o n a d i f fe ren t pa t t e rn . I f a r i s toc r a t i c p r iv i l ege he ld on to the a rm ed
forces , i t had begun to lose con t ro l , even be fo re 1832 , o f the p re s s , andi t h a s n e v e r g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f m o r e r e c e n t m e d i a o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
T h u s o n t h e b r i e fe s t s u r v e y o f c o m m o n l y o b s e r v e d e v i d e n c e t h e
p i c t u r e a p p e a r s v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o v e r - s t r i d e n t p o r t r a i t o f o u r
a u t h o r s . T h i s a r i s t o c r a t i c m a s t e r w o u l d a p p e a r t o g o v e r n f r o m t h e
m o n a r c h y , t h e H o u s e o f L o r d s , th e a r m e d s e rv i ce s , O x f o r d a n d C a m
b r i d g e , t h e C i t y , a n d t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f E m p i r e ; a n d t o h a v e h a d a n
exces s ive in f luence in the two o lde r po l i t i c a l pa r t i e s . Th i s i s w i thou t
do ub t an impres s ive li s t ; bu t i t bec om es l es s ov e rw he l m ing i f we reca l l
t h a t t h e a r m e d s e r v i c e s ( f o r r e a s o n s w h i c h a r e w e l l r e s u m e d b y
A n d e r s o n )2 9
have neve r exe rc i s ed an in f luence wi th in the Br i t i sh power
e li te c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t i n G e r m a n o r c o n t e m p o r a r y A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y ;
an d tha t the in f luence o f th e H ou se o f L or ds has p rogres s ive ly
d i m i n i s h e d . M o r e o v e r , t h e c a s e o f t h e a n c i e n t u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d o f t h e
o ld po l i t i c a l pa r t i e s i s exceed ing ly complex and ( in the l a t t e r ca se ) ve ry
m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e m e t h o d s o f a n a l y s is o f p o s t -
N a m i e r i t e h i s t o r i a n s m i g h t l e a d u s t o s u p p o s e . I n a p h r a s e , t h e p o l i t i
c i a n s w h o m t h e p u b l i c r e m e m b e r a r e P e e l , B r ig h t , G l a d s t o n e , D i s r a e l i,
t h e C h a m b e r l a i n s , L l o y d G e o r g e , a n d B a l d w i n , a n d n o t L o r d D e r b y
o r L o r d S a l i s b u r y , o r e v e n , u n j u s t l y , L o r d P a l m e r s t o n .
Eve n so , a r i s t oc r a t i c in fluence is fo r m ida b le . Bu t to show the a r i s t oc
r a c y a s a " v a n g u a r d " o n e w o u l d h a v e t o s h o w a s e r i e s o f s i g n i f i c a n t
h i s t o r i c a l m o m e n t s w h e n a r i s t o c r a t i c i n f l u e n c e w a s d i r e c t l y a n d
e ff ec ti ve ly o p p o s e d t o i m p o r t a n t i n t e r e s ts o f t h e n e w e r b o u r g e o i s i e .
S u c h m o m e n t s c a n b e f o u n d ( O l d C o r r u p t i o n t r a n s p l a n t e d i ts fla g,
a f te r 1 8 3 2, t o D u b l i n C a s t l e ) , b u t t h e y a r e n o t c o m m o n a n d a r e g e n e r a l l y
a m b i g u o u s o r n u g a t o r y i n t h e i r o u t c o m e . T h e locus classicus w h i c h
A n d e r s o n a n d N a i r n a p p e a r t o h a v e o v e r l o o k e d i s B a g e h o t ' s English
Constitution ( 1 8 6 7 ) . F o r t h e d e v a s t a t i n g c y n i c i s m w i t h w h i c h B a g e h o t
j u s ti f ie d t h e p r o m i n e n c e g i v e n i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n t o " a r e t i r e d w i d o w
a n d a n u n e m p l o y e d y o u t h " i s a v e r y d i ff e r en t m a t t e r f r o m t h e "suf
f o c a t i n g t r a d i t i o n a l i s m " w h i c h t h e y s u p p o s e t o h a v e e n d u r e d f r o m t h et i m e o f B u r k e .
3 0
T h e p o i n t is , n o t w h e t h e r B a g e h o t ' s a c c o u n t i s
accura te , bu t tha t the k ind o f cyn ic i sm, and a l so s e l f -conf idence , wh ich
h i s a c c o u n t e x e m p l i fi e s , e m a s c u l a t e d b o u r g e o i s r e p u b l i c a n i s m i n
E n g l a n d . L o c k e h a d g i v e n t o t h e g e n t r y a n a c c e p t a b l e n a t u r a l i s t i c
jus t i f i ca t ion o f the ins t i tu t ion o f mona rchy . In the c r i s i s o f the French
R e v o l u t i o n , B u r k e i n f l a t e d n a t u r a l i s m i n t o t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l i s m i n w h i c h
t h e w i s d o m o f p a s t a g e s a p p e a r e d a s a v a s t N a t i o n a l D e b t w h o s e
in te re s t cha rges i t was pe rpe tua l ly the bus ines s o f the l iv ing gene ra t ion
t o p a y . B a g e h o t r e s t o r e d t h e n a t u r a l i s m o f L o c k e , b u t i n a n a k e d l y
u t i l i t a r i a n m a n n e r . T h e m o n a r c h y a n d a r i s t o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s ( t h e
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 18/52
328 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1 96 5
" d i g n i f i e d p a r t " o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n ) w e r e f o u n d t o b e useful, in d is
t r a c t i n g a t t e n t i o n f r o m t h e r e a l o p e r a t i o n o f p o w e r in t h e " e ff ic i en t
p a r t " ( w h i c h B a g e h o t h a d n o d o u b t w a s u n d e r t h e " d e s p o t i c " c o n t r o l
o f t h e m i d d l e c l a s se s ) . T h e " t h e a t r i c a l s h o w " o f t h e d i g ni fi e d p a r t h e l d
t h e m a s s e s i n a w e , a n d i t b e c a m e m o r e , r a t h e r t h a n l e s s , n e c e s s a r y a f t e r
1 8 6 7 s in ce ( as h e n o t ed in h i s i n t ro d u c t io n to t h e seco n d ed i t i o n( 1 8 7 2 ) ) " i n a l l c a s e s i t m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t a p o l i t i c a l c o m b i n a t i o n
o f t h e l o wer c l asses , a s su ch an d fo r t h e i r o wn o b jec t s , i s an ev i l o f t h e
firs t m a g n i t u d e . " B a g e h o t e v e n f o u n d a j u s t i f i c a t io n f o r t h e p e r p e t u a
t i o n o f so m e a r i s to c ra t i c i n f lu en ce w i th in t h e e f fec ti v e p a r t :
"A s long as we keep up a doub le se t o f ins t i tu t ions . . . we should takecare that the two match n icely , and h ide where the one beg ins and wherethe other ends. This is in part effected by conceding some subordinatepower to the august part of our poli ty , but i t is equally aided by keeping anaristocrat ic element in the useful part of our poli ty ."
A n d h i s t o r y h a s c o n f i r m e d B a g e h o t ' s t h e si s n e a t l y . I n 1 68 8 a b o u r g e o i s
p a r l i a m e n t e x i le d a K i n g b e c a u s e h e t h r e a t e n e d t o e n c r o a c h t o o f a r
u p o n th e C o n s t i t u t i o n ' s e f fi ci en t p a r t s . In 1 9 3 7 i t n ee d ed o n ly a b o u r
g e o i s P r i m e M i n i s t e r t o g i v e a n o t h e r K i n g h i s c a r d s , b e c a u s e h e w a s
u n s u i t e d t o p l a y a s u ff ic ie n tl y a u g u s t p a r t i n t h e " t h e a t r i c a l s h o w . "
I o f f e r Bag eh o t , h o wev er , n o t a s a so c i a l sc i en t i s t b u t a s an i n t e res t i n g
m o m e n t i n b o u r g e o i s i d e o l o g y . H e g a v e t o t h e m i d d l e c l a s s e s a n
a p o l o g i a f o r t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c p a r t s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n i n t h e b e s t o f
b o u r g e o i s t e r m s : (1 ) t h e y a f fo r d e d s e c u r i t y ; (2 ) t h e y h e l p e d t o k e e p t h e
w o r k i n g c l a s s in o r d e r . B a g e h o t , a n d G i l b e r t - a n d - S u l l i v a n , t a k e n
t o g e t h e r , r e m i n d u s o f t h e s u p e r b c o n f i d e n c e o f t h e V i c t o r i a n m i d d l e
c l a s s i n t h e fa c e o f A n d e r s o n ' s " v a n g u a r d . " T h e y g i v e u s t h e r e a s o n s
w h y t h e m i d d l e c l as s t o l e r a t e d t h e a b o m i n a b l e E m p r e s s B r o w n a n d
fa i led t o g iv e t h e i r su p p o r t t o D i lk e . Bu t i n f ac t , a s ev en M arx i s t s a r e
c o m i n g t o d i s c o v e r , h i s t o r y d o e s n o t w o r k w i t h t h e w e l l - o i l e d c y n i c i s m
w h i c h B a g e h o t p r o p o s e d . T h e a r i s t o c r a t i c e t h o s s ti ll h a d a l if e o f i ts
o w n , a n d s o m e r e a l b a s e s f o r c o n t i n u e d g r o w t h ; a n d o n e o f t h e b e s t
p a s s a g e s i n A n d e r s o n ' s Origins i s t h a t i n wh ich h e d i scu sses t h e b lo o d -
t r an s fu s io n w h ic h th e imp er i a l i s t c l imax , a f t e r 1 8 8 0 , g av e to t h i s
i n f l u e n c e . 3 1 B u t e v e n h e r e o n e m a y s u g g e s t a c e r t a i n d i a l e c t i c — a l i m i t
o f t o l e r a n c e b e y o n d w h i c h a r i s t o c r a t i c i n f l u e n c e h a s n o t b e e n a l l o w e dt o g r o w . I t m a y b e d e t e c t e d a s e a r l y a s t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n : t h e
r h e t o r i c o f B u r k e c a l l e d f o r t h t h e c a u s t i c r e s p o n s e o f B y r o n . T h e
s w e l l i n g p o m p o f t h e t h e a t r i c a l s h o w a t t h e i m p e r i a l i s t c l i m a x w a s
s w i f t l y f o l l o w e d b y t h e c o u n t e r - s w e l l , w h e n e v e n C h u r c h i l l c o u l d
t h r e a t e n t h e L o r d s w i t h t h e m e m o r y o f " i r o n c l a d p i k e m e n " a n d
L l o y d G e o r g e (a s C h a n c e l l o r o f t h e E x c h e q u e r ) c o u l d a d d r e s s
c h e e r i n g a u d i e n c e s i n t o n e s u n m i s t a k a b l y b o r r o w e d f r o m T o m P a i n e :
" [The Peers] need no credent ia l s . They do no t even need a medicalcert i f icate. They need not be sound ei ther in body, or in mind. They only
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 19/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 329
require a cert i f icate of bir th—just to prove that they are the f irst of the
l i t t e r . Yo u wo u ld n o t ch o o se a sp an ie l o n t h ese p r in c ip l es . . . . " "
A n d , i n t h e p a t h e t i c c o d a o f o u r o w n t i m e , t h e e n e r v a t e d c o n s e r v a t i v e
r e l a p s e w h i c h l e d u p t o t h e a c c e s s i o n o f L o r d H o m e w a s a w i n d f a l l g a i n
f o r L a b o u r , p r o v o k i n g , b y a l o n g - c o n d i t i o n e d r e f l e x , t h e t e c h n o c r a t i cf a ce a n d t h e N o r t h e r n b u r r o f H a r o l d W i l s o n , a n d t h e f a l s e tt o G i l b e r t -
a n d - S u l l i v a n o f That Was The Week That Was.
Th e Br i t i sh a r i s to c racy h as ce r t a in ly p ro v ed i t se l f t o b e , a s Bea t r i ce
W e b b d e s c r i b e d it , " a c u r i o u s l y t o u g h s u b s t a n c e . " B u t if w e a r e t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e a l b a l a n c e o f f o r c e s , i n s t e a d o f i m p o r t i n g S a r t r e ' s
s c h e m a o f " d e t o t a l i z e d t o t a l i t y " 3 3 w e c o u l d d o w o r s e t h a n r e f e r t o h e r
f u ll e r a c c o u n t o f " L o n d o n S o c i e t y " a t t h e c l i m a x o f i m p e r i a l i s m . T h i s
a r i s t o c r a c y , i n h e r o b s e r v a t i o n , c e r t a i n l y s u r r o u n d e d a n d s o l i d i f i e d
"S o c ie ty " an d n o d o u b t i n f lu en ced i t s s t y l e o f l if e . Bu t —
" . . . i t d id no t surro und o r iso la te the Cou r t ; i t was a l ready a m inorelement in the Ca binet ; and . . . i t was barely represen ted in the ever-changing group of internat ional f inanciers who ruled the money market .
The bulk of the shif t ing mass of wealthy persons who were conscious ofbelonging to Lond on Society . . . were , in the las t quar ter o f the n ineteen thcentury, professional profi t-makers: the old-established famil ies of bankersand brewers, often of Quaker descent , coming easi ly in social precedence;
then one or two great publ i shers , and , a t a d is tance, sh ipowners , thechai rmen of ra i lways and some o ther g reat corporat ions , the largest o fthe merchant bankers—but as yet no re ta i lers . "
T h e r e w e r e " n o f i x e d c a s t e b a r r i e r s " o f a n y k i n d :
"B ut de ep dow n in the uncons cious herd ins t inct o f the Br i ti sh gov ern ingclass there was a test of fitness for membership of this most gigantic of
social clubs, but a test which was seldom recognized by those who appliedit , st i l l less by those to whom it was applied, the possession of some form of
power over other people."3
*
Ad miss io n to t h e e l i t e was n o t , i n f ac t , w i th in t h e g i f t o f t h e a r i s to c racy :
the ar i s to cra cy , ra th er , reg is te red tho se sh i f t s an d f luctuations of po w er
w h i c h o c c u r r e d e l s e w h e r e , a n d g r a c e d a " S o c i e t y " w h i c h c a m e i n t o
ex i s t en ce i n d e p e n d en t ly o f i t s i n f lu en ce . Th ey were l i k e t h e s ta f f a t an
e l a b o r a t e a n d p r e s t i g i o u s h o t e l , w h o c o u l d i n n o w a y i n f l u e n c e t h ec o m i n g s a n d g o i n g s o f t h e c li e n t e l e , w h o o r a t w h a t t i m e o r w i t h w h o m ,
b u t w h o c o u l d a r r a n g e t h e b a l l a n d a p p o i n t a M a s t e r o f C e r e m o n i e s .
B e a t r i c e W e b b ' s a c c o u n t p r e c e d e s t h e n o t o r i o u s " l o w e r i n g o f t o n e "
o f t h e C o u r t a n d a r i s t o c r a c y a f te r t h e a c c e s s i o n o f E d w a r d V I I : t h e
a d m i s s i o n o f t h e n e w s p a p e r b a r o n s ( w h o h o i s t e d t h e a r i s t o c r a c y ' s c h i e f
e n e m y i n t o t h e p r e m i e r s h i p d u r i n g t h e w a r ) — n o t t o m e n t i o n m o r e
r e c e n t v u l g a r i z a t i o n s . I t i s t r u e t h a t e a c h n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o i s i e h a s i t s
o wn p ecu l i a r n as t i n ess wh ich i t h as o f t en i n h er i t ed f ro m th e c l ass wh ich
w e n t b e f o r e ; w i t h th e G e r m a n s , m i l it a r i s m a n d S t a t i s m ; w i t h t h e
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 20/52
330 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
F r e n c h , c h a u v i n i s m a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l m e t r o p o l i t o m a n i a ; w i t h t h e
I t a l i a n s , c o r r u p t i o n ; a n d w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n s , t h e r u t h l e s s c e l e b r a t i o n
o f a h u m a n n a t u r e r e d in t o o t h a n d l a w . I t i s t r u e a l s o t h a t t h e p e c u l i a r
nas t in es s o f the Br i t i sh bo urg eo i s i e i s in sham e les s obs e rva nce s o f
s t a tu s an d ob ses s io n wi th a spu r io us gen t i l i ty . It i s t ru e , f ina lly , tha t the
" d i g n i f i e d " p a r t s o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n h a v e b e e n i n t h i s c e n t u r y a ne ff ec ti ve s o u r c e o f m y s t i f i c a t i o n a n d t h a t — a s R a l p h M i l i b a n d h a s
d o c u m e n t e d i n Parliamentary Socialism— the p a r l i a m e n t a r y L a b o u r
Pa r ty has been the f i r s t , and mos t eage r , sub jec t o f hypnos i s . A l l th i s i s
i m p o r t a n t . B u t i n s u g g e s t i n g t h a t c a p i t a l i s t r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n t o d a y i s
c r i p p l e d b y t h i s a r i s t o c r a t i c i n h e r i t a n c e , a n d t h a t t h i s i s t h e m o s t
s u b s t a n t i a l e l e m e n t o f o u r c u r r e n t c r i s i s ( A n d e r s o n ' s Origins c o n c l u d e s :
" T h e u n f in i s h e d w o r k o f 1 6 40 a n d 1 8 32 m u s t b e t a k e n u p w h e r e it w a s
l ef t o f f " ) , I t h i n k o u r a u t h o r s m i s r e a d o u r h i s t o r y , a n d m i s t a k e t h e
t r u e c h a r a c t e r o f o u r r u l i n g c l a s s .
M o r e t h a n t h i s , 1 a m n o t a t a ll s u r e t h a t t h e y h a v e l o c a t e d t h e r e a la n t a g o n i s t . O l d C o r r u p t i o n h a s p a s s e d a w a y , b u t a n e w , a n d e n t i r e l y
d i f fe ren t , p r ed a t o r y com ple x occup ie s the S ta t e . I t i s su re ly to th i s new
c o m p l e x , w i t h i t s i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y a n d t h e S t a t e
( G o v e r n m e n t c o n t r a c t s , e s p e c ia l ly f o r w a r m a t e r i a l s , o f a n u n p r e c e
de n te d s i ze , subs id ie s , m un ic ip a l ind eb t ed nes s to p r i va te f inance , e t c . ) ,
i t s c o n t r o l o v e r m a j o r m e d i a o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , i ts b l a c k m a i l b y t h e
C i t y , i t s r e d u c t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r t o s u b o r d i n a t e r o l e s , a n d i t s
c a p a c i t y t o d i c t a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n w h i c h a L a b o u r G o v e r n m e n t
m u s t o p e r a t e — i t i s s u r e l y t o t h i s n e w T h i n g , w i t h i t s v a s t i n f l u e n c e
r e a c h i n g i n t o t h e C i v il S e r v i c e , t h e p r o f e s s i o n s , a n d i n t o t h e t r a d e u n i o n
a n d l a b o u r m o v e m e n t itself, r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e h u n t i n g o f a n a r i s t o
c r a t i c S n a r k , t h a t a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l f o r m a t i o n s o f o u r t i m e
s h o u l d b e a d d r e s s e d ?
I l l
W h a t is e x t r a o r d i n a r y , i n o u r a u t h o r s ' d i s c u s s io n o f t h e " E n g l i s h
i d e o l o g y , " i s t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e y a r e t h e m s e l v e s i m p r i s o n e d w i t h i n
t h e m y o p i c v i s i o n f o r w h i c h t h e y e x p r e s s s u c h c o n t e m p t . T h e y h a v e
n e v e r i m a g i n e d t h e g r e a t a r c h o f b o u r g e o i s c u l t u r e . T h e y c a n s e e , i n
b o u r g e o i s i d e o l o g y , o n l y t w o s i g n i f i c a n t m o m e n t s : t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t ,
a n d t h e m o m e n t a t w h i c h M a r x i s m a r r i v e d . I n b o t h m o m e n t s ( t h e y
s u g g e s t ) t h e B r i t i s h b o u r g e o i s i e h a d n o p a r t . O f 1 6 4 0 :
"Because of i t s 'pr imi t ive , ' pre-Enl ightenment charac ter , the ideology ofthe Re vo lutio n founded n o significant tradit io n, an d left no major aftereffects . Nev er was a ma jor rev olutio nary ideology neutralized and abso rbedso comple te ly . Pol i t ica l ly , Puri tanism was a use less pass ion.""
T h e r e a f t e r t h e E n g l i s h b o u r g e o i s i e a c c o m p l i s h e d i ts d e s t i n y b y " b l i n d
e m p i r i c i s m , " a n d b e c a m e " e s t r a n g e d f r o m t h e c e n t r a l c u r r e n t o f l a t e r
b o u r g e o i s e v o l u t i o n . " I t s a t o u t t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a n d m i s s e d
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 21/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 331
J a c o b i n i s m ( " t h e a p e x o f b o u r g e o i s p r o g r e s s " ) . " T h e E n g l i s h b o u r
geo i s i e . . . cou ld a f fo rd to d i sp ens e wi th th e da ng e ro us to o l o f re a so n
a n d s t o c k t h e n a t i o n a l m i n d w i t h h i s t o r i c a l g a r b a g e . "3 6
I t h a n d e d o n
t o t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s " n o i m p u l s e o f l i b e r a t i o n , n o r e v o l u t i o n a r y v a l u e s ,
n o u n i v e r s a l l a n g u a g e . I n s t e a d i t t r a n s m i t t e d t h e d e a d l y g e r m s o fu t i l i t a r i a n i s m " — t h e " o n e a u t h e n t i c , a r t i c u l a t e d i d e o l o g y " w h i c h i t w a s
a b l e t o p r o d u c e .3
' A s f o r M a r x i s m , n o t r a f f i c h a s b e e n k n o w n b e t w e e n
i t a n d th e s e b a r b a r o u s s h o r e s .
T h e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a r e s o l a r g e t h a t i t i s t e m p t i n g t o c a p i t u l a t e
b e f o r e t h e m . T h e y a s s u m e , i n a n y c a s e , h e r m e t i c d i v i s i o n s b e t w e e n
n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s w h i c h a r e q u i t e u n r e a l ( o n e t h i n k s o f H o b b e s a n d
D e s c a r t e s, H u m e a n d R o u s s e a u , C o le r i d g e a n d G e r m a n p h i l o s o p h y ) .3 8
B u t w h a t o u r a u t h o r s h a v e d o n e , inter alia, i s ( a f t er sk i pp ing ove r the
e n t i r e p h a s e o f t h e h e r o i c a n n u n c i a t i o n o f b o u r g e o i s i n d i v i d u a l i s m , i n
w h i c h t h e E n g l i s h c o n t r i b u t i o n , i f s o m e w h a t l a t e , w a s b y n o p o s s i b l e
a c c o u n t n e g l i g i b l e ) : ( 1 ) t o i g n o r e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t a n d
b o u r g e o i s - d e m o c r a t i c i n h e r i t a n c e ; (2 ) t o o v e r l o o k t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f
c a p i t a li s t p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m y a s " a u t h e n t i c , a r t i c u l a t e d i d e o l o g y " ;
( 3 ) t o f o r g e t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n , o v e r m o r e t h a n t h r e e c e n t u r i e s , o f B r i t i s h
n a t u r a l s c i e n t i s t s ; ( 4 ) t o c o n f u s e a n e m p i r i c a l i d i o m w i t h a n i d e o l o g y .
I t s h o u l d b e s u f f i c i e n t t o m e n t i o n t h e s e p o i n t s f o r t h e m t o b e c o m e
s e l f - e v i d e n t . A n d m o r e m i g h t b e a d d e d . O n e m i g h t o f f e r a d i s c u s s i o n o f
t h e r e a li s t n o v e l , o r o f r o m a n t i c i s m , if o n e h a d n o t a l r e a d y b e e n w a r n e d
o f f b y N a i r n ' s r e f e r e n c e t o " a d i l e t t a n t e l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e d e s c e n d e d f r o m
t h e a r i s t o c r a c y " — t h e t h o u g h t o f a professional a n d t r u l y - b o u r g e o i s
l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e w h i c h w o u l d w i n t h e a p p r o v a l o f that t o n e is e n o u g h t om a k e o n e b l e n c h . T h e p o i n t i s n o t t o r u s h i n t o t h e d e f e n c e o f B r i t i s h
i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n s , o r t o m i n i m i z e t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l i m i t a t i o n s .
I t i s to ca l l fo r a m or e co l l ec ted an d in fo r m ed ana l ys i s , an d on e whi ch
t a k e s s o m e a c c o u n t o f t h e i r h i s t o r i c s t r e n g t h s . S p l e e n i s n o t a p a r t i c u
l a r ly e f fec t ive cu t t ing ins t rument .
Bri ta in is , a f te r a l l , a protestant c o u n t r y . C a t h o l i c i s m ( a s a c e n t r e o f
s p i r i t u a l o r i n t e l l e c t u a l a u t h o r i t y ) w a s s m a s h e d i n t h i s c o u n t r y m o r e
t h o r o u g h l y t h a n in a ll b u t t w o o r t h r e e o t h e r p a r t s o f C h r i s t e n d o m .
M o r e o v e r , i t w a s s m a s h e d , n o t b y o n e r i v al r e li g i o u s i d e o l o g y w i t h i ts
o w n a u t h o r i t y , d i s c i p l i n e , a n d w e l l - s t r u c t u r e d t h e o l o g y , b u t b y t h ec o m p a r a t i v e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f a n y c e n t r e o f a u t h o r i t y . A l l t h o s e
s e r m o n s a n d p a m p h l e t s , a l l t h a t p r a y e r b e f o r e b a t t l e , a l l t h a t w r a n g l i n g
a b o u t o a t h s a n d a l t a r s a n d b i s h o p s , a l l t h a t s e c ta r i a n f r a g m e n t a t i o n ,
w h i c h A n d e r s o n f i n d s s o u n e n l i g h t e n e d , s o s a d l y d i s t a n c e d f r o m r e a l
e c o n o m i c m o t i v e s , w a s in f a ct p a r t o f a n e p o c h a l c u l t u r a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n .
T h e E n g l i s h R e v o l u t i o n w a s f o u g h t o u t i n r e l i g i o u s t e r m s , n o t b e c a u s e
t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e c o n f u s e d a s t o t h e i r r e a l i n t e r e s t s b u t b e c a u s e
re l ig ion mattered. T h e w a r s w e r e , i n g o o d m e a s u r e , a b o u t r e l i g i o u s
a u t h o r i t y . A m a n ' s r i g h t o f p r o p e r t y i n h i s o w n c o n s c i e n c e a n d r e l i g i o u s
a l l e g ia n c e s h a d b e c o m e j u s t a s r e a l , a n d m o m e n t a r i l y more r e a l , t h a n
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 22/52
332 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
e c o n o m i c p r o p e r t y r i g h t s . A t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e g r o w t h o f t h e h u m a n
m i n d , t h e p s y c h i c c r i s i s b e t w e e n o l d m o d e s a n d n e w w a s e x a c t l y h e r e .
O u r a u t h o r s w o u l d p r e f e r i t if i t h a d b e e n , n o t a b o u t r e l i g i o n b u t
a g a i n s t r e l i g i o n a l t o g e t h e r . A n h i s t o r i a n c a n n o t b o t h e r w i t h t h i s k i n d
o f o b j e c t i o n . I t i s m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f w h a ta c t u a l l y h a p p e n e d . T o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e " i d e o l o g i c a l l e g a c y o f t h e
R e v o l u t i o n w a s a l m o s t n i l " is t o c o n f u s e f o r m a l w i t h r e a l a t t r i b u t e s .
B y d e s t r o y i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h e d m a g i c o f t h e C h u r c h , t r i u m p h a n t P r o t e s t
a n t i s m m a d e p o s s i b le t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f r a t i o n a l i t y , a n d t h e d i s p e r s a l
o f r a t i o n a l i n i t i a t i v es , t h ro u g h o u t t h e co u n t ry an d in d i f f e ren t so c i a l
m i l i e u s . E v e n b e f o r e i t h a d t a k e n p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e m a r k e t e c o n o m y ,
p r iv a t e en t e rp r i se an d a q u a l i f i ed laissezfaire h a d t a k e n o v e r t h e c u l t u r a l
eco n o my . I t was n o t n ecessa ry i n Br i t a in fo r a r ad i ca l i n t e l l i g en t s i a t o
m o b i l i z e u n d e r it s c h i e f ta i n s t o a t t a c k c l e r ic a l i s m a n d o b s c u r a n t i s m
b e c a u s e t h e e n e m y , a l t h o u g h i t p e r s i s t e d , h a d n o p o w e r t o b l o c k a d e
i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e . A n d s i n c e t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y C h u r c h c a n s c a r c e l yb e sa id t o h av e h ad an a r t i c u l a t ed i d eo lo g y , i t w as u n n ec ess a ry fo r i t s
c r i t i c s , i n t h a t a r e a a t l e a s t , t o d e v e l o p a s y s t e m a t i c o p p o s i t i o n . I n
F r a n c e t h e a r m i e s o f O r t h o d o x y a n d E n l i g h t e n m e n t f a ce d e a c h o t h e r .
B u t B r i t a i n w a s m o r e l i k e a w e a k l y o c c u p i e d c o u n t r y , i n w h i c h —
w h e n e v e r o r t h o d o x y h a d r e p e l l e d a s m a l l f r o n t a l a t t a c k , i t f o u n d i ts e lf
h a ras sed o n i ts flank s, a t it s r ea r , o r ev en wi th in i ts o w n mid s t . T h e
En l ig h t en m en t p ro ce ed e d in Br i t a in , n o t l i k e o n e o f t h o se f lo od -tid es
m a s s i n g a g a i n s t a c r u m b l i n g d y k e , b u t l i k e t h e t i d e w h i c h s e e p s i n t o t h e
e r o d e d s h o r e s , m u d f l a t s a n d c r e e k s o f a n e s t u a r y w h o s e d e c l i v i t i e s a r e
read y to r ece iv e i t .O t h e r c o u n t r i e s m a y h a v e p r o d u c e d a " t r u e i n t e l l i g e n t s i a , " a n
" i n t e r n a l l y u n i fi ed i n t e l l e c t u a l c o m m u n i t y " ; b u t i t i s r u b b i s h t o s u g g e s t
th a t t h e r e is so m e c r ip p l in g d i sa b l e m en t in t h e f a i l u re o f Br i t i sh i n t e l
l e c t u a l s t o f o r m " a n i n d e p e n d e n t i n t e l l e c t u a l e n c l a v e " w i t h i n t h e b o d y
p o l i t i c . R a t h e r , t h e r e w e r e f o r m e d i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y scores o f
i n t e l l e c t u a l e n c l a v e s , d i s p e r s e d o v e r E n g l a n d a n d S c o t l a n d , w h i c h m a d e
u p fo r wh a t t h ey lo s t i n co h es io n b y th e mu l t i p l i c i t y o f i n i t i a t i v es
a f fo rd ed b y th ese man y b ases an d ( as t h e en t i r e r eco rd o f sc i en t i f i c an d
t e c h n i c a l a d v a n c e w i t n e s s e s ) b y t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s a f f o r d e d f o r t h e i n t e r
p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e o r y a n d praxis. Mu ch o f t h e b es t i n o u r i n t e l l ec tu a lc u l t u r e h a s a l w a y s c o m e , n o t f r o m t h e A n c i e n t U n i v e r s i t i e s n o r
f r o m t h e s e l f -c o n s c i o u s m e t r o p o l i t a n c o t e r i e s , b u t f r o m i n d i s t i n c t n e t h e r
r e g i o n s . W h a t o u r a u t h o r s o v e r l o o k is t h e e n o r m o u s i m p o r t a n c e o f
t h a t p a r t o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n h e r i t a n c e w h i c h m a y b e d e s c r i b e d , i n a
secu la r sen se , a s t h e t r ad i t i o n o f dissent.
A t o n e e n d o f t h e s c a l e , t h e g e n t r y ( N e w t o n , F i e l d i n g , G i b b o n ) m a d e
o n e c o n t r i b u t i o n ; a n d a t t h e o t h e r e n d t h e a r t i s a n s ( w i t h t h e i r s c o r e s
o f i n v e n t o rs ) m a d e a n o t h e r . O x f o r d a n d C a m b r i d g e , w i t h th e i r a t t e m p t
t o i n s t a te a n i r r e l e v a n t t h e o c r a t i c p l a t o n i s m , c o n t r i b u t e d l i t tl e , e x c e p t
b y a r e p u l s i o n w h i c h a c c e n t u a t e d t h e s c e p t i c a l t o n e o f t h o s e w h o w e r e
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 23/52
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 24/52
334 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
A n d u p o n t h e h e e ls o f t h i s t h e r e f o ll o w e d t h e a s t o n i s h i n g i n j u n c t i o n :
"The end of our foundation is the knowledge of the causes and secretmot ions of th ings and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire , to theeffecting of all things possible."
4 0
T h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e b o u r g e o i s a n d t h es c ie n t if ic r e v o l u t i o n s i n E n g l a n d i s u n d e c i d e d . B u t t h e y w e r e c l ea r l y a
g o o d d e a l m o r e t h a n j u s t g o o d f r i e n d s . I n a m a t t e r o f a f e w d e c a d e s
g r e a t t e r r i t o r i e s o f n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a w h i c h h a d b e e n s h u t a g a i n s t t h e
i n t e l l e c t u a l p u b l i c w e r e t h r o w n o p e n . B a c o n ' s c a s u i s t r y o f f irst a n d
s e c o n d c a u s e s ( " t h e c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f t h e c r e a t u r e s o f G o d " ) n e a t l y
d i s s o c i a t e d m a n i f e s t p h e n o m e n a , w h o s e e x p l o r a t i o n w a s f u l l y a u t h o r
i z e d , f r o m u l t e r i o r i d e o l o g i c a l c a u s e s , t o w a r d s w h i c h a f o r m a l r i t u a l
obe i s ance was expec ted bu t which a s e f fec t ive in f luences were a l lowed
to l apse . A n d th i s su i t ed ve ry we l l the m o o d o f those in te l l ec tua l s in the
e igh teen th cen tu ry who , f ind ing themse lves to be ve ry l i t t l e opposed byt h e o l o g i c a l a u t h o r i t y , w e r e q u i t e c o n t e n t t o l e a v e i t a l o n e a n d g e t o n
w i t h t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f n a t u r e . M a n y o f t h e c l e r g y t h e m s e l v e s , f ro m t h e
s e c u r i t y o f t h e i r r e c t o r i e s , w e r e a b l e t o f u r t h e r t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t ; e v e n
t h e a t r o c i o u s B i s h o p o f L l a n d a f f f i r s t f o u n d e d h i s r e p u t a t i o n u p o n h i s
c o n t r i b u t i o n s , n o t t o t h e o l o g y b u t t o c h e m i s t r y . T h e U n i t a r i a n s p u s h e d
G o d s o f a r b a c k i n t o h i s B a c o n i a n h e a v e n o f first c a u s e s t h a t h e b e c a m e ,
e x c e p t f o r p u r p o s e s o f m o r a l i n c a n t a t i o n , q u i t e i n e f fe c t u a l. H e w a s l ef t
a lone (a l a s ! to be fe t ched ou t l a t e r aga ins t the peop le a s a fu r ious Papa )
w h i l e t h e b o u r g e o i s i e e n t e r e d i n t o t h e i r t r u e i n h e r i t a n c e — t h e e x p l o i t a
t i o n o f n a t u r e .
I t s h o u l d n o t h a v e h a p p e n e d t h i s w a y . H e a v e n s h o u l d h a v e b e e n
s t o r m e d , molte con brio, a n d t h e f r u i t s o f k n o w l e d g e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n
w r e s t e d f r o m t h e c l u t c h e s o f p r i e s t s . B u t h a p p e n t h i s w a y it d i d . ( T h e
c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n l e t u s s a y , Z o l a o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d H a r d y a n d
G e o r g e M o o r e o n t h e o t h e r , o r b e t w e e n A n a t o l e F r a n c e a n d E . M .
F o r s t e r , p o i n t s t o a c o n t i n u i n g d i f fe r en c e i n l i t e r a r y m o d e s . ) I t w a s a
h a p p e n i n g s o e p o c h - m a k i n g t h a t w e c a n e x cu s e o u r a u t h o r s f or n o t
n o t i c i n g i t : w e o f t e n s e e t h e h o u s e s b u t i g n o r e t h e l a n d s c a p e . B u t i t
w a s a n a d v a n c e , h o w e v e r s p e c t a c u l a r , t h a t w a s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n i t s
o w n i d e o l o g i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s . O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e f r a m e w o r k g i v e n b y
N e w t o n t o t h e p h y s i c a l a n d n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s t e n d e d t o s h a r e t h e s a m en a t u r a l i s t i c , m e c h a n i c a l b i a s a s E n g l i s h c o n s t i t u t i o n a l t h e o r y . O n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , t h e l i c e n c e t o e x p l o r e n a t u r e w a s n o t e x t e n d e d w i t h t h e
s a m e l i b e r a l i t y t o t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f human n a t u r e , s o c i e t y .
I t i s t h i s w h i c h m a k e s t h e m o m e n t o f The Origin of Species s o m o v i n g ,
a n d , i n i t s o w n t e r m s , a v i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e e m p i r i c a l m o d e . F o r f r o m
t h e i r b a s e i n " s e c o n d c a u s e s " t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s w e r e m a s s i n g a g a i n s t
t h e F i r s t C a u s e itself; o r , if n o t a g a i n s t G o d ( w h o a s e v e n t s p r o v e d w a s
wi l l ing to be shuf f l ed o f f to an even more remote empyrean) , then aga ins t
m a g i c a l n o t a t i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d a n d o f m a n . B i o l o g y ,
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 25/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 335
g e o l o g y , n a t u r a l h i s t o r y , a s t r o n o m y , a f te r d e c a d e s o f e m p i r i c a l a c c u m u
l a t i o n — a l l w e r e p r e s s i n g m a t t e r s t o a d e c i s i o n . A n d t h e b r e a k - t h r o u g h ,
t h e m o m e n t o f s y n t h e s i s , c a m e , n o t w i t h s o m e E n g l i s h V o l t a i r e
i m m e r s e d i n m e t r o p o l i t a n t u m u l t , b u t w i t h a n e u r o t i c , s e c l u d e d , i n t e l
l ec tua l ly evas ive man , once des t ined fo r a c l e r i ca l ca ree r , who
n e v e r t h e l e s s w a s t h e p r o t a g o n i s t o f a n i n h e r i t e d e m p i r i c a l h a b i t , w h i c h
w a s r a i s e d i n h i m t o a p i t c h o f i n t e n s i t y u n t i l i t b e c a m e a b r e a t h - t a k i n g
i n t e l l e c t u a l c o u r a g e , a s h e l a b o r i o u s l y r e s t r u c t u r e d w h o l e s c i e n c e s a n d
e ff ec te d a n e w s y n t h e s i s . W e c a n n o t c o m e a w a y f r o m a n y a c c o u n t o f
D a r w i n w i t h o u t t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t a r e s p e c t fo r fa c t i s n o t o n l y a
technique, i t c an a l so be an in te l l ec tua l fo rce in i t s ow n r igh t . W he n the
w o r k w a s d o n e t h e f r a c a s c o u l d b e g i n . H u x l e y c o u l d s t o r m h e a v e n .
D a r w i n , w i s e r t h a n h i m , t o o k e v a s i v e a c t i o n a n d o ff e re d a c o m m e n t o n
t h e f e r t i l i z a t i o n o f o r c h i d s .4 1
H e k n e w t h a t n o o n e i n H e a v e n h a d t h e
p a t i e n c e t o s t u d y b a r n a c l e s l o n g e n o u g h t o g i v e h i m a n y a n s w e r . W e
r e m e m b e r H u x l e y a s t h e id e o l o g u e , D a r w i n a s t h e s c i e n ti s t.
T h i s i n d i c a t e s o n e p l a c e w h e r e t h e E n g l i s h i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a d i t i o n
o ff er ed s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n " n u l l i t y . " I n o n e se n s e, D a r w i n i s m a p p e a r s
a s t h e n a t u r a l a n d i n e v i t a b l e o u t c o m e o f a c u l t u r e o f a g r a r i a n c a p i t a l i s t s ,
w h o h a d s p e n t d e c a d e s i n e m p i r i c a l h o r t i c u l t u r e a n d s t o c k - b r e e d i n g .
M o s t r e v o l u t i o n s i n t h o u g h t h a v e th i s " n a t u r a l " a p p e a r a n c e , so t h a t
s o m e s c h o l a r s a s k , n o t h o w D a r w i n i s m h a p p e n e d , b u t w h y i t t o o k s o
l o n g t o h a p p e n . I n a n o t h e r s en s e , n o t h i n g w a s n a t u r a l a b o u t a t r a n s
m u t a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c t h o u g h t w h i c h o v e r t h r e w f i x e d c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h
h a d s t o o d f o r c e n t u r i e s a n d w h i c h e f f e c t e d a n e w v i e w o f h u m a n n a t u r e .
T h e r e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e c r i s i s t h a n t h e r e w a s , m o r e o f a p a r t i n g o ft h e i d e o l o g i c a l h e a v e n s . T h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s s h o u l d h a v e si g n a l l e d t h e i r
c o m m i t m e n t s ; s i g n e d m a n i f e s t o s ; i d e n t i f i e d t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e s i n t h e
r e v i e w s . T h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w a s c o m p a r a t i v e l y l i t t l e o f t h i s m a y b e
a c c o u n t e d f o r b y t h e f a c t t h a t D a r w i n a d d r e s s e d a p r o t e s t a n t a n d p o s t -
B a c o n i a n p u b l i c , w h i c h h a d l o n g a s s u m e d t h a t i f G o d w a s a t i s su e w i t h
a r e s p e c t a b l e F a c t ( o r if a d o g m a w a s a t o d d s w i t h a m a n ' s c o n s c i e n c e )
i t w a s t h e f o r m e r w h i c h m u s t g i v e w a y . T h e i n t e l li g e n t s i a o f O t h e r
C o u n t r i e s h a v e b e e n m o r e f o r t u n a t e . T h e y h a v e b e e n a b l e t o f i g h t t h e i r
b a t t l e s w i t h m o r e panache a n d m o r e a p p e a l t o U n i v e r s a l s b e c a u s e t h e y
h a v e m a n a g e d t o p r e s e r v e H o l y C h u r c h a s a f o il t o t h i s d a y .
T w o o t h e r i d e o l o g i c a l i n h e r i t a n c e s o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n ( b o t h o f t h e m
u n n o t i c e d b y o u r a u t h o r s ) h a v e t h i s s a m e " n a t u r a l " a p p e a r a n c e . I
c a n n o t e x a m i n e h e r e t h e b o u r g e o i s d e m o c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n b e y o n d
ins i s t ing tha t , fo r go od o r i l l, i t co n t r ib u t ed va s t ly m or e to the in te l
l e c t u a l u n i v e r s e o f t h e E n g l i s h w o r k i n g c l a s s t h a n t h e u t i l i t a r i a n i s m o f
w h i c h t h e y m a k e s o m u c h . T h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n w a s m a d e n o t o n l y a t a n
a r t i c u l a t e a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l l e v e l b u t a l s o t o t h e s u b - p o l i t i c a l c o n s e n s u s
o f a p e o p l e w h o ( a s t w o r a t h e r p e r c e p t i v e E n g l i s h M a r x i s t s o n c e n o t e d )
' h a v e al w a y s r e s e n te d h a r s h m e c h a n i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a n y k i n d . "4 2
I h a v e c o m m e n t e d a l r e a d y u p o n t h e g e n e s i s o f c a p i t a l i s t p o l i t i c a l
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 26/52
336 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1 9 6 5
e c o n o m y . T h i s w a s a f a r m o r e s y s t e m a t i c , h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d i d e o l o g y
th an is t o b e fo u n d in p u re ly p o l i t i ca l o r p h i l o so p h ic a l a r ea s . I t wa s so ,
i n p a r t , b e c a u s e t h e m o r e a d v a n c e d a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s , a s w e l l a s s o m e o f
t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s , f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s t o b e i m p e d e d b y t h e f a i r l y s y s
t e m a t i c ( a l t h o u g h d i s i n t e g r a t i n g ) s y st e m o f m e r c a n t i l i s t a n d p a t e r n a l i s tt h eo ry , a s we l l a s s t a tu to ry r es t r i c t i o n s . On e sy s t em ca l l ed i n to ex i s t en ce
a c o n t r a r y , a n d s u p e r i o r , s y s t e m .
A d a m S m i t h b r o u g h t t o t h e e c o n o m i c f u n c t i o n s o f t h e S t a t e t h e s a m e
j e a l o u s y w h i c h L o c k e h a d s h o w n t o it s p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s ; l i k e L o c k e
h e w i s h e d p o w e r a n d i n i t ia t i v e t o b e d i s p e r s e d a m o n g t h e p r o p e r t i e d .
T h e e c o n o m i c p r o t e s t a n t i s m — t h e " p o l i t i c a l " ( b u t m o r e tr u th f u ll y a n t i -
p o l i t i c a l ) e c o n o m y — w h i c h S m i t h f o u n d e d d i d n o t t h r e a t e n t o o v e r
th ro w th e S t a t e : i t s im p ly t u r n e d i ts b a ck u p o n i t , l eav in g to i t o n ly
v e s t i g i a l f u n c t i o n s . T h e t r i u m p h o f h i s t h e o r i e s , a n d t h e s a t i s f a c t o r y
m a n n e r o f t h e i r w o r k i n g , e x p l a i n t h e c o m p a r a t i v e i n di f fe r e n c e o f t h e
i n d u s t r i a l b o u r g e o i s i e t o p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y a s s u c h : it d i d n ' t m a t t e r . W h e np l a c e d in r e l a t i o n to th i s i m m e n s e l y c o h e r e n t i d e o l o g y , w i t h i ts
c o m p e l l i n g a n a l o g i e s w i t h " n a t u r a l " p r o c e s s , U t i l i ta r i a n i s m d o e s n o t
a p p e a r a s t h e " o n e a u t h e n t i c " i d e o l o g y o f t h e b o u r g e o i s i e b u t s i m p l y
a s a s u b o r d i n a t e t r a d i t i o n w i t h i n i t — a r e m i n d e r ( w h i c h t h e c o m p l e x
i t i e s o f i n d u s t r i a l i s m m a d e d a i l y m o r e p r e s s i n g ) t h a t t h e s t a t e h a d
i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s .
N o r w a s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f S m i t h a n d o f h i s s u c c e s s o r s
i n a n y s e n s e a t a l l t h e p r o d u c t o f " b l i n d e m p i r i c i s m . " I t w a s a s y s t e m a t i c
f r a m e w o r k o f t h o u g h t s o c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d y e t s o f l e x i b l e t h a t i t
fo rmed th e s t ru c tu re wi th in wh ich th e so c i a l sc i en ces an d p o l i t i ca lt h o u g h t o f V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d w e r e s ti ll f r a m e d ; i t u n d e r w r o t e c o m
m e r c i a l i m p e r i a l i s m ; i t c o n q u e r e d t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f t h e b o u r g e o i s i e
t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d ; a n d a f te r a s h a r p - f o u g h t a n d i m p r e s s i v e r e s is t
a n c e ( H o d g s k i n , O w e n , O ' B r i e n ) t h e E n g li s h w o r k i n g - c l a s s m o v e m e n t
c a p i t u l a t e d b e f o r e i t a n d r e g r o u p e d i n o r d e r t o m a x i m i z e i t s r e w a r d s
wi th in t h e f r am ew o rk wh ich i t d i c t a t ed . F in a l ly , i t h a s su rv iv ed , l e s s i n
s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h e o r y t h a n i n p o p u l a r m y t h , u n t i l th i s d a y . I t i s i n t h e
n a m e o f s o m e " n a t u r a l " l a w o f a f r e e e c o n o m y t h a t t h e p u b l i c t o l e r a t e s
i t s u n f r e e d o m i n t h e f a c e o f t h e m o n o p o l i s t s , t h e l a n d - s p e c u l a t o r s , t h e
c o n t r o l l e r s o f t h e m e d i a o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
H o w i s i t p o s s i b l e fo r M a r x i s t s t o o v e r l o o k t h i s w h e n M a r x h i m s e l f
s a w a t a g l a n c e t h a t t h i s w a s h i s m o s t f o r m i d a b l e i d e o l o g i c a l o p p o n e n t ,
an d d e v o t ed h i s l if e 's wo rk to o v er th ro w in g i t ? Bu t in a l l t h i s I ca n n o t see
e m p i r i c i s m a s a n ideology a t a l l . A n d e r s o n a n d N a i r n h a v e c o n f u s e d a n
in t e l l ec tu a l idiom, w h i c h f o r v a r i o u s h i s t o r i c a l r e a s o n s h a s b e c o m e a
n a t i o n a l h a b i t , w i t h a n i d e o l o g y . B a c o n a n d H a z l i t t , D a r w i n a n d
Orwel l , may a l l h av e emp lo y ed th i s i d io m, b u t t h ey can sca rce ly b e sa id
t o h a v e b e e n a t t a c h e d t o t h e s a m e u l t e r i o r i d e o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s .
Th er e h as r ecen t ly b een an a t t em p t , i t i s t ru e , t o e rec t em p i r i c i sm into a n
id eo lo g y , o r an en d -o f - id eo lo g y . Bu t wh i l e t h i s h as n o d o u b t b een
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 27/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 337
f la t t e r ing to the Br i t i sh , i t ha s no t been conv inc ing , and the fa sh ion i s
v e r y n e a r l y o v e r — T a l c o t t P a r s o n s , a n d t h e n e w g r a n d m o d e l o f t h e self-
r e g u l a t i n g s o c i o l o g i c a l e c o n o m y , is a l r e a d y m a s s i n g o n t h e h o r i z o n .
I d i o m is n o t u n i m p o r t a n t . T h e e m p i r i c a l i d i o m c a n f a v o u r i n s u l a r
r e s i s t a n c e s a n d c o n c e p t u a l o p p o r t u n i s m . B u t i t m a y a l s o c o n c e a l a c u t ei n t e ll i g e n c e a n d a c o n c e p t u a l t o u g h n e s s w h i c h i s i m m a n e n t r a t h e r t h a n
exp l i c i t ; a t be s t i t ha s ca r r i ed the rea l i sm of the Eng l i sh nove l , and has
s e r v e d — n o t a b l y i n t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s — a s a n i d i o m s u p e r b l y a d a p t e d
t o th e i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e o r y a n d praxis.
Darwin wro te in an ea r ly l e t t e r , a f t e r a mee t ing wi th a f r i end , "he
h a s a g r a n d f a c t o f s o m e l a r g e m o l a r t o o t h i n t h e T r i a s . "4 3
M a r x a l s o
had th i s re spec t fo r "g rand fac t s , " and in bo th men we can s ee tha t
e x c i t in g d i a l e ct i c o f m a k i n g - a n d - b r e a k i n g , t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c o n c e p t u a l
hypo theses and the b r ing ing o f empi r i ca l ev idence to en fo rce o r to
b r e a k d o w n t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s , t h a t f ri c ti o n b e tw e e n " m o l e c u l a r "
r e s e a r c h a n d " m a c r o s c o p i c " g e n e r al i z a t io n t o w h i c h W r i g h t M i l l s
o f t en re fe r red . In any v i t a l in t e l l ec tua l t r ad i t ion th i s d ia l ec t i c , t h i s
a b r a s i o n b e t w e e n m o d e l s a n d p a r t i c u l a r s , i s a l w a y s e v i d e n t . W h a t i s s o
p r o f o u n d l y d e p r e s s i n g a b o u t s o m u c h i n t h e v a r i o u s v a r i a n t s o f M a r x i s m
s ince the dea th o f Enge l s i s the i r s tubborn re s i s t ance to a l l t he "g rand
f a c t s " w h i c h t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y h a s t h r o w n i n t o o u r f a c e s , a n d t h e i r
equa l ly s tu bb or n de fence (o r on ly tr iv ia l mo di f i ca t ions ) o f the in he r i t ed
m o d e l . W e m a y a g r e e a s t o t h e m e d i o c r i t y , s l o t h , a n d p a r o c h i a l i s m o f
m u c h c o n t e m p o r a r y B r i t i s h t h o u g h t . A n d w e m u s t a g r e e t h a t t h e B r i t i s h
w o r k i n g - c l a s s m o v e m e n t "needs t h e o r y l i k e n o o t h e r . "4 4
I can myse l f
a g r e e t h a t t h i s t h e o r y s h o u l d b e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e M a r x i s t t r a d i t i o n ,a l t h o u g h t h i s is b y n o m e a n s s e lf - e v id e n t . B u t A n d e r s o n a n d N a i r n a r e
ve ry s ad ly mis ta ken if they th in k tha t , in these l a t t e r da ys , they a re
go ing to ove r th row "empi r i c i sm" in the name o f a s e l f - su f f i c i en t
M a r x i s t s y s t e m , e v e n if t h i s s y s t e m h a s b e e n t a r t e d - u p w i t h s o m e
S a r t r e i a n n e o l o g i s m s . N o r s h o u l d t h e y b e a l l o w e d t o i m p o v e r i s h t h e
c r e a t i v e i m p u l s e o f t h e M a r x i s t t r a d i t i o n i n t h i s w a y . F o r w h a t t h e i r
s c h e m a l a c k is t h e c o n t r o l o f " g r a n d f a c t s , " a n d E n g l a n d i s u n l i k e l y t o
c a p i t u l a t e b e f o r e a M a r x i s m w h i c h c a n n o t a t l e a s t e n g a g e i n a d i a l o g u e
i n t h e E n g l i s h i d i o m .
IV
T h e a c c o u n t s w h i c h A n d e r s o n a n d N a i r n o f f e r u s o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e
Br i t i sh work ing c la s s s ca rce ly encourage enqu i ry . As we s l ide down the
s lopes o f Na i rn ' s p rose ( in h i s Anatomy of the Labour P arty) t he re i s no
f o o t h o l d , n o g r o w t h o f h i s t o r i c a l f a ct , h o w e v e r s t u n t e d a n d s h a l l o w l y
r o o t e d , t o w h i c h w e m a y c a t c h h o l d . F a b i a n s a p p e a r , o f a s t o n i s h i n g
i n fl u en c e a n d l o n g e v it y , t o w h o m — a p a r t f r o m t h e W e b b s — n o n a m e is
g i v e n ; a " L e f t " i s r e b u k e d , w h i c h r e m a i n s , f r o m 1 9 00 t o 1 9 6 0 , a l m o s t
f a ce le s s a n d w i t h o u t a v o i c e ; t r a d e u n i o n s a r e m o v e d a r o u n d t h e
r h e t o r i c a l b o a r d , b u t which t r ade un ions a re no t iden t i f i ed . H is to ry i s
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 28/52
338 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
fla tten ed , s t r e t c h e d , c o n d e n s e d ; a w k w a r d fa c ts a r e n o t m e n t i o n e d ;
aw kw ar d deca des (e .g . 1920 to 1940) a re s imply e l ided . A s on e p roc eed s ,
t h e P h a r i s a i s m o f t o n e b e c o m e s ( t o b o r r o w a p h r a s e ) s u f f o c a t i n g . I t i s
n o t o n l y t h a t n o o n e h a s e v e r b e e n r i g h t ; n o o n e h a s e v e r b e e n w r o n g
i n a n i n t e r e s ti n g o r r e p u t a b l e w a y . I t is " d o u b t f u l . . . if a n y o t h e r
w o r k i n g - c l a s s m o v e m e n t h a s p r o d u c e d a s m a n y ' t r a i t o r s ' . . . a s h a s
L a b o u r i s m " ; b u t t h e t h e s i s m u s t b e b a l a n c e d b y a n a n t i t h e t i c a l s n e e r
a t " t h e a n g r y d e n u n c i a t i o n o f l e a d e r s i n w h i c h s e c t a r i a n s a n d t h e
L a b o u r L ef t h a v e a l w a y s i n d u l g e d . " T h i s " L e f t , " w h i c h is n e v e r
i d e n ti f ie d , is s c o u r g e d f or it s " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m o r a l i s m , " " p a i n f u l a n d
s h a m e f u l i m p o t e n c e , " " m i n d l e s s p a s s i o n w h i c h i s o n l y t h e o b v e r s e o f
i t s i d e o l o g i c a l s u b j e c t i o n , " a n d f o r it s " t o t a l i g n o r a n c e a b o u t h o w t h e
P a r t y w o r k s a n d o u g h t t o w o r k . " L a b o u r i s m ' s " d o m i n a n t e t h o s " h a s
b e e n " t i m o r o u s c u r m u d g e o n r y a n d f u n e r a l m o r a l i s m , " " s u n k i n h o p e
l e s s l y d u s t y r o u t i n e s a n d i n d e s c r i b a b l y b o r i n g r h e t o r i c , " " i t s p r o p e r
p la ce in the Br i t i sh f irmament m idw ay be tw een the H ou se o f Lo rd s an dt h e B o y S c o u t s . "
We a l l o f us make th i s k ind o f face a t t imes , bu t we do no t mis take a
g r i m a c e f o r h i g h t h e o r y . W e m a y s e l e c t f o u r c r i t i c a l a r e a s o f w e a k n e s s
w h i c h b o t h a u t h o r s d i s p l a y . F i r s t , t h e y h a v e a n i n a b i l i t y t o c o m p r e h e n d
t h e political context of ideas and cho ices . Se con d , the re is an abs enc e
o f a n y s e r i o u s s o c i o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n t o t h e i r a n a l y s i s . T h i r d , t h e r e i s a
c r u c i a l v u l g a r i z a t i o n o f G r a m s c i ' s n o t i o n of " h e g e m o n y . " A n d f o u r t h ,
t h e y d i s p l a y n o t t h e l e a s t i n s i g h t i n t o t h e i m p a c t u p o n t h e B r i t i s h
L a b o u r m o v e m e n t o f C o m m u n i s m .
T h e f i r s t p o i n t — t h e p o l i t i c a l i n n o c e n c e o f o u r a u t h o r s — i s t h e m o s td i f f i cu l t to d i s cus s , s ince i t cou ld be pursued s a t i s fac to r i ly on ly in the
c l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r s . I t i s t h e o p a c i t y o f t h e i r a r g u m e n t
w h e n e v e r w e c o m e t o p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s w h i c h b o t h i n h i b i t s
d i s cus s ion and g ives to the i r the s i s a ce r t a in compuls ive p laus ib i l i ty .
H i s t o r y , h o w e v e r , i s m a d e u p o f e p i s o d e s , a n d if w e c a n n o t g e t i n s i d e
t h e s e w e c a n n o t g e t i n s i d e h i s t o r y a t a l l . T h i s h a s a l w a y s b e e n i n c o n
v e n i e n t t o t h e s c h e m a t i s t s , a s E n g e l s n o t e d i n 1 8 9 0 : " t h e m a t e r i a l i s t
c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s t o r y . . . h a s a l o t o f f r ie n d s n o w a d a y s t o w h o m it
serves as an excuse for not s t u d y i n g h i s t o r y " :
"Our conception of his tory is above all a guide to s tudy, not a lever forcons t ru c t ion af ter the man ner of the Hegel ians . . . . Only too m any of th e
younger Germans s imply make use of the phrase , h is tor ica l mater ia l ism. . . in order to ge t the ir ow n re la tive ly scanty his tor ica l kno w led ge . . .f i t ted together into a neat system as quickly as possible, and they then thinkthemse lves some th ing ve ry t remendous . "
i s
T h e b u r d e n o f o u r a u t h o r s ' a r g u m e n t is t h a t it is t h e t r a g e d y o f o u r
h i s t o r y t h a t M a r x i s m p a s s e d t h e B r i t i s h w o r k i n g c l a s s b y . T h i s i s
b l a m e d u p o n t h e i n s u l a r i t y a n d s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n s e r v a t i s m o f t h e B r i t i s h
t r a d e u n i o n s , a n d u p o n t h e d e f a u l t o f B r i t i s h i n t e l l e c t u a l s . A s i m p l e
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 29/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 339
o b jec t iv i t y - su b jec t iv i t y m o d e l i s em p lo y e d , i n wh ich th e t r a d e u n io n i s t s
a re seen as b l i n d , i n s t i n c t iv e praxis, a n d t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s a s t h e e m b o d i
m e n t o f a r t i c u l a t e p o l i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . S i n c e t h e M a r x i s t i n t e l l i
g e n t s i a d i d n o t a p p e a r , t h e w o r k e r s b e c a m e s u b j e c t t o a t r i b u t a r y
s t r e a m o f c a p i t a l i s t i d e o l o g y , F a b i a n i s m .
I f , h o wev er , we p l ace t h i s mo d e l i n a p a r t i cu l a r p o l i t i ca l co n tex t , i t
d o e s n o t d o so we l l . A t an y t ime b e tw een 1 8 90 an d th e p rese n t d ay we
wi l l f in d a v e ry su b s t an t i a l min o r i t y t r a d i t i o n , i n f lu en c in g ma jo r t r a d e
u n io n s , wh ich b e lo n g s t o t h e a r t i cu l a t e Lef t . We wi l l f i n d sy s t emat i c
g r a s s -r o o ts M a r x is t e d u c a t i o n — S . D . F . , N . C . L . C . , C o m m u n i s t P a r t y —
w h i c h , w h i l e n o d o u b t d o c t r i n a i r e , h a s b e e n n o m o r e d o c t r i n a i r e t h a n
t h e M a r x i s m w h i c h ( u n t i l r e c e n t ly ) h a s b e e n o f f e re d t o t h e p r o l e t a r i a t
o f O t h e r C o u n t r i e s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e a c t u a l
r e c o r d w o u l d s h o w t h a t o u r a u t h o r s h a v e g r e a t l y e x a g g e r a t e d t h e
in f lu en ce o f t h e "F a b ia n s , " an d , if we l eav e as id e t h e d i r ec t in f lu en ce o f
C o m m u n i s m , m o s t o f t h e i n t el l e c tu a l s w h o h a d a n i m p o r t a n t i n fl ue n c eu p o n t h e B r i t i s h L a b o u r M o v e m e n t b e t w e e n 1 9 2 0 a n d 1 9 45 w e r e e i t h e r
s o c i a l r e f o r m e r s w i t h i n a L i b e r a l t r a d i t i o n ( J . A . H o b s o n , B e v e r i d g e ,
B o y d O r r ) , o r marxisant i n d e p e n d e n t s ( B r a i l s f o r d , L a s k i , S t r a c h e y ,
C o l e ) , o r e t h i c a l s o c i a l i s t s ( T a w n e y , O r w e l l ) w h o s e c o n t r i b u t i o n w a s
s o m e w h a t m o r e t h a n " s e n t i m e n t a l m o r a l i z i n g . " N o t o n e o f t h e s e
l o o s e l y d e f in e d g r o u p s c o n f o r m s w i t h A n d e r s o n ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f
F a b i a n i s m — " c o m p l a c e n t c o n f u s io n o f i nf lu e n ce w i t h p o w e r , b o v i n e
a d m i r a t i o n f o r b u r e a u c r a c y , i l l - c o n c e a l e d c o n t e m p t f o r e q u a l i t y ,
b o t t o m l e s s P h i l i s t in i s m . " T h e in f lu e n ce o f t h e " t r u e " W e b b i a n F a b i a n
i sm o v er t h ese y ear s was s l i g h t , an d was l a rg e ly co n f in ed to ce r t a in
c a r e e r p o l i t i c i a n s o f L a b o u r . I t b e c a m e v a s t l y m o r e i m p o r t a n t a f t e r
1 9 4 5 ; b u t h e r e w e s h o u l d e x a m i n e t h e p o l it i c a l c o n t e x t w h i c h f a v o u r e d
t h i s t e n d e n c y , r a t h e r t h a n o t h e r t e n d e n c i e s w h i c h w e r e o n o f f e r a n d
w h i c h a p p e a r e d m o r e i n fl u e n t ia l i n 1 94 5 . W h a t o u r a u t h o r s h a v e d o n e
is t o p i c k u p a c a s u a l i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e t r a d e u n i o n c o n s e r v a t i s m a n d
the in te l lectual iner t ia o f the pas t f i f teen years , and offer i t as an in ter
p r e t a t i o n o f a h u n d r e d y e a r s o f h i s t o r y .
Th e r ea l h i s to ry wi l l o n ly d i sc lo se i t se l f a f t e r mu ch h ard r esea rch ;
i t w i l l n o t ap p ea r a t t h e sn a p o f sch em at i c fin gers . B u t if we a r e t o
b e g i n t o c o m p r e h e n d t h e B r i ti s h L e f t si n c e 1 8 80 w e m u s t t a k e v e ry m u c h
m o r e s e r i o u s l y t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d i m p e r i a l i s t c o n t e x t . O n e o f t h e
" g r a n d f a c t s " o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w h i c h t h e o r t h o d o x M a r x i s t
m o d e l fin ds i t d if fi cul t t o ac co m m o d at e is t h e r es u rg e n t n a t io n a l i sm o f
t h e i m p e r i a l i s t c l i m a x . T h i s f o u l p o l i t i c o - c u l t u r a l c l i m a t e , d e e p l y c o n
t a m i n a t i n g t h e m a s s e s i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n c o u n t r i e s , h a s p r e s e n t e d q u i t e
e x c e p t i o n a l p r o b l e m s t o t h e L e f t . I t i s s h e e r m o o n s h i n e t o p r e s e n t t h e
l as t e ig h ty y ear s i n a way wh ich su g g es t s t h a t t h e Lef t h as b een o f fe red ,
t h r o u g h o u t t h a t t i m e , t h e c l e a r a l t e r n a t i v e s o f d e v e l o p i n g a " h e g e
m o n i c " s t r a t e g y , a i m e d a t t h e c o n q u e s t o f c l a s s p o w e r , o r o f c a p i t u l a t i o n
t o c a p i t a l i s t f o r m s . T h e r e h a v e b e e n f l e e t i n g m o m e n t s — t h e e a r l y 1 8 9 0 s ,
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 30/52
340 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
1911-14 , 1945-47—when , in rea l po l i t i c a l t e rms , a v igorous soc ia l i s t
s t r a t e g y w a s p r a c t i c a b l e . T h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e 1 8 9 0 s c r a s h e d i n t o t h e
Bo er W a r ; the synd ic a l i s t su rge o f 1911-14 w as smo the red in the f i rs t
g rea t wa r ; wh i l e the po ten t i a l i t i e s o f 1945-47 were abo l i shed by the
C o l d W a r . I t w a s t h e n i g h t of M a f e k i n g , i n w h i c h t h e m o s t s a c r e d c l a ss
d i s t in c t ion s d i s so lved in na t io na l i s t hys te r i a , wh ich s igna l l ed the en t ryin to th i s t e r r ib le epoch . In the ac t ion o f the docke rs on the Vic to r i a and
Albe r t docks , who th rea tened to re fuse to s e rv ice a l l sh ips which were
n o t d e c o r a t e d i n h o n o u r o f M a f e k i n g ' s r e l ie f — t h o s e s a m e d o c k e r s u p o n
w h o s e s u p p o r t T o m M a n n h a d s o u g h t t o f o u n d a p r o l e t a r i a n i n t e r
n a t i o n a l i s m — w e c a n a l r e ad y se e t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g d e fe a ts a h e a d .4 6
T h e r e a f t e r t h e c o m m o n e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e B r i t i sh L e ft h a s b e e n t o
f ind i t s e l f in a con tex t which a f fo rded ve ry l i t t l e oppor tun i ty fo r
s t r a t e g i c a d v a n c e , b u t w h i c h a t t h e s a m e t i m e i m p o s e d e x c e p t i o n a l
d u t i e s o f s o l i d a r i t y w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e s . T h e " o p p o s i t i o n a l " m e n t a l i t y
o f the Br i t i sh Le f t i s ce r t a in ly a l imi t ing ou t look ; bu t i t ha s g rown ups i m p l y b e c a u s e o u r L e f t h a s h a d s o b l o o d y m u c h t o oppose. A n y o n e
w h o h a s m o r e t h a n a b o o k i s h k n o w l e d g e o f t h e L e f t k n o w s t h i s t o b e
s o .
T h i s L e ft , b o t h w o r k i n g - c l a s s a n d i n t e l l e c tu a l , w i t h i ts c r u d e a n d n o
d o u b t " m o r a l i s t i c " r e f u s a l t o c o m p r o m i s e w i t h i m p e r i a l i s m , d o e s n o t
a p p e a r i n t h e N a i r n - A n d e r s o n c a n o n . I n d e e d , a t p o i n t s t h e r e c o r d i s
p la in ly fa l s i f i ed :
"Al l pol i t ica l groups—Conserva t ives , Libera ls , and Fabians—weremil i tant ly imperia lis t in a i m s . . . . The nascent soc ia l is t mov emen t shared in
the gene ra l j ingo ism, Web b , Hyn dm an , and B la tch fo rd—F abian , 'Marx i s t 'and ILP-supporter—respect ive ly the most inf luent ia l , the most' advanced ' and the most popular spokesmen of the Lef t , were a l l in the i rdi ffe rent ways vocal im per ia l is t s .""
Th i s i s to cu t h i s to ry to f i t a mode l w i th a vengeance . Ande rson can do
t h i s o n l y b y i g n o r i n g t h e a c u t e t e n s i o n s w i t h i n L i b e r a l i s m ( t h e I r i s h
c o n f li c t, L l o y d G e o r g e e m e r g i n g a s " p r o - B o e r , " e t c . ) ; b y c o n f u s i n g t h e
s o c i a l i s t t r a d i t i o n w i t h t h e s m a l l e l i t i s t F a b i a n g r o u p ;4 8
a n d b y t r i m
m i n g hi s e x a m p l e s — W i l li a m M o r r i s , T o m M a n n a n d K e i r H a r d i e
w ou ld ha ve o f fered a d i f fe ren t in t e r p r e ta t io n . (S imi la r ly , N a i rn o f fe rs
T i l l e t t ' s n o t o r i o u s o u t b u r s t o f c h a u v i n i s m a t t h e f i r s t a n n u a l c o n f e r e n c e
o f t h e I . L . P . a s i f i t w e r e t h e a u t h e n t i c I . L . P . a r t i c l e ; h e d o e s n o t m e n
t i o n t h a t T i l l e t t w a s i m m e d i a t e l y r e b u k e d .4 9
) I t i s ce r t a in ly t rue t ha t
i m p e r i a l i s m p e n e t r a t e d d e e p l y i n t o t h e l a b o u r m o v e m e n t a n d e v e n i n t o
t h e s o c i al i s t g r o u p s ; th i s is t h e t r a g e d y o f E u r o p e a n s o c i a li s m i n t h i s
c e n t u r y . B u t a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e v e r y e x a m p l e s w h i c h A n d e r s o n
c i t e s — t h e s u s p i c i o n w i t h w h i c h t h e s u p p r e s s e d j i n g o i s m o f H y n d m a n
a n d B l a t c h f o r d w a s r e g a r d e d b y a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t o f t h e i r o w n f o l
lowing , and the rap id i ty wi th which they los t th i s fo l lowing when i t
b e c a m e f u l l y e x p o s e d — w o u l d r e v e a l a v e r y m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x p i c t u r e .
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 31/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 341
T h e Br i t i sh Lef t, i n t h e p as t e ig h ty y ea r s , h a s n ev er b ee n o f fe red
a b s t r a c t t h e o r e t i c a l c h o i c e s , b u t h a s b e e n i m m e r s e d i n i n e l u c t a b l e
p o l i ti c a l c o n t e x t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n i m p e r i a l i s t p o w e r .
I f w e g l a n c e a c r o s s t h e p a s t fifty years a t t h o s e i s s u e s a r o u n d w h i c h t h e
L e f t - R i g h t c o n f li c t w a s m o s t s h a r p l y e n g a g e d , w e w i l l f in d t h a t m o s t o f
t h e m a r i s e f r o m t h i s c o n t e x t : o p p o s i t i o n t o w a r , t h e r e s p o n s e t o t h e
R u s s i a n R e v o l u t i o n , t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f I n d i a , t h e r i se o f F a s c i s m ,
t h e S p a n i s h W a r , t h e S e c o n d F r o n t , t h e C o l d W a r , G e r m a n R e a r m a
m e n t , t h e K e n y a a n d C y p r u s w a r s , t h e C a m p a i g n f o r N u c l e a r D i s
a r m a m e n t . A n d t h i s i s t h e r e c u r r e n t l if e -c y c le o f a L ef t u p o n w h i c h o u r
a u t h o r s n e v e r c e a s e t o h e a p s c o r n f o r i t s i n s u l a r i t y ; t h e p a r i s h w i t h i n
w h ic h th ey su p p o se t h e Br i t i sh Lef t t o h av e b e en co n f in ed i s i n r ea l i t y
t h a t o f t h e i r o w n im p e r f e c t h i s to r i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I n c r e a s i n g l y
c o m p r o m i s e d b y , a s w e l l a s c o n f u s e d b y , it s r e s p o n s e s t o C o m m u n i s m ,
i t i s a t r a d i t i o n w h i c h h a s l o s t m u c h o f i ts c o h e r e n c e a n d s e l f -c o n f i d e n c e
s i n c e t h e l a s t w a r . N e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s s ti ll t h e r e ; a n d t h e t e m p o r a r yt r i u m p h o f C . N . D . a t L a b o u r ' s A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e in 19 60 a p p e a r s
n o t ( a s N a i r n h a s i t ) a s a " m i r a c l e " b u t a s t h e a u t h e n t i c e x p r e s s i o n o f a
t r a d i t i o n , d e e p l y r o o t e d , n o t o n l y i n a n i n t e l li g e n t s i a b u t i n t h e t r a d e
u n i o n s a n d c o n s t i t u e n c y p a r t i e s .
T r i u m p h s , o f c o u r s e , h a v e b e e n r a r e . T h e y h a v e b e e n , i n a n y fin al
f o r m , r a r e a l s o i n O t h e r C o u n t r i e s . B u t o n l y t h e p l a t o n i s t s u p p o s e s t h a t
p o l i t i c s is a n a r e n a i n w h i c h t h e e n l i g h t e n e d c a n p u r s u e , in a s i n g l e -
m i n d e d w a y , o n l y i d e o l o g i c a l e n d s , s u c h a s " t h e c o n q u e s t o f c l a ss
p o w e r . " T h e y a r e t h o s e w h o a r e l i v i n g t o d a y w h o a r e o p p r e s s e d a n d
w h o a r e s u f fe r i ng , a n d p o l i t i c s is a b o u t t h e m a s m u c h a s a b o u t t h e f u t u r e .A p o l i ti c s w h i c h i g n o r e s i m m e d i a t e s o l i d a r i t i e s w i l l b e c o m e p e c u l i a r l y
t h e o r e t i c , r u t h l e s s , a n d s e l f - d e f e a t in g . T h e r e i s e v e n a s e n s e ( b u t n o t a
F a b i a n s e n se ) i n w h i c h in a m e t r o p o l i t a n i m p e r i a l i s t c o u n t r y e v e n t h e
p o l i t i c s o f t h e L e f t m u s t b e , o n o c c a s i o n , t h a t d a m n a b l e a r t o f t h e
p o s s i b l e . H a v e o u r a u t h o r s r e a l l y b e g u n t o c o m p r e h e n d t h e s c a l e o f
h u m a n s u f f e r i n g i n t h i s c e n t u r y , a n d h o w many b u r n i n g p a r t i c u l a r
i s su e s o u r L e f t h a s h a d t h r u s t u p o n i t w h e r e t h e o b l i g a t i o n s o f s o l i d a r i t y
l e f t n o c h o i c e — n o w t h e M e e r u t p r i s o n e r s , n o w M u n i c h , n o w S u e z ;
n o w I b a d a n , n o w R h o d e s i a ; n o w A b y s s i n i a , n o w K e n y a ; n o w S p a i n
a n d n o w V i e t - N a m .T h e o v e r t h r o w o f i m p e r i a l i s m h a s g e n e r a l l y b e e n , n o t t h e first i t e m
o n t h e a g e n d a , b u t a l i tt le l o w e r d o w n — a m o n g t h e o t h e r b u s i n e s s —
w h e n w e h a v e t r i e d t o s a v e t h e s e l i v e s , o r , p e r h a p s , a v e r t t h e a n n i h i l a
t i o n o f a l l h i s t o r i c a l a g e n d a s . M e a n w h i l e i t h a s b e e n p o s s i b l e t o p r o t e s t ,
t o a l e r t p u b l i c o p i n i o n , t o m o b i l i z e p r e s s u r e - g r o u p s i n o r d e r t o m i t i g a t e
t h e r i g o u r o f i m p e r i a l i s t r u l e , o r t o e x p r e s s s o l i d a r i t y w i t h O t h e r
C o u n t r i e s . B r i t is h d e m o c r a t i c s t r u c t u r e s , w i t h t h e i r i n n u m e r a b l e
d e f e n c e s a g a i n s t a n y u l t i m a t e c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f c l a s s f o r c e s , h a v e n e v e r
t h e l e s s e x c e p t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r r e g i s t e r i n g p a r t i a l , o p p o s i t i o n a l
p r e s s u r e s . N a i r n te l ls u s t h a t th e L e ft a n d R i g h t i n t h e L a b o u r P a r t y
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 32/52
342 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R . 1 9 6 5
h av e b een en g ag ed , fo r ab o u t s ix ty y ear s , i n p seu d o -co n f l i c t ; b u t h e
sca rce ly ev er b o th er s t o t e l l u s wh a t t h i s co n f l i c t was about. W h o s e
b lo o d wa s i t , t h en , t h a t flo wed b en ea th t h o se b r id g es wh ich h av e ca r r i e d
h i s t o r y t o t h e p r e s e n t d a y ? W e a r e in n o p o s i t i o n t o p a s s j u d g m e n t u p o n
i t s fa i lu res un less we can assess whether o r no t the Lef t d id succeed in
in f lu en c in g ev en t s i n t h i s ac tu a l s i t u a t i o n o r t h a t . I f i t co u ld b e sh o wnth a t t h e Lef t h ad co n t r ib u t ed e f f ec t i v e ly t o t h e d e fea t o f Naz i sm, o r t o
t h e d e t a c h m e n t o f I n d i a f ro m i m p e r i a l r u l e w i t h o u t a n I n d o - C h i n e s e
o r A l g e r i a n b l o o d - b a t h , t h e n m i g h t w e p e r s u a d e N a i r n t o r e s t r a i n f o r
a m o m e n t h i s g e s t u r e s o f d i s g u s t ? I t w o u l d , o f c o u r s e , h a v e b e e n b e t t e r
i f t h e Left h ad se ized S t a t e p o w er ; ev ery sec t a r i a n t y r o k n o w s th a t .
So l e t u s l o o k a t h i s to ry as h i s t o r y — m e n p l a c e d i n a c t u a l c o n t e x t s
w h i c h t h e y h a v e n o t c h o s e n , a n d c o n f r o n t e d b y i n d i v e r t i b l e f o r c e s , w i t h
a n o v e r w h e l m i n g i m m e d i a c y o f r e l a t i o n s a n d d u t i e s a n d w i t h o n l y a
s c a n t y o p p o r t u n i t y f o r i n s e r t i n g t h e i r o w n a g e n c y — a n d n o t a s a t e x t f o r
h e c t o r i n g m i g h t - h a v e - b e e n s . A n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f B r i t i s h L a b o u r i s mw h ich a t t r i b u t es a l l t o Fab ian i sm an d in t e l l ec tu a l d e fau l t is a s v a lu e l ess
as an acc o u n t o f Ru ss i a b e tw een 1 9 24 an d 1 9 53 wh ich a t t r i b u t e s al l t o
th e v i ces o f Marx i sm, o r o f S t a l i n himself. A n d o n e t h i n g w h i c h i t
l a c k s ( o u r s e c o n d p o i n t ) is a n y s o c i o l o g ic a l d i m e n s i o n .
T h i s c a n b e s e e n i n o u r a u t h o r s ' s c h e m a t i c h a n d l i n g o f t h e c o n c e p t
o f class. I n t h e i r e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y i n t e l l e c t u a l i z e d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y ,
c l a s s is c l o t h e d t h r o u g h o u t in a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c i m a g e r y . C l a s s es h a v e
t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y , w i t h v o l i t i o n , c o n s c i o u s g o a l s , a n d
m o r a l q u a l i t i e s . Ev e n w h e n o v er t co n fl ic t is q u i esc en t we a re t o su p p o se
a c la s s w i t h a n u n b r o k e n i d e a l i d e n t it y , w h i c h i s s l u m b e r i n g o r h a s
in s t i n c t s an d th e r es t .
T h i s i s i n p a r t a m a t t e r o f m e t a p h o r ; a n d — a s w e se e i n t h e h a n d s o f
M a r x — i t s o m e t i m e s o f f e r s a s u p e r b l y s w i f t c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f s o m e
h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n . B u t o n e m u s t n e v e r f o r g e t t h a t i t r e m a i n s a m e t a
p h o r i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f a m o r e c o m p l e x p r o c e s s , w h i c h h a p p e n s without
v o l i t i o n o r i d e n t i t y . I f t h e m e t a p h o r , i n t h e h a n d s o f M a r x , s o m e t i m e s
m i s l e a d s , i n t h e h a n d s o f A n d e r s o n a n d N a i r n i t b e c o m e s a s u b s t i t u t e
f o r h i s t o r y . " I t " — t h e b o u r g e o i s i e o r w o r k i n g c la s s — i s s u p p o s e d t o
remain t h e same u n d iv id ed p e r so n a l i t y , a lb e i t a t d i f f e ren t s t ag es o f
m a t u r i t y , t h r o u g h o u t w h o l e e p o c h s ; a n d t h e f a c t t h a t w e a r e d i s c u s s i n g
d i ff e re n t p e o p l e , w i t h c h a n g i n g t r a d i t i o n s , i n c h a n g i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p sb o t h a s b e t w e e n e a c h o t h e r a n d a s b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s o c i a l
g r o u p s , b e c o m e s f o r g o t t e n .
A n e x a m p l e m a y b e t a k e n f r o m t h e i r h a n d l i n g o f t h e d e c l i n e o f
C h a r t i s m . C h a r t i s m ( A n d e r s o n f in ds) w a s " w r e c k e d b y i ts p i t if u ll y
w e a k l e a d e r s h i p a n d s t r a t e g y " ; t h e w o r k i n g c la s s t h e n s uf fe re d
" e x t r e m e e x h a u s t i o n , " a n d w i t h t h e d e c l in e o f C h a r t i s m " d i s a p p e a r e d
f o r t h i r t y y e a r s t h e e l a n a n d c o m b a t i v i t y o f t h e c la s s . A p r o f o u n d
c a es u ra i n E n g l i s h w o r k i n g - c l a s s h i s t o r y s u p e r v e n e d . " " H e n c e f o r w a r d
i t e v o l v e d , s e p a r a t e b u t s u b o r d i n a t e , w i t h i n t h e a p p a r e n t l y u n s h a k e a b l e
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 33/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 343
s t r u c t u r e o f B r i t i s h c a p i t a l i s m . "5 0
A s a d e s c r i p t i o n t h i s is p a r t l y t r u e .
T h e e n d o f C h a r t i s m m a r k s a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t t u r n i n g - p o i n t i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f w o r k i n g - c l a s s a g i t a t i o n — a t u r n i n g - p o i n t w h i c h c a n b e
f o u n d ( u s u a l l y l a t e r , a n d n o t a l w a y s i n s o d e c i s i v e a f o r m ) i n t h e
h i s t o r y o f o t h e r a d v a n c e d i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s m s . B u t if A n d e r s o n h a d
t a k e n s o m e a c c o u n t o f o u r " n e r v e l e s s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y " h e w o u l d h a v ef o u n d t h a t t h e t u r n c a n a l r e a d y b e d e t e c t e d s o m e y e a r s b e f o r e 1 8 4 8 ,
a n d t h a t w h a t w a s g o i n g o n is a f a r - r e a c h i n g c h a n g e w i t h i n t h e w o r k i n g
c la s s itself.51 A p a r t o f t h i s c h a n g e , i n s o c i o l o g i c a l t e r m s , w a s t h e
p u l l i n g - a p a r t o f d i f fe r e n t o c c u p a t i o n a l g r o u p s , n e w e r a n d o l d e r , s k i ll e d
a n d u n s k i l l e d , o r g a n i z e d a n d u n o r g a n i z e d , m e t r o p o l i t a n a n d p r o v i n c i a l ,
w h i c h h a d b e e n m o m e n t a r i l y u n i t e d i n t h e g r e a t a g i t a t i o n s le a d i n g u p
t o t h e C h a r t i s t c l i m a x i n 1 8 3 9 .
T h e c h a n g e c a n b e r e g i s te r e d in v a r i o u s w a y s — t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e
" n o p o l i t i c s " r u l e i n t o c e r t a i n t r a d e u n i o n s ( e . g . M i n e r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n ,
1 8 42 ) is o n e , t h e n e w m o d e l c o n s u m e r s ' c o - o p e r a t i v e m o v e m e n t( R o c h d a l e , 1 8 44 ) is a n o t h e r . W h a t o n e o b s e r v e s is t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e
e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y d e e p so c i o l o g i c a l r o o t s o f r e f o r m i s m . W h a t i m p r e s s e d
o n e s h r e w d o b s e r v e r , w h e n v i s i t i n g L a n c a s h i r e i n t h e d e p t h s o f t h e
d e p r e s s i o n o f 1 84 2 , w a s n o t th e i m p e r m a n e n c e o f t h e " f a c t o r y s y s t e m "
b u t i t s d u r a b i l i t y :
"Suffering here has no t loosened th e ban ds of confidence; m i l l ions ofproper ty remain a t the mercy of a rus ty na i l or the ashes of a tobacco-pipe ,and yet no one feels alarm for the safety of his s tock or machinery, thoughin case of an operative Jacquerie they could not be defended by all the
mil i ta ry force of England."
O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e d i s t r e s s " h a s b r o u g h t t h e m a s t e r s a n d t h e m e n
c l o s e r t o g e t h e r , a n d e x h i b i t e d d e m o n s t r a t i v e l y t h e i r m u t u a l i t y o f
i n t e r e s t s . " T h e w o r k e r s h a d c o m e t o f e a r, a b o v e a l l, n o t t h e m a c h i n e
b u t t h e loss o f t h e m a c h i n e — t h e l o ss o f e m p l o y m e n t .5 2
T h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e " f a c t o r y s y s t e m " e n t a i l e d f u r t h e r
a d j u s t m e n t s . A " p r o f o u n d c a e s u r a " e x i s t s, n o t i n t h e h i s t o r y b u t in
A n d e r s o n ' s a n a l y s i s ; o r , r a t h e r , i n t h e k i n d o f h i s t o r y o f w h i c h h e
a p p r o v e s . F o r t h e w o r k e r s , h a v i n g fa il ed t o o v e r t h r o w c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e ty ,
p r o c e e d e d t o w a r r e n i t f r o m e n d t o e n d . T h i s " c a e s u r a " is e x a c t l y t h ep e r i o d i n w h i c h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c cl a s s i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e L a b o u r
M o v e m e n t w e r e b u i l t u p — t r a d e u n i o n s , t r a d e s c o u n c i ls , T . U . C . ,
c o - o p s , a n d t h e r e s t — w h i c h h a v e e n d u r e d t o t h i s d a y . I t w a s p a r t o f t h e
l o g i c o f t h i s n e w d i r e c t i o n t h a t e a c h a d v a n c e w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f
c a p i t a l i s m s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n v o l v e d t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s f a r m o r e d e e p l y
i n t h e status quo. A s t h e y i m p r o v e d t h e i r p o s i t i o n b y o r g a n i z a t i o n
w i t h i n t h e w o r k s h o p , s o t h e y b e c a m e m o r e r e l u c t a n t t o e n g a g e i n
q u i x o t i c o u t b r e a k s w h i c h m i g h t j e o p a r d i z e g a i n s a c c u m u l a t e d a t s u c h
c o s t . E a c h a s s e r t i o n o f w o r k i n g - c l a s s in f l u e n c e w i t h i n t h e b o u r g e o i s -
d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e m a c h i n e r y , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n v o l v e d t h e m a s p a r t n e r s
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 34/52
344 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
( e v e n i f a n t a g o n i s t i c p a r t n e r s ) i n t h e r u n n i n g o f t h e m a c h i n e . E v e n t h e
i n d i c e s o f w o r k i n g - c l a s s s t r e n g t h — t h e f i n a n c i a l r e s e r v e s o f t r a d e u n i o n s
a n d c o - o p s — w e r e s e c u r e o n l y w i t h i n t h e c u s t o d i a n s h i p o f c a p i t a l i s t
s t a b i l i t y .5 3
O n e c a n n o t r e h e a r s e t h e w h o l e s t o r y . T h i s i s t h e d i r e c t i o n t h a t w a s
t a k e n , a n d , b e n e a t h a l l d i ff e re n c es i n i d e o l o g i c a l e x p r e s s io n , m u c h t h es a m e k i n d o f i m b r i c a t i o n o f w o r k i n g - c l a s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s in t h e status
quo w i l l b e f o u n d i n a l l a d v a n c e d c a p i t a l i s t n a t i o n s . W e n e e d n o t n e c e s
sa r i ly ag ree wi th Wrigh t Mi l l s tha t th i s ind ica te s tha t the work ing c la s s
c a n b e a r e v o l u t i o n a r y c l a s s o n l y i n i t s f o r m a t i v e y e a r s ;5 4
b u t w e m u s t ,
I t h i n k , r e c o g n i z e t h a t o n c e a c e r t a i n c l i m a c t i c m o m e n t i s p a s s e d , t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a c e r t a i n kind o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t p a s s e s
i r r e v o c a b l y — n o t so m u c h b e c a u s e o f " e x h a u s t i o n " b u t b e c a u s e m o r e
l i m i t e d , r e f o r m i s t p r e s s u r e s , f r o m s e c u r e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b a s e s , b r i n g
e v i d e n t r e t u r n s . F a r t o o o f t e n i n h i s a c c o u n t o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y
d e v e l o p m e n t s , N a i r n , in h i s a t t e n t i o n t o p a r l i a m e n t a r y e p i p h e n o m e n a ,m i s t a k e s t h e se f o r t h e r e a l m o v e m e n t , a n d u n d e r e s t i m a t e s b o t h t h e
i n t e n s i t y o f a c t u a l c o n f l i c t s o n t h e g r o u n d , a n d t h e t r u l y a s t r o n o m i c
s u m o f h u m a n c a p i t a l w h i c h h a s b e e n i n v e s t e d i n t h e s t r a t e g y o f p i e c e
m ea l re fo rm . I t i s th i s soc io log ica l an d ins t i tu t io na l bas i s o f re fo rm ism
w h i c h h a s m a d e it s o s e c u r e , a n d n o a m o u n t o f d e n u n c i a t i o n — b y
H y n d m a n o f i ts " p a l l i a t i v e s " o r b y N a i r n o f i ts " c o r p o r a t i v e i d e o l o g y "
—wi l l t roub le i t a t a l l .
F r o m t h e s e s o c i o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o en v i s a g e t h r e e
k inds o f soc ia l i s t t r ans i t ion , none o f which have in fac t eve r been
s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d t h r o u g h . F i r s t , t h e s y n d i c a l i s t r e v o l u t i o n i n w h i c ht h e c l a s s i n s t i t u t i o n s d i s p l a c e t h e e x i s t i n g S t a t e m a c h i n e ; I s u s p e c t t h a t
t h e m o m e n t f or s u c h a r e v o l u t i o n , if i t w a s e v e r p r a c t i c a b l e , h a s n o w
p a s s e d i n t h e W e s t . S e c o n d , t h r o u g h a m o r e o r l es s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
po l i t i c a l pa r ty , ba sed on the c l a s s ins t i tu t ions , w i th a ve ry c l ea r ly
a r t i c u l a t e d s o c i a l i st s t r a t e g y , w h o s e c u m u l a t i v e r e f o r m s b r i n g t h e
c o u n t r y t o a c r i t i c a l p o i n t o f c l a s s e q u i l i b r i u m , f r o m w h i c h a r a p i d
r e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a n s i t i o n is p r e s s ed t h r o u g h . T h i r d , t h r o u g h f u r t h e r f a r-
r e a c h i n g c h a n g e s i n t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e g r o u p s m a k i n g
u p the h i s to r i ca l c l a s s , wh ich en ta i l t he b r ea k- up o f the o ld c l a s s
i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d v a l u e - s y s t e m , a n d t h e c r e a t i o n o f n e w o n e s .
I t i s the s econ d pos s ib i l i ty wh ich has been mo s t gene ra l ly deba ted in
t h e B r i t i s h L e f t , a l t h o u g h , i n m y v i e w , t h e t h i r d — o r s o m e m i x t u r e o f
t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d — s h o u l d s t i l l b e k e p t i n m i n d . I t i s a b u n d a n t l y
e v i d e n t t h a t w o r k i n g p e o p l e h a v e , w i t h i n c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e ty , t h r o w n u p
p o s i t i o n s o f " c o u n t e r v a i l i n g p o w e r . " O f course, " the f ina l ba lance o f
f o r c e s , " t h e " p e r m a n e n t n e t s u p e r io r i t y o f t h e h e g e m o n i c c l a s s , " i s n o t
i n d i s p u t e .5 5
O f course, a t a sk o f the Le f t ha s long been to fo rm wha t
N a i r n d e s c r i b e s a s " a n i d e o l o g i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l s y n t h e s i s u n i t i n g t h e
i m m e d i a c y o f r e f o r m s w i t h t h e r e m o t e r i d e a l o f a s o c i a l is t s o c i e t y . "5 6
Th is i s exac t ly the pe rspec t iv e w hic h the fo rm er N ew Lef t s e t itself,
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 35/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 345
a l t h o u g h w e t e r m e d i t, s o m e w h a t m o r e s u c c in c t ly , " r e f o r m i s t t a c t ic s
w i t h i n a r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t r a t e g y . " B u t in a n y c a se , w h i c h e v e r m e t h o d o f
ana ly s i s i s pu rsu ed , a go od dea l o f th i s is on ly wa rm a i r ; we have s t a t e d
a p r o b l e m , b u t a r e n o n e a r e r i ts s o l u t i o n . T h e r e a l w o r k o f a n a l y s i s
r e m a i n s ; t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f c h a n g i n g g r o u p s w i t h i n t h e w a g e -e a r n i n g a n d s a l a r ie d s t r a t a ; th e p o i n t s o f p o t e n t i a l a n t a g o n i s m a n d
a l l i a n c e ; t h e e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s , t h e c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s , t h e p o l i t i c a l
a n a l y s i s , n o t o n l y of f o r m s o f S t a t e p o w e r b u t a l s o o f t h e b u r e a u c r a c i e s
o f t h e L a b o u r m o v e m e n t .
A n e x a m p l e o f o u r a u t h o r s ' s c h e m a t i z i n g w i l l b e f o u n d i n t h e a d o p
t i o n o f G r a m s c i ' s n o t i o n o f " h e g e m o n y . " " H e g e m o n y , " A n d e r s o n t e l l s
u s
"w as def ined by Gram sci as the dom inanc e of one soc ial b loc over ano ther ,not s imply by means of force or wealth, but by a total social authority
whose ul t imate sanct ion and express ion is a profound cul tura l supremacy.. . . Th e hegemon ic class i s the pr im ary de term inant of consc iousness ,charac ter and cus toms throughout the soc ie ty .
T o t h i s A n d e r s o n a d d s t h e a n t i t h e s i s o f a " c o r p o r a t e c l a s s . " T h e
E n g l i s h p r o l e t a r i a t e m e r g e d i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a s a c l a s s " d i s
t i n g u i s h e d b y an immovable corporate class-consciousness and almost
no hegemonic ideology''':
"T his parad ox is the mo st imp orta nt s ingle fact abo ut the Engl ishworking class . If a hegemonic class can be defined as one which imposes
its own ends and its own vision on society as a whole, a corporate class is
conversely one which pursues its own ends within a social totality who seglobal determina tion lies outside it.
The shor t answer to th i s i s tha t , by th i s de f in i t ion , on ly a ru l ing-c la s s ca n
b e a h e g e m o n i c c l a s s , a n d , b y t h e s a m e d e f i n i t i o n , a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a s s
must b e " c o r p o r a t e . " B u t A n d e r s o n t r a n s l a t e s t h i s t o t h e g r o u n d o f
i d e o l o g i c a l a s p i r a t i o n :
"A hegemonic class seeks to transform society in i ts own image, inventingafresh i ts economic system, i ts poli t ical insti tutions, i ts cultural values, i ts
whole 'mo de of inser t ion ' in to the world . A corpo ra te c lass seeks to defend
and improve i t s own pos i t ion wi thin a soc ia l order accepted as g iven.""
F r o m t h i s p o i n t f o r w a r d s i t is p o s s i b l e f o r A n d e r s o n a n d N a i r n t o
e m p l o y t h e s e t e r m s , " h e g e m o n i c " a n d " c o r p o r a t e , " in exactly t h e s a m e
w a y a s s o c i a l i s t s h a v e c u s t o m a r i l y e m p l o y e d t h e t e r m s " r e v o l u t i o n a r y "
a n d " r e f o r m i s t . " W e d o n o t h a v e a n e w t o o l o f a n a l y s i s h e r e b u t a
s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f t h e o l d .5 8
T h e n e w t e r m s m i g h t b e a n i m p r o v e m e n t u p o n t h e o l d ; o r i t m a y n o t
m a t t e r . B u t i t w o u l d b e u n f o r t u n a t e if t h i s m a n - h a n d l i n g o f t h e c o n c e p t
w e r e t o d i s t r a c t a t t e n t i o n f r o m G r a m s c i ' s d e e p l y c u l t u r e d a n d o r i g i n a l
(if f r eq u e n tl y a m b i g u o u s ) i n s i g h t s . G r a m s c i w r o t e , n o t a b o u t h e g e m o n i c
c l a s se s b u t t h e h e g e m o n y o f a c l a s s — " t h e h e g e m o n y o f a s o c i a l g r o u p
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 36/52
3 4 6 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
o v e r t h e e n t i r e n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y e x e r c i s e d t h r o u g h s o - c a l l e d p r i v a t e
o r g a n i z a t i o n s , s u c h a s t h e C h u r c h , t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s , t h e s c h o o l s , e t c . "
I n t h e w o r d s o f a s e n s i t i v e e x p o s i t o r :
"By 'hegemony ' Gramsci seems to mean a soc io-pol i t ica l s i tua t ion, in
his te rminology a 'moment , ' in which the phi losophy and prac t ice of asociety fuse or are in equil ibrium; an order in which a certain way of l ifeand thought is dominant, in which one concept of reali ty is diffusedthroughout society in all i ts insti tutional and private manifestations,informing with i ts spiri t a l l taste , morali ty, customs, religious and poli t ical
principles , and all social relations, part icularly in their intellectual andmora l connota t ion. An e lement of d i rec t ion and control , not necessar i lyconsc ious , i s impl ied . This hegemony corresponds to a s ta te power conceived in s tock Marxist terms as the dictatorship of a class ."
5 9
G r a m s c i w a s b r e a k i n g o u t o f t h e s c h e m a t i c m o d e l t o w h i c h L e n i n h a d
r e d u c e d t h e t h e o r y o f t h e S t a t e i n State and Revolution, a n d r e s t o r i n g t o
i t a fa r g rea te r f l ex ib i l i ty and cu l tu ra l r e sonance . C la s s power migh t
now be s een , no t mere ly a s s ca rce ly d i sgu i sed d ic ta to rsh ip bu t in fa r
m o r e s u b t l e , p e r v a s i v e , a n d t h e r e f o r e c o m p u l s i v e , f o r m s .
I c a n n o t s a y w h e t h e r G r a m s c i ' s c o n c e p t s fu ll y s u r m o u n t t h e d iff i
c u l t i es i n h e r e n t i n t h e M a r x i s t m o d e l o f c l a ss p o w e r . B u t t h e y c e r t a i n l y
c o n t a i n n o w a r r a n t f o r t h e i r e m p l o y m e n t i n t h e m a n n e r o f A n d e r s o n
a n d N a i r n : a state of hegemony c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d t o a n a d j e c ti v a l
p r o p e n s i t y a t t a c h e d t o a c l a s s . T h e a n t i t h e s i s t o t h e h e g e m o n y o f a
c la s s wou ld appea r to be , no t the co rpora tenes s o f a c l a s s bu t a s t a t e o f
n a k e d d i c t a t o r s h i p b y a c l a s s w h i c h d o e s n o t h a v e t h e c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s
a n d t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l m a t u r i t y , t o h o l d p o w e r i n a n y o t h e r w a y ( i . e . w h a tG r a m s c i t e r m e d th e " S t a t e - a s - f o r c e " o r " s t a t o l a t r y , " a c o n d i t i o n w h i c h
h e i m p l i e d f o ll o w e d u p o n t h e R u s s i a n R e v o l u t i o n ) . S tr i c tl y , t h e c o n c e p t
can on ly be re l a t ed to th a t o f S ta te po we r , an d is ina pp l i cab le to a
s u b o r d i n a t e cl a s s w h i c h b y t h e n a t u r e of i ts s i t u a t i o n c a n n o t d o m i n a t e
the e thos o f a soc ie ty . The re may be a s ense in which a subord ina te c l a s s
c o u l d prepare f o r h e g e m o n y , c o u l d r e a c h o u t w a r d s t o w a r d s i t , b y
exe r t ing inc reas ing in f luence in the in te l l ec tua l and mora l l i f e o f the
n a t i o n , w i t h i n i t s e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h r o u g h i t s c o n t r o l o f o r g a n s
o f l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t , e t c . ; b u t c l e ar l y th i s is m o s t l i k el y t o b e a t t e m p t e d
t h r o u g h t h e m e d i a t i o n o f a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y ( s u c h a s t h e P . C . I . ) s u b s t i t u t
i n g /o r a c l a s s , an d a t on ce we en te r in to a ve ry d if fe ren t con te x t f rom
t h e k i n d o f a s s u r e d c l as s d o m i n a n c e s u g g e s t e d b y egemonia. T h e m o s t
tha t we a re en t i t l ed to s ay i s th a t a su bo rd in a te c l a s s m ay d i sp lay an
e m b r y o n i c h e g e m o n y , o r a h e g e m o n y w i t h i n l i m i t e d a r e a s o f s o c i a l l i f e .
T he dan ge r inhe r en t in acc ep t ing the new te rm s i s th a t we a re l ed to
s u p p o s e t h a t s o m e r a d i c a l l y n e w e x p l a n a t i o n h a s b e e n o f f e r e d , w h e r e a s
these a re s imply new ways o f desc r ib ing a long fami l i a r s e t o f fac t s .
A n d t h e n e w a c c o u n t f a i l s t o g i v e a d e q u a t e w e i g h t n o t o n l y t o t h e
soc io log ica l s t re ng ths o f Br i t i sh re fo rm ism bu t a l so to i ts r ea l ach iev e
m e n t s . I t i s s t r o n g b e c a u s e , w i t h i n v e r y s e r i o u s l i m i t s , i t h a s w o r k e d .
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 37/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 347
T h o u g h w e m u s t n e v e r f o r g e t t h e o v e r h a n g i n g s h a d o w o f i m p e r i a l i s m ,
B r i t a i n h a s r e m a i n e d a c o m p a r a t i v e l y h u m a n e s o c i e t y ; c e r t a i n d e m o
c r a t i c v a l u e s h a v e b e e n c o n s o l i d a t e d w h i c h a r e f a r f r o m e v i d e n t in t h e
s o c i a l i s t w o r l d ; t h e b a r g a i n i n g p o w e r o f t h e w o r k e r s i s s t r o n g , n o t o n l y
i n t h e m a t t e r o f w a g e s b u t o v e r a w i d e r a n g e o f f u r t h e r d e m a n d s . T h e
Br i t i sh wo rk in g c la ss ha s du g i t se l f in t o a den se ne tw or k o f de fens ive
p o s i t i o n s . A n d if i t h a s r ef u s e d t o m o v e o u t o f t h e m a n d t o t a k e u p a n
o f fe n si v e p o s t u r e o v e r s o m a n y d e c a d e s , t h i s i s n o t j u s t b e c a u s e o f s o m e
" c o r p o r a t e " c o n s e r v a t i s m b u t a l s o b e c a u s e o f a n a c t i v e r e j e c t i o n o f
w h a t a p p e a r e d a s t h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e id e o l o g y a n d s t r a t e g y —
C o m m u n i s m .
T h i s is t h e m o s t a s t o u n d i n g l a c u n a in t h e N a i r n - A n d e r s o n t h e s is .
N a i r n h a s a c c o m p l i s h e d t h e i m p o s s i b l e , a n a n a t o m y o f L a b o u r i s m o v e r
t h e p a s t f i f t y y e a r s , i n 2 5 , 0 0 0 w o r d s , i n w h i c h C o m m u n i s m a s a n
e f f e c t i v e i n f l u e n c e , w h e t h e r i n t e r n a l o r e x t e r n a l , n e v e r a p p e a r s .6 0
T h i s
i s to wr i t e Wuthering Heights w i t h o u t H e a t h c l i f f e . O u r a u t h o r s h a v edec la imed aga ins t the insu la r i ty o f the Br i t i sh fo r so long tha t a w i l fu l
b l i n d n e s s h a s c l o u d e d t h e i r v i s i o n . T h e y s h o u l d l o o k a t a m a p . H e r e i s
t h i s i s l a n d , a n d t h e r e , a c r o s s a f e w w e t m i l e s , a r e O t h e r C o u n t r i e s .
T h o s e w a t e r s h a v e , o n o c c a s i o n , b e e n c r o s s e d . T h a t c i t y , L o n d o n , i s
n o t in t h e A n t a r c t i c b u t h a s b e e n , a l o n g s i d e P a r i s , V i e n n a a n d P r a g u e ,
a g r e a t European c a p i t a l . I n i t s E a s t E n d t h e r e h a v e b e e n d e p o s i t a f t e r
d e p o s i t o f r e f u g e e a n d i m m i g r a n t w o r k e r s . I n t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s t h e r e h a v e
b e e n d e p o s i t a f t e r d e p o s i t o f e m i g r e i n t e l l e c t u a l s . A c r o s s t h a t w a t e r
t h e r e c a m e , i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s , w a v e a ft e r w a v e o f r e f u g e es f r o m F a s c i s m ;
a c r o s s t h a t w a t e r t h e r e w e n t , i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 4 0 s , w a v e a f t e r w a v e o ft r o o p s t o a s s i s t i n t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f S o u t h e r n a n d W e s t e r n E u r o p e ; a n d
ac r os s tha t w a te r the re ca m e , in the l a t e r 1940s an d 1950s , a fu r th e r
w a v e o f r e f ug e e s f r o m E a s t e r n E u r o p e .
C o m m u n i s m is i n e x t r i ca b l y p a r t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f B r i t is h L a b o u r i s m
for c lose on f i f ty yea rs . I c anno t hope to ind ica te he re the ex ten t o f i t s
i r r a d i a t i o n , i n t o i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e a n d i n t o t h e " s t o n y r e c e s s e s " o f B r i t i s h
t ra de un io n i sm a l ik e . N o r do I th in k tha t th i s in f luence , in i t s ful l
a m b i g u i t y , h a s y e t f o u n d a n i n t e r p r e t e r . T h o s e o f u s w h o h a v e li v e d t h e
expe r ience wi l l neve r be ab le to ho ld i t a t the d i s t ance requ i s i t e fo r
a n a l y s i s . I n o n e s e n s e , C o m m u n i s m h a s b e e n p r e s e n t , s in c e 1 9 1 7 , a s t h eo p p o s i t e p o l e t o o r t h o d o x r i gh t - w i n g L a b o u r i s m . A n t i - C o m m u n i s m
h a s p r o v i d e d a n a p o l o g i a f o r p a r a l y s i s , a n i d e o l o g i c a l c o v e r f o r a c c o m
m o d a t i o n s , th e m a i n m e a n s b y w h i c h o r t h o d o x s o c i a l -d e m o c r a c y
( s o m e t i m e s i n a c t i v e l i a i s o n w i t h e m p l o y e r s , t h e p o p u l a r p r e s s , o r t h e
S t a t e ) h a s s o u g h t t o i s o l a t e t h e L e f t . T h e g r e a t b e t r a y a l s a n d r e t r e a t s —
a n d m o s t p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e a f t er 1 9 4 5 ( B e v i n , D e a k i n , G a i t s k e l l ) —
h a v e b e e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y a c r e s c en d o o f a n t i - c o m m u n i s t p r o p a g a n d a
a n d m e a s u r e s .
I n a n o t h e r s e ns e, C o m m u n i s m h a s be e n t h r o u g h o u t t h e alter ego o f
the Labour and t rade un ion Le f t . I t i s , f i r s t o f a l l , an e l emen ta ry e r ro r
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 38/52
348 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1 9 6 5
t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l i n f l u e n c e o f t h e B r i t i s h
C o m m u n i s t P a r t y — o r i ts i n t e l le c t u a l i n f l u e n c e — c a n b e e s t i m a t e d f r o m
a c o u n t o f p a r t y c a r d s . A m a j o r c l u e t o t h e b r o k e n c i r c u i t b e t w e e n
t h e o r y a n d praxis w i l l b e f o u n d s o m e w h e r e i n t h i s h i s t o r y , w h e n t h e
m i l i t a n t s o f 1 9 2 0 , f o l l o w i n g t h e a d v i c e o f L e n i n , f o r m e d t h e m s e l v e s
i n t o t h i s i s o l a t e d d e t a c h m e n t , w i t h i ts i n t e n s e i n n e r l if e, a n d e n t e r e d
i n t o a p a t t e r n o f s e l f - i s o l a t i o n a l r e a d y s e t b y t h e S . D . F . T h i s h i s t o r y i s
i t s e l f o f g rea t impor tance , mos t o f a l l i n the 1930s and 1940s , and no t
l e a s t i n i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . A n d , i n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , N a i r n ' s
i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n a t t h e s t r a t e g i c v a c i l l a ti o n a n d t h e o r e t i c a l a m b i g u i t i e s
o f t h e L a b o u r L e f t w o u l d h a v e b e e n le s s if h e h a d e x a m i n e d t h e
p e c u l i a r l y c l o s e — a l t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s c o r d i a l — r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h i s
L e f t a n d t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y . T h e g r e a t t r a u m a t i c c r i s e s o f t h e L e f t
o v e r t h i r t y y e a r s h a v e b e e n s o m e w h e r e h e r e — t h e S o v i e t p u r g e s , S p a i n ,
t h e R u s s o - G e r m a n p a c t , P r a g u e , Z h d a n o v i s m , t h e H u n g a r i a n R e v o l u
t i o n — b u t d e s p i t e t h i s t h e L a b o u r a n d m o r e e s p e c i a l l y t h e t r a d e u n i o nL e f t h a s o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s o p e r a t e d f r o m i d e o l o g i c a l a n d , t o s o m e
e x t e n t , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b a s e s o u t s i d e t h e L a b o u r P a r t y a l t o g e t h e r . T h e s e
b a s e s h a v e b e e n m a i n t a i n e d b y t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y : i n i ts p r e s s ; in
i t s t r a d e u n i o n a n d s h o p - f l o o r m i l i t a n t s ; a n d f r o m t i m e t o t i m e i n v e r y
m u c h b r o a d e r p o p u l a r - f r o n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
T h e c o m p e l l i n g n a t u r e o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s a r i s e n , n o t f r o m s o m e
p e c u l i a r n a t i o n a l w e a k n e s s b u t f r o m t h e c o m p u l s i v e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t ,
a n d f r o m t h e B r i t i s h i m m e r s i o n w i t h i n it . S i m i l a r c o m p u l s i o n s , t a k i n g
d i f fe r e n t f o r m s , c a n b e o b s e r v e d i n O t h e r C o u n t r i e s . A n d , if w e e x c e p t
I t a l y , t h e L e f t in O t h e r C o u n t r i e s h a s f o u n d i t t o b e n o e a s i e r t o b r e a ko u t o f t h i s i d e o l o g i c a l f i e l d - o f - f o r c e , a n d t o b u i l d a u t h e n t i c i n d e p e n d e n t
b a s e s , f re e d n o t o n l y f r o m C o m m u n i s t p e r m e a t i o n b u t a l s o f r o m t h e
o b s e s s i o n a l r e c r i m i n a t i o n s a n d s e l f- d r a m a t i z i n g v a n g u a r d i s m t o o o f te n
f o u n d i n t h e T r o t s k y i s t t r a d i t i o n . T h e r e w a s s o m e h o p e , a t o n e t i m e ,
t h a t t h e N e w L e f t m i g h t , in a n e m b r y o n i c w a y , d o e x a c t ly t h i s . A n d t h e
" m i r a c l e " o f C . N . D . w a s a r e l a t e d p h e n o m e n o n , w h e n t h e m o r a l
b a n k r u p t c y o f t h e C P . a f te r 1 9 56 a c t u a l l y g a v e r i se t o t h e r e s u r g e n c e
of an independent L e f t . I t w a s a p r e c i o u s h i s t o r i c a l m o m e n t , a n d , i n s o
fa r a s we ha ve los t it , i t i s an u nqua l i f i ed de fea t .
D e f e a t s h a p p e n . H o w e v e r , t h e n o t i o n o f A n d e r s o n a n d N a i r n t h a tt h e y h a v e o n l y t o p r o c l a i m a n u n d e f i n e d " M a r x i s m " a n d t h e n a t i v e
i n t e l l ig e n t s i a w i l l a b a n d o n t h e i r p r i m i t i v e e m p i r i c a l r i t e s a n d flo ck t o
t h e m f o r b a p t i s m , is p e c u l i a r l y o b t u s e . T h e r e h a s b e e n a M a r x i s t t ra ff ic
w i t h t h e s e s h o r e s f o r s o m e t i m e — s a y , a h u n d r e d y e a r s . I t h a s t a k e n
m a n y f o r m s . A s a p a t t e r n o f a t t r a c t i o n a n d r e p u l s i o n , M a r x i s m a n d
a n t i - M a r x i s m p e r m e a t e s o u r c u l t u r e . I t p e r m e a t e s o u r L a b o u r m o v e m e n t
a l s o , v e r y m u c h m o r e e x t e n s i v e l y t h a n o u r a u t h o r s s u p p o s e . W e n e e d
n o t l a b o u r t h e d e f ic i en c e s o f t h e M a r x i s m s o ff e re d b y t h e S . D . F . a n d t h e
C P . T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m o v e m e n t h a s b e e n o n e i n w h i c h h u n d r e d s o f
t h o u s a n d s i n t h e L a b o u r m o v e m e n t h a v e p a s s e d t h r o u g h s o m e k i n d o f
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 39/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 3 4 9
M a r x i s t e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , t o e m e r g e a f te r a f ew y e a r s — d i s i l l u
s i o n e d b y i t s i r r e l e v a n c e o r d o c t r i n a i r e t o n e — w i t h s o m e e c l e c t i c
marxisant v a r i a n t , a r t i c u l a t e o r i n a r t i c u l a t e , a n d s u b d u e d t o t h e
e m p i r i c a l i d i o m . P e r h a p s 1 0 0 , 0 00 p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e S . D . F . ; s e v e r a l
t i m e s t h i s n u m b e r m u s t h a v e p a s s e d a l o n g t h e g r e a t t r a n s m i s s i o n - b e l to f t h e C P . a n d i t s a u x i l i a r i e s ; t h e T r o t s k y i s t s e c ts o f t o d a y r e p e a t , w i t h
m o r e f a c t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y , t h e s a m e e x p e r i e n c e . I f o u r a u t h o r s
e n c o u n t e r t h e a c t u a l p e r s o n n e l o f t h e L a b o u r m o v e m e n t t h e y w i l l f in d
v e r y m a n y o f t h e m t o b e a g o o d d e a l m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h a n t h e
c o n s e r v a t i v e semplici o f t h e i r i m a g i n a t i o n .
T h e y w i l l a l s o f i n d t h a t t h e y m u s t e n c o u n t e r t e d i o u s o b s t a c l e s . W h e n
A n d e r s o n a f fi rm s t h a t " M a r x i s m i s t h e o n l y t h o u g h t w h i c h h a s r i g o r
o u s l y u n i t e d d e v e l o p m e n t a l a n d s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s , i t i s a t o n c e p u r e
h i s t o r i c i t y ( d e n i a l o f a l l s u p r a - h i s t o r i c a l e s s e n c e s ) a n d r a d i c a l f u n c -
t i o n a l i s m ( s o c i e t i e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t t o t a l i t i e s ) " 6 1 h e p r o v o k e s , e v e n
a m o n g s t t h e w e l l - d i s p o s e d , a t e n d e n c y t o b e c o m e a l i t t l e h a r d o f h e a r i n g .
W h e n N a i r n a c c l a i m s M a r x i s m a s " a t o n c e t h e n a t u r a l d o c t r i n e o f t h e
w o r k i n g c l a s s , a n d t h e s u m m i n g - u p o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d a l l t h e
h i g h e s t s t a g es of b o u r g e o i s t h o u g h t i n t o a n e w s y n t h e s i s , " 6 2 t h e a u d i e n c e
b e g i n s t o s h u f f l e a n d c o u g h . This is an old European country. W e h a v e
s e e n n o t o n l y t h e r a i n w h i c h t h e n e w G o d b r o u g h t t o O t h e r C o u n t r i e s
b u t a l s o t h e t h u n d e r a n d l i g h t n i n g — t h e b l o o d y deluge. F o r m o r e t h a n
a g e n e r a t i o n B r i t i s h i n t e l l e c t u a l s h a v e d o n e l i tt l e e l s e t h a n o f fe r b l u e
p r i n t s f o r t h e A r k .
V
I t m a y b e us e f u l, in c o n c l u s i o n , t o d r a w t o g e t h e r c e r t a i n t h e o r e t i c a l
p r o b l e m s r e l a t i n g t o M a r x i s m a n d h i s t o r y w h i c h h a v e a r i s e n i n t h i s a r t
i cl e. T h e m a i n p r o b l e m s w h i c h w e h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d c o n c e r n a m o d e l o f
t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s w h i c h i s u n d o u b t e d l y d e r i v e d f r o m M a r x . W h i l e
o u r a u t h o r s h a v e c r e a t e d s o m e di ff ic u lt ie s o n t h e i r o w n a c c o u n t , b y
t h e ir i m p e r f e c t h i s t o ri c a l p r e p a r a t i o n o r t h e i r o v e r - s c h e m a t i c a p p r o a c h ,
o t h e r w e a k n e s s e s a p p e a r t o b e i n h e r e n t i n t h e m o d e l itself. O f t h e s e w e
m a y e x a m i n e t h e f o l l o w i n g : ( 1 ) t h e r e is t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o t h e p r o p e r
m o d e o f e m p l o y m e n t o f an y m o d e l ; ( 2 ) t h e r e is t h e m e t a p h o r o f b a s i s
a n d s u p e r s t r u c t u r e ; ( 3 ) t h e r e is s o m e di ff ic u lt y i n t h e c u s t o m a r y n o t a
t i o n o f a n " e c o n o m i c " p r o c e s s ; ( 4 ) t h e r e is t h e c o n c e p t o f c l a s s ; (5 )
a n d t h e r e a r e p r o b l e m s a r i s i n g f r o m a t e l e o l o g i c a l m o d e l w h i c h
i s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h m a t t e r s o f p o w e r . S i n c e e a c h o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s
h a s a r i s e n a l o n g t h e w a y , w e c a n p r o c e e d w i t h t h e m i n i m u m o f
e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n .
( 1 ) A m o d e l i s a m e t a p h o r o f h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s . I t i n d i c a t e s n o t o n l y
t h e s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t s o f t h i s p r o c e s s b u t t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e y a r e i n t e r
r e l a t e d a n d t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e y c h a n g e . I n o n e s e n s e , h i s t o r y r e m a i n s
i r r e d u c i b l e ; it r e m a i n s al l t h a t h a p p e n e d . I n a n o t h e r s e n s e , h i s t o r y d o e s
n o t b e c o m e h i s t o r y u n t i l th e r e is a m o d e l : a t t h e m o m e n t a t w h i c h t h e
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 40/52
3 5 0 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
m o s t e l e m e n t a r y n o t i o n o f c a u s a t i o n , p r o c e s s , o r c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n i n g ,
i n t r u d e s , t h e n s o m e m o d e l i s a s s u m e d . I t m a y w e l l b e b e t t e r t h a t t h i s
s h o u l d b e m a d e e x p l i c i t . B u t t h e m o m e n t a t w h i c h a m o d e l i s m a d e
e x p l i c i t i t b e g i n s t o p e t ri f y i n t o a x i o m s . N o t h i n g i s m o r e e a s y t h a n t o
t a k e a m o d e l to t h e p r o l i f e r a t i n g g r o w t h o f a c t u a l i t y , a n d t o se l ec t f r o m
i t on ly such ev idence a s i s in confo rmi ty wi th the p r inc ip le s o f s e lec t ion .
T h i s is ( I h a v e su g g e s t e d ) w h a t A n d e r s o n h a s d o n e w i t h t h e E n g l i s h
R e v o l u t i o n . O n e c a n a l m o s t h e a r t h e s t r e t c h i n g o f h i s t o r i c a l t e x t u r e s a s
t h e g a r m e n t o f E n g l i s h e v e n t s {"partially c o n t i n g e n t b u t predominantly
i n t e ll i g ib l e l e n s e s " ) i s s t r a i n e d t o c o v e r t h e b u x o m m o d e l o f La Revolu
tion Francaise. I n t h e e n d , w i t h s o m e s p l i t t in g a t t h e s e a m s , t h e
j o b is d o n e : it a l w a y s c a n b e . A n d y e t i f e a r l i e r M a r x i s t s h a d
b e e n l e s s o b s e s s e d w i t h t h e F r e n c h , a n d m o r e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h
t h e E n g l i s h , R e v o l u t i o n , t h e m o d e l i t s e l f m i g h t h a v e b e e n d i f f e r e n t .
I n s t e a d o f o n e c l i m a c t i c m o m e n t , the R e v o l u t i o n , w e m i g h t h a v e h a d
a m o r e c u m u l a t i v e , e p o c h a l m o d e l , w i t h m o r e t h a n o n e c r it ic a lt r a n s i t i o n .
A fu r the r d an ge r is th a t a m od e l , even w he n f lexib ly em plo ye d ,
d i s p o s e s o n e t o l o o k o n l y a t certain p h e n o m e n a , t o e x a m i n e h i s to r y
fo r conformities, w h e r e a s i t m a y b e t h a t t h e d i s c a r d e d e v i d e n c e c o n c e a l s
new s ign i f i cances .
M u s t w e d i s p e n s e w i t h a n y m o d e l ? I f w e d o s o , w e c e a s e t o b e h i s
t o r i a n s , o r w e b e c o m e t h e s l a v e s o f s o m e m o d e l s c a r c e l y k n o w n t o
o u r s e l v e s i n s o m e i n a c c e s s i b l e a r e a o f p r e j u d i c e . T h e q u e s t i o n i s , r a t h e r ,
h o w is i t p r o p e r t o e m p l o y a m o d e l ? T h e r e is n o s i m p l e a n s w e r . E v e n
i n t h e m o m e n t o f e m p l o y i n g i t t h e h i s t o r i a n m u s t b e a b l e t o r e g a r d h i sm o d e l w i t h a r a d i c a l s c e p t i c i s m , a n d t o m a i n t a i n a n o p e n n e s s o f
r e s p o n s e t o e v i d e n c e f o r w h i c h i t h a s n o c a t e g o r i e s . A t t h e b e s t — w h i c h
w e c a n s e e a t t i m e s i n t h e l e t t e r s o f D a r w i n o r M a r x — w e m u s t e x p e c t a
d e l i c a t e e q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n t h e s y n t h e s i z i n g a n d t h e e m p i r i c m o d e s ,
a q u a r r e l b e t w e e n t h e m o d e l a n d a c t u a l i t y . T h i s i s t h e c r e a t i v e q u a r r e l
a t t h e h e a r t o f c o g n i t i o n . W i t h o u t t h i s d i a l e c t i c , i n t e l l e c t u a l g r o w t h
c a n n o t t a k e p l a c e .
T h i s d i a l e c t i c i s a l w a y s p a s s i n g i n t o a d i s e q u i l i b r i u m . W e c a n n o t g e t
o n w i t h a n y t h i n g u n l e s s w e a c c e p t a n a p p r o x i m a t e m o d e l a s a f r a m e
w o r k f o r o u r w o r k . A n d t h e habit o f t h e m o d e l b e c o m e s s o s t r o n g , a n di s v e r y o f t e n s u p p l e m e n t e d b y i d e o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s , t h a t i t
b e c o m e s i m p e r v i o u s t o e m p i r i c c r i t i c i s m . O r , u n d e r t h e i m p a c t o f o n e
" g r a n d f a c t " a f te r a n o t h e r , i t d i s i n t e g r a t e s a l t o g e t h e r a n d w e sa i l
t h r o u g h s e as o f i n e x p l i c ab l e p h e n o m e n a . T h e M a r x i s t t r a d i t i o n h a s
t o d a y f r a c t u r e d i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s — o n t h e o n e h a n d , v a r i e t i e s o f c o m
p e t i n g o r t h o d o x i e s , a l l o f t h e m s c h e m a t i c , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e
f lo ts am an d j e t s am o f a sys tem w hic h tos se s in em pi r i c s ea s . I t i s gen e r
a l ly t ru e th a t ve ry few, in th i s co un t ry , have exa m ine d wi th su ff ic i en t
b o l d n e s s a n d p e r s i s t e n c e , h o w f a r i t m a y b e v a l u a b l e — n o t t o r e v i s e o r
r e - v a m p — b u t t o a t t e m p t a r a d i c a l re s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e m o d e l .
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 41/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 351
(2) I sugg es ted in 1957 th a t o ne c rux o f the qu es t io n is to be fou nd in
t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f t h e m o d e l o f b a s i s a n d s u p e r s t r u c t u r e :
"In all their his torical analysis Marx and Engels always kept in view thedialectical inte rac tion betw een social cons ciousn ess . . . an d socialbe ing. But in t ry ing to expla in the i r ideas they expressed them as a make-
be li ef m o d e l . . . . In fac t, no such bas i s and supe rs t ruc tu re eve r ex i s ted ;i t i s a metaphor to he lp us to unders tand what does exis t—men, who ac t ,exper ience , th ink, and ac t aga in .
I s u g g e s t e d a l s o t h a t :
"Sta l in ism converted the concepts of ' re f lec t ion ' and of the ' supers t ruc tu re ' i n to mechan ica l ope ra t ions in a s emi -au toma t ic mode l . Theconscious processes of intellectual conflict were seen not as agencies in themaking of h is tory but as an i r r i ta t ing penumbra of i l lus ions , or imperfec t
reflections, trai l ing b eh ind ec on om ic forces. . . .", 3
T h e d i a l e c t i c a l i n t e r c o u r s e b e t w e e n s o c i a l b e i n g a n d s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s — o r b e t w e e n " c u l t u r e " a n d "not c u l t u r e "
6 4
— i s a t t h e h e a r t o f a n y
c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s w i t h i n t h e M a r x i s t t r a d i t i o n .
I f t h i s i s d i s p l a c e d , t h e n w e e v a c u a t e t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l t o g e t h e r . W h e n
t h e y h a v e r e a c h e d t h i s p o i n t o n t h e r o a d , m y c o l l e a g u e s h a v e u s u a l l y
e i t h e r e v a c u a t e d t h e t r a d i t i o n ( b u t I c a n se e n o o t h e r t h a t c o m p r e h e n d s
t h i s d i a l e c t i c ) o r h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o s o p h i s t i c a t e t h e m o d e l ( b u t h o w e v e r
o n e e m p h a s i z e s c o m p l e x i t i e s , e t c . , t h e m o d e l c o n t i n u e s t o g i ve w r o n g
r e s u l t s ) . S o w e a r e s t u c k .
T h i s m a y b e b e c a u s e w e h a v e b e e n d e a l i n g w i t h a p s e u d o - p r o b l e m .
T h e t r a d i t i o n i n h e r i t s a d i a l e c t i c t h a t is r i g h t , b u t t h e p a r t i c u l a rm e c h a n i c a l m e t a p h o r t h r o u g h w h i c h it i s e x p r e s s e d i s w r o n g . T h i s
m e t a p h o r f r o m c o n s t r u c t i o n a l e n g i n e e r i n g ( s i m i l a r t o t h e b o x e s a n d
b u i l d i n g t e r m s b e l o v e d b y s o m e s o c i o l o g i s t s ) m u s t i n a n y c a s e b e
inadequa te to desc r ibe the f lux o f conf l i c t , t he d ia l ec t i c o f a chang ing
s o c ia l p r o c e s s . A v e g e t a t i o n m e t a p h o r — " t h i s i d e a is r o o t e d i n t h i s
s o c i a l c o n t e x t " o r " f l o u r i s h e d i n t h i s c l i m a t e " — v e r y o f te n s e r v e s b e t t e r ,
s i n c e i t e n t a i l s t h e n o t i o n o f o r g a n i c g r o w t h , j u s t a s b i o l o g i c a l m e t a p h o r s
( A n d e r s o n ' s " s y m b i o s i s , " " s c l e r o s e d , " et c .) c a n s o m e t i m e s d o . A n d
ye t the se s t i l l exc lude the human d i m e n s i o n , t h e a g e n c i e s o f h u m a n
c u l t u r e — t h e d if fi cu lt y ( if w e f o l l o w t h e v e g e t a t i o n m e t a p h o r t h r o u g h ) i sn o t t h a t a t r e e c a n n o t t h i n k b u t t h a t , i f i t c o u l d t h i n k , i t s t h i n k i n g c o u l d
n o t c h a n g e — h o w e v e r i m p e r c e p t i b l y — t h e s o i l i n w h i c h i t is r o o t e d .
I n t h e e n d t h e d i a l e c t i c o f s o c i a l c h a n g e c a n n o t b e f i x e d i n a n y m e t a p h o r
t h a t e x c l u d e s h u m a n a t t r i b u t e s . W e c a n o n l y d e s c r i b e t h e s o c i a l p r o c e s s
— a s M a r x s h o w e d i n The Eighteenth Brumaire— b y w r i t i n g h i s t o r y .
A n d e v e n s o , w e s h a l l e n d w i t h o n l y a n a c c o u n t o f a particular p r o c e s s ,
and a s e lec t ive accoun t o f th i s .
A l l t h e m e t a p h o r s w h i c h a r e c o m m o n l y o f fe re d h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o
l e a d t h e m i n d i n t o s c h e m a t i c m o d e s a n d a w a y f r o m t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f
b e i n g - c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I n a n y c a s e , h o w u s e fu l h a s t h e b a s i s - s u p e r s t r u c -
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 42/52
352 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
t u r e m o d e l p r o v e d t o b e i n e x a m i n i n g a l l t h o s e " g r a n d f a c t s " o f t h e
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y — r e s u r g e n t W e s t e r n n a t i o n a l i s m , N a z i s m , S t a l i n i s m ,
r a c i a l i s m ? W h i l e i t o f f e r s a p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e , t h e real an a ly s i s o f t h ese
p h e n o m e n a m u s t t a k e q u i t e d i ff e re n t f o r m s , i n w h i c h t h e " s u p e r
s t r u c t u r e " g e n e r a l l y t u r n s o u t t o b e i n t e r f e r i n g i n q u i t e i m p r o p e r w a y s
w i t h i t s " b a s e . " T h e m o d e l , i n f a c t , h a s a n i n - b u i l t t e n d e n c y t o reduc-tionism, w h i c h i s r a t h e r e v id e n t i n A n d e r s o n :
" . . . the ideo log ical terms in which the s t ruggle was co nduc ted were
largely rel igious, and hence st i l l more dissociated from economic aspirat i o n s t h an p o l it i ca l id io ms n o rmal ly a re . " 6 5
a n d w h i c h is a l l - t o o - e v i d e n t i n N a i r n :
" . . . ac tual consciousness is me diated th ro ugh the complex of supers t ructures , and apprehends what under l ies them only par t ia l ly and
i n d i r e c t l y . "6 6
R ed u c t io n i s m i s a l ap se i n h i s to r i ca l l o g i c b y w h ich p o l i t i ca l o r
cu l tu ra l ev en t s a re " ex p la in ed " i n t e rms o f t h e c l ass a f f i l i a t i o n s o f t h e
a c t o r s . W h e n a c o n n e c t i o n , o r c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d
b e t w e e n th e s e e v e n t s ( in t h e " s u p e r s t r u c t u r e " ) a n d a c e r t a i n c o n f i g u r a
t i o n o f c l a s s i n t e r e s t s ( i n t h e " b a s e " ) , t h e n i t is t h o u g h t t h a t t h e d e m a n d s
o f h i s t o r i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n — s t i l l w o r s e , o f e v a l u a t i o n — h a v e b e e n m e t b y
c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e s e i d e a s o r e v e n t s a s b o u r g e o i s , p e t i t - b o u r g e o i s , p r o
l e t a r i a n , e t c . T h e e r r o r o f r e d u c t i o n i s m c o n s i s t s n o t in e s t a b l i s h i n g
t h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s b u t i n t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e i d e a s o r e v e n t s a r e , i n
e s s e n c e , the same things as t h e c a u s a t i v e c o n t e x t — t h a t i d e a s , r e l i g i o u s
b e l i e f s , o r w o r k s o f a r t , m a y b e r e d u c e d ( a s o n e r e d u c e s a c o m p l e x
e q u a t i o n ) t o t h e " r e a l " c l a s s i n t e r e s t s w h i c h t h e y e x p r e s s .
B u t b e c a u s e w e k n o w t h e c a u s a t i v e c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h a n h i s
to r i ca l ev en t a ro se , i t d o es n o t fo l l o w th a t t h e ev en t can th e re fo re b e
e x p l a i n e d o r e v a l u a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e c a u s e . A t t e n t i o n m u s t b e p a i d t o
t h e a u t o n o m y o f p o l i t i c a l o r c u l t u r a l e v e n t s w h i c h , n o n e t h e l e s s , a r e
c a u s a l ly c o n d i t i o n e d b y " e c o n o m i c " e v e n t s . A p s y c h o l o g y w h i c h
red u ces t h e i n f in i t e v a r i e ty o f sex u a l ex p ress io n , f ro m p l a to n i c l o v e t o
a r a p e in t h e R o m n e y m a r s h e s , t o " s e x " te l ls u s e v e r y t h i n g a n d n o t h i n g .
A n d a h i s t o r y o r s o c i o l o g y w h i c h is c o n t i n u a l l y r e d u c i n g a s u p e r
s t r u c t u r e t o a b a s e i s e i t h e r f a ls e o r t e d i o u s . O l d C o r r u p t i o n r e m a i n sO l d C o r r u p t i o n . T h e r e l i g i o u s c o n f l i c t s o f t h e E n g l i s h R e v o l u t i o n w e r e
n o t " e c o n o m i c a s p i r a t i o n s " d i l u t e d w i t h i l l u s i o n s b u t c o n f l i c t s a b o u t
C h u r c h a u t h o r i t y a n d d o c t r i n e . W e w i ll n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n t e n s i t y o f
t h e c o n f l i c t , t h e t e n a c i t y o f t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n s n o r t h e e n e r g y o f t h e
P u r i t a n s , u n l e s s w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e k i n d o f p e o p l e t h e y w e r e , a n d ,
h e n c e , t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c o n t e x t . B u t t h e m e d i a t i o n b e t w e e n
" i n t e r e s t " a n d "belief" w a s n o t t h r o u g h N a i r n ' s " c o m p l e x o f s u p e r
s t r u c t u r e s " b u t through the people themselves. T h e P u r i t a n s d i d n o t
r e l is h t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e C h u r c h b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e p e o p l e w h o
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 43/52
T H E PECULIARITIES O F T H E E N G L I S H 353
h a d c o m e t o d i s p e n s e w i t h ( o r t o r e s e n t ) t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e S t a t e i n
t h e i r p r a c t i c a l l i v e s ; a n d t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n s d e f e n d e d t h e S t a t e C h u r c h
w i t h s u c h t e n a c i t y b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e p e o p l e w h o f e l t t h a t t h e i r s t a t u s
a n d p o w e r — a w h o l e w a y o f o r d e r i n g l i f e — w a s s l i p p i n g f r o m t h e m a n d
m u s t a t s o m e p o i n t b e d e f e n d e d . I f w e w i s h t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s m e d i a
t i o n , w e r e q u i r e , n o t a n i n c r e d i b l y c u m b e r s o m e a n d i n a p p o s i t e m e t a
p h o r b u t a s u b t l e , r e s p o n s i v e s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y .
( 3 ) T h e p r o b l e m i s t o f in d a m o d e l f o r t h e s o c i a l p r o c e s s w h i c h a l l o w s
a n a u t o n o m y t o s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s w i t h i n a c o n t e x t w h i c h , i n t h e
f i n a l a n a l y s i s , h a s a l w a y s b e e n d e t e r m i n e d b y s o c i a l b e i n g . C a n a n y
m o d e l e n c o m p a s s t h e d is t in c t i v e ly h u m a n d i a l e c t i c , b y w h i c h h i s t o r y
a p p e a r s a s n e i t h e r w i l l e d n o r a s f o r t u i t o u s ; a s n e i t h e r lawed ( in the
s e n s e o f b e i n g d e t e r m i n e d b y i n v o l u n t a r y la w s o f m o t i o n ) n o r i l l o g i ca l
( i n t h e s e n s e t h a t o n e c a n o b s e r v e a logic i n the soc ia l p ro ces s ) ?
"That which did a l l th is was mind, because men did i t wi th in te l l igence;
i t was no t fa te , because they did i t by choice ; not chan ce , because the resul tsof the i r a lways so ac t ing are perpe tua l ly the same."
B u t e q u a l l y , a s V i c o a l s o k n e w , i t w a s n o t will, b e c a u s e t h e o u t c o m e h a s
b e e n " q u i t e c o n t r a r y . . . t o th e p a r t i c u l a r e n d s t h a t m e n h a v e p r o p o s e d
t o t h e m s e l v e s . "6 7
" W h a t t h e s e g e n t l e m e n a l l l a c k is d i a l e c t i c , " E n g e l s
e x p l o d e d w h e n , i n h i s l a s t y e a r s , h e a t t e m p t e d t o r e v i s e t h e s c h e m a t i c
m o d e l w h i c h h e , m o r e t h a n M a r x , h a d b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e fo r s e t t in g u p :
"They never see anything but here cause and there effect . That this is ahol low abs t rac t ion, tha t such metaphys ica l polar oppos i tes only exis t inthe rea l world dur ing cr ises , whi le the whole vas t process proceeds in the
form of in terac t ion ( though of very unequal forces , the economic movement be ing by far the s t ronges t , mos t e lementa l and most dec is ive) andtha t here everything is re la t ive and nothing is absolute—this they neverbeg in to s ee . "
8 8
T h e t r o u b l e h e r e i s o f t w o k i n d s . T h e f irst c o n c e r n s n o t s o m u c h t h e
v a l i d i t y o f t h e m o d e l a s i t s u s e f u l n e s s . If t h e " e c o n o m i c m o v e m e n t " i s
t h r u s t b a c k t o a n a r e a o f u l t i m a t e c a u s a t i o n , t h e n , l i k e B a c o n ' s f i r s t
c a u s e , i t c a n b e f o r g o t t e n i n i t s e m p y r e a n . I f w e r e l e g a t e i t t o i n - t h e -
l a s t - a n a l y s i s e p o c h a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n ( a n d t h e n o n l y i n t h e s e n s e t h a t
p r o d u c t i v e r e l a t i o n s e n t a i l c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n d i n e r a d i c a b l e
s o u r c e s o f c o n f l i c t , a s w e l l a s c e r t a i n l i m i t s w h i c h s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n c a n n o t t r a n s c e n d ) , t h e n it m a y b e a s k e d h o w f a r — e x c e p t a t m o m e n t s o f
t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n h i s t o r i c a l e p o c h s — t h i s m o d e l h a s a n y r e a l r e l e v a n c e ?
W e c a n s u p p o s e a n e p o c h a l c o n t e x t — f e u d a l , c a p i t a l i s t , s o c i a l i s t —
w i t h i n e a c h o f w h i c h a n e n d l e s s v a r i e t y o f f o r m s o f S t a t e p o w e r ,
m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , e t c . , m a y b e p o s s i b l e . W e c a n n e v e r
g u e s s a t t h e i r r a n g e a n d d i v e r s i t y b e c a u s e , r i c h a s h i s t o r y i s , i t c a n n e v e r
e x h a u s t p o s s i b i l i t y . B u t w h i l e t h e n u m b e r o f v a r i a n t s m a y b e i n f i n i te ,
n e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s i n f in i t e o n l y w i t h i n t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f so c i a l " s p e c i e s . "
J u s t a s , w h i l e t h e r e m a y b e a n y n u m b e r o f p e r m u t a t i o n s o f b r e e d s o f
12—TSR
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 44/52
3 5 4 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1 9 65
d o g s , a n d o f m o n g r e l c r o s s - b r e e d s , a l l d o g s a r e d o g g y ( t h e y s m e l l , b a r k ,
f a w n o n h u m a n s ) , s o a l l c a p i t a l i s m s r e m a i n c a p i t a l i s t ( f o s t e r a c q u i s i t i v e
v a l u e s , m u s t b y t h e i r n a t u r e l e e c h t h e p r o l e t a r i a t , e t c . ). T h e t r a n s m u t a
t i o n fr o m o n e s p ec i es t o a n o t h e r is w h a t w e m e a n b y r e v o l u t i o n .6
'
B u t w h e n w e a r e ( a s h i s t o r i a n s ) i n t h e m i d s t o f a n e p o c h , t h e e p o c h a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m a y , f o r u s a n d f o r t h e g e n e r a t i o n s t h e n l i v i n g , r e c e d ei n t o u n i m p o r t a n c e b e s i d e t h e l o c a l p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s . W h a t m a t t e r e d t o
p e o p l e w a s , n o t w h e t h e r i t w a s a c a p i t a l i s m b u t w h e t h e r i t w a s a r u t h
l es s o r a t o l e r a b l e c a p i t a l i s m — w h e t h e r m e n w e r e h u r l e d i n t o w a r s , s u b
j e c t t o i n q u i s i t i o n s a n d a r b i t r a r y a r r e s t , o r a l l o w e d s o m e f r e e d o m o f
p e r s o n a n d o f o r g a n i z a t i o n .
I n o r d e r t o f o l lo w t h i s t h o u g h t t h r o u g h I h a v e g o n e f u r t h e r t h a n i s
w a r r a n t e d . F o r I d o n o t s u p p o s e ( a n y m o r e t h a n E n g e l s d i d ) t h a t t h i s
" e c o n o m i c m o v e m e n t " i s o p e r a t i v e o n l y in a n e p o c h a l s e n s e . I t is t h e r e
a l l t h e t i m e , n o t o n l y g i v i n g d e f i n i t i o n t o a n e p o c h b u t i n t h e c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c p a t t e r n o f c o n f l ic t a n d s o c i a l d i s e q u i l i b r i u m i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e
e p o c h . B u t a s e c o n d d if fi cu lt y a r i s e s i n r e s p e c t t o t h e c u s t o m a r y M a r x i s t
n o t a t i o n o f t h e t e r m " e c o n o m i c . " O n e p a r t o f t h i s , s uf fi ci en tl y u n d e r
s t o o d , i s t h e c r u d e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i v e f o r c e s a n d p r o d u c t i v e
re l a t i o n s , wh ich r each ed i t s ap o g ee wi th S t a l i n . Bu t ev en i f we e f f ec t a
c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n t h e n o t i o n o f e c o n o m i c ( a s o p p o s e d t o s o c i a l , m o r a l ,
c u l t u r a l ) r e l a t i o n s t u r n s o u t t o b e a n a n a l y t i c c a t e g o r y a n d n o t a
d i s t i n c t i o n w h i c h c a n b e c o n f i r m e d b y e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n :
"P ro d u c t io n , d i s t r i b u t io n an d co n su mp t io n a re n o t o n ly d ig g in g , ca r ry ing an d eat ing , bu t are a l so p lann ing , o rgan izing and en joy ing . Im agina t ive
and in te l lectual facu l t ies are no t conf ined to a ' supers t ructure ' and erectedupon a 'base ' o f th ings ( includ ing men- th ings) ; they are impl ic i t in thec rea t iv e ac t o f l ab o u r wh ich mak es man man . " ' 0
A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a n d s o c i o lo g i s t s h a v e s uf fi ci en tl y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e
i n e x t r i c a b l e i n t e r l a c i n g o f e c o n o m i c a n d n o n - e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s i n
m o s t s o c i e t i e s , a n d t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f e c o n o m i c a n d c u l t u r a l s a t i s f a c
t i o n s . T h o s e h i s t o r i a n s w h o h a v e e s c a p e d f r o m t h e t o i l s o f t h e Economic
History Review (o r o f Marxism Today) a r e b e g i n n i n g t o t a k e t h e p o i n t .
U n t i l t h e l a t e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e o f F r a n c e a n d
E n g l a n d a d h e r e d t o a d e e p l y f e lt " m o r a l e c o n o m y " i n w h i c h t h e v e r y
n o t i o n o f a n " e c o n o m i c p r i c e " f o r c o r n ( t h a t i s , a d i s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e ne c o n o m i c v a l u e s o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d s o c i a l a n d m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n s o n
t h e o t h e r ) w a s a n o u t r a g e t o t h e i r c u l t u r e ; a n d s o m e t h i n g o f t h e s a m e
m o r a l e c o n o m y e n d u r e s i n p a r t s o f A s i a a n d o f A f r i c a t o d a y . O r ,
a g a i n , i n B r i t a i n i t t o o k t w o h u n d r e d y e a r s o f c o n f l i c t t o s u b d u e t h e
w o r k i n g p e o p l e t o t h e d i s c i p l i n e o f d i r e c t e c o n o m i c s t i m u l i , a n d t h e
s u b j u g a t i o n h a s n e v e r b e e n m o r e t h a n p a r t i a l .
T h e v e r y c a t e g o r y o f e c o n o m i c s — t h e n o t i o n t h a t it i s p o s s i b l e t o
i s o l a te e c o n o m i c f r o m n o n - e c o n o m i c s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , t h a t a l l h u m a n
o b l i g a t i o n s c a n b e d i s s o l v e d e x c e p t t h e c a s h - n e x u s — w a s t h e p r o d u c t
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 45/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 355
o f a p a r t i c u l a r p h a s e o f c a p i t a l i s t e v o l u t i o n . C a u d w e l l h a s d e s c r i b e d
t h e m o v e m e n t i n o n e a s p e c t :
" . . . wh ereas in earl ier civil izations (the) relation b etwee n men is conscious and clear, in bourgeois culture i t is disguised as a system free fromobl iga tory dominat ing re la t ions be tween men and conta ining only innocent
re la t ions be tween men and a th ing . . . . In th rowing o f f a l l soc ia l r e s t ra in tthe bourgeois seemed to himself justified in retaining this one restraint ofprivate property, for i t did not seem to him a restraint at al l , but anina l ienable r ight of man, the fundamenta l na tura l r ight ."
A n d f u r t h e r :
"In all the dis t inctive bourgeois relations, i t is characteris t ic that tenderness is completely expelled, because tenderness can only exist between men,and in capi ta l ism a l l re la t ions appear to be be tween a man and a com
mo di ty . . . . M an is comple te ly f ree except for the paym ent of mo ney. T ha tis the over t charac ter of bourgeois re la t ions ." '
1
F r o m t h i s m o v e m e n t w e c a n d e d u c e a c o u n t e r - m o v e m e n t , w h i c h i n fa c t
c a m e t o f u l l e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e g r e a t r o m a n t i c c r i t i q u e o f c a p i t a l i s m
w h i c h i s a t h e m e o f W i l l i a m s ' Culture and Society, a s m e n w h o f o u n d
t h e m s e l v e s w i t h i n t h e a c t u a l a n d m e n t a l u n i v e r s e o f " p o l i t i c a l
e c o n o m y , " f r o m w h i c h t h e r e s e e m e d t o b e n o e s c a p e , n e v e r t h e l e s s
r e b e ll e d a g a i n s t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h u s d e h u m a n i z e d r a t i o n a l i t y i n
t h e n a m e o f u l t e r i o r v a l u e s a n d s a c r e d h u m a n o b l i g a t i o n s .
M a r x a n d E n g e l s , h o w e v e r , t o o k t h i s p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y a s t h e i r
d i r e c t a n t a g o n i s t , a n d e n t e r e d i n t o i t s o w n c a t e g o r i e s o f a n a l y s i s i n
o r d e r t o o v e r t h r o w i t. I n e v i t a b l y t h e y w e r e m a r k e d b y t h e e n c o u n t e r .N o t i n M a r x ' s e a r l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l m a n u s c r i p t s ( w h i c h s h a r e m a n y
r o m a n t i c p o s i t i o n s ) b u t i n h i s m a t u r e t h o u g h t , r e v o l u t i o n a r y economic
man i s o f fe red a s the an t i thes i s to exp lo i t ed economic man. Bu t , f i r s t ,
t h i s w a s t o d e d u c e t o o f a r f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r p h a s e o f c a p i t a l i s t e v o l u
t i o n . M o d e s o f e x p l o i t a t i o n h a v e v a r i e d e n o r m o u s l y , n o t o n l y a s
b e t w e e n e p o c h s b u t a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s w i t h i n t h e s a m e e p o c h . W e c a n n o t
r e a d M a r c B l o c h , a n d e m e r g e w i t h t h e v i e w t h a t f e u d a l e x p l o i t a t i o n w a s
i n a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y m e a n i n g p r i m a r i l y e c o n o m i c , a s o p p o s e d t o
m i l i t a ry , p o l i t i c a l, e t c . I n e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d t h e m a n u f a c
t u r i n g w o r k e r s , m i n e r s , a n d o t h e r s , w e r e f ar m o r e c o n s c i o u s o f b e i n g
e x p l o i t e d b y t h e a g r a r i a n c a p i t a l i s t s a n d m i d d l e - m e n , a s c o n s u m e r s ,
t h a n b y t h e i r p e t t y e m p l o y e r s t h r o u g h w a g e - l a b o u r ; a n d i n t h i s c o u n t r y
t o d a y c o n s u m e r a n d c u l t u r a l e x p l o i t a t i o n a r e q u i t e a s e v i d e n t a s is
e x p l o i t a t i o n " a t t h e p o i n t o f p r o d u c t i o n " a n d p e r h a p s a r e m o r e l ik e l y
t o e x p l o d e i n t o p o l i t i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . S e c o n d , o n e m u s t b e c a u t i o u s
a b o u t t h i n k in g of a n " e c o n o m i c " m o v e m e n t as o p p o s e d t o c u l t u r a l ,
m o r a l , e t c . W h e n W i l l i a m M o r r i s b r o u g h t t h e r o m a n t i c a n d t h e M a r x i s t
c r i t i q u e t o g e t h e r , a n d w r o t e o f t h e " i n n a t e m o r a l b a s e n e s s " o f t h e
c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m h e d i d n o t i n d i c a t e a m o r a l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e d e r i v a t i v e
f ro m a n e c o n o m i c b a s e . H e m e a n t — a n d h e a b u n d a n t l y d e m o n s t r a t e d
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 46/52
35 6 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
h i s m e a n i n g — t h a t c a p i ta l i s t s o c i e ty w a s f o u n d e d u p o n f o r m s o f
e x p l o i t a t i o n w h i c h a r e simultaneously e c o n o m i c , m o r a l a n d c u l t u r a l .
T a k e u p t h e e s s e n t i a l d e f i n i n g p r o d u c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p ( p r i v a t e o w n e r s h i p
o f t h e m e a n s o f p r o d u c t i o n , a n d p r o d u c t i o n f o r p r o f i t ) a n d t u r n i t
ro u n d , an d i t r ev ea l s i t se l f n o w in o n e asp ec t (wag e- l ab o u r ) , n o w in
a n o t h e r ( a n a c q u i s i t i v e e t h o s ) , a n d n o w i n a n o t h e r ( t h e a l i e n a t i o n o fsu ch in t e l l ec tu a l f acu l t i e s a s a re n o t r eq u i r ed b y th e wo rk er i n h i s
p r o d u c t i v e r o l e ) .
E v e n if " b a s e " w e r e n o t a b a d m e t a p h o r w e w o u l d h a v e t o a d d t h a t ,
w h a t e v e r it i s , i t i s n o t j u s t e c o n o m i c b u t h u m a n — a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p e n t e r e d i n t o i n v o l u n t a r i l y i n t h e p r o d u c t i v e p r o c e s s .
I a m n o t d i s p u t i n g t h a t t h i s p r o c e s s m a y b e b r o a d l y d e s c r i b e d a s
e c o n o m i c , a n d t h a t w e m a y t h u s a g r e e t h a t th e " e c o n o m i c m o v e m e n t "
h a s p r o v e d t o b e t h e " m o s t e l e m e n t a l a n d d e c i s i v e . " B u t m y e x c u r s i o n
i n t o d e fi n i ti o n s m a y h a v e m o r e t h a n s e m a n t i c i n t e r e s t if t w o p o i n t s a r e
b o rn e i n min d . F i r s t , i n t h e ac tu a l co u r se o f h i s to r i ca l o r so c io lo g ica l( as we l l a s p o l i t i ca l ) an a ly s i s it i s o f g rea t imp o r t an ce t o r em em b e r t h a t
s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l p h e n o m e n a d o n o t t r a i l a f t e r t h e e c o n o m i c a t s o m e
r e m o t e r e m o v e : t h e y a r e , a t th e i r s o u r c e , i m m e r s e d i n t h e s a m e n e x u s
o f r e l a t i o n s h i p . S e c o n d , w h i l e o n e f o r m w h i c h o p p o s i t i o n t o c a p i t a l i s m
t a k e s is i n d i r e c t e c o n o m i c a n t a g o n i s m — r e s i s t a n c e t o e x p l o i t a t i o n
w h e t h e r a s p r o d u c e r o r c o n s u m e r — a n o t h e r f o r m i s, e x a c tl y , r e s i s t a n c e
t o c a p i t a l i s m ' s i n n a t e t e n d e n c y t o r e d u c e a l l h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o
eco n o mic d e f in i t i o n s . Th e two a re i n t e r - r e l a t ed , o f co u r se ; b u t i t i s b y
n o m e a n s c e r t a i n w h i c h m a y p r o v e t o b e , i n t h e e n d , m o r e r e v o l u t i o n a r y .
1 h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t o n e w a y of r e a d i n g t h e w o r k i n g - c l a s s m o v e m e n t
d u r i n g t h e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n i s a s a m o v e m e n t o f r e s i s t a n c e t o t h ea n n u n c i a t i o n o f e c o n o m i c m a n . T h e r o m a n t i c c r it i q u e is a n o t h e r k i n d
o f r e s i s t a n c e , w i t h r e v o l u t i o n a r y i m p l i c a t i o n s . T h e m o r e r e c e n t l o n g
s t r u g g l e t o a t t a i n h u m a n e w e l f a r e s e rv i c e s i s a p a r t o f t h e s a m e p r o
f o u n d l y a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t i m p u l s e , e v e n if a d v a n c e d c a p i t a l i s m s h a v e
ex h ib i t ed a g rea t f l ex ib i l i t y i n as s imi l a t i n g i t s p ressu res . ' 2 " T h e m i s e r y
o f t h e w o r l d is e c o n o m i c , " C a u d w e l l w r o t e , " b u t t h a t d o e s n o t m e a n
th a t i t i s ca sh . T h a t is a b o u rg eo i s e r ro r . " I t i s an e r ro r wh ich M arx i s t s
a re r a t h e r t o o p r o n e to f a ll i n t o . A n d in t h e co n c lu s io n to h i s s t u d y o f
" L o v e " h e w r o t e , w i th a n i n si g h t w h i c h i s p e r h a p s t o o s y m m e t r i c a l :
"It is as i f love and economic relat ions have gathered at two opposite
po les . All the unused tenderness of man's inst incts gather at one pole and
at the o ther are economic re la t ions , reduced to bare coercive r igh ts tocommodit ies. This polar segregation is the source of a terr if ic tension, and
wi l l g ive r i se to a vas t t ransformat ion of bourgeois socie ty .""
Fo r men d es i r e , f i t fu l l y , n o t o n ly d i r ec t eco n o mic sa t i s f ac t i o n s , b u t a l so
t o t h r o w o f f t h i s g r o t e s q u e " e c o n o m i c " d i s g u i s e w h i c h c a p i t a l i s m
i m p o s e s u p o n t h e m , a n d t o r e s u m e a h u m a n s h a p e .
( 4 ) N o d o u b t A n d e r s o n m i g h t , u p o n re f l ec t i on , a c c e p t s o m e o f th e s e
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 47/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 357
s u g g e s t i o n s . T h e fa c t t h a t h e i s a w a r e o f th e i n a d e q u a c i e s o f t h e m o d e l
can be s een in an emphas i s upon complex i t i e s , a s we l l a s in rea l in s igh t s
a n d s u b t l e t i e s i n h i s h a n d l i n g o f p o l i t i c a l p h e n o m e n a . W h e r e h e a n d
N a i r n a r e a t t h e i r m o s t s c h e m a t i c i s i n t h e h a n d l i n g o f t h e c o n c e p t o f
class. T h e s e c l a s s e s w h i c h a r e m a r s h a l l e d , s e n t o n m a n o e u v r e s , a n d
m a r c h e d u p a n d d o w n w h o l e c e n t u r i e s b e a r s o l i t t l e r e l a t i o n t o t h e
a c t u a l p e o p l e d i s c l o s e d i n t h e a r c h i v e s — o r , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , i n t h e
s t ree t s a ro u nd us . I t i s a h i s to ry -ga m e which i s in fec t ious : in d i s cus s ing
t h e i r w o r k I h a v e f o u n d m y s e l f h y p o s t a s i z i n g c la s s i d e n t i t i e s — g r e a t
p e r s o n a l i z e d a t t r i b u t i o n s o f c l a s s a s p i r a t i o n o r v o l i t i o n — w h i c h o n e
k n o w s a r e a t b e s t t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n o f m o s t c o m p l e x , a n d
g e n e r a l l y i n v o l u n t a r y , p r o c e s s e s .
O n e c a n n o t o b j e c t t o t h e e m p l o y m e n t , u p o n a p t o c c a s i o n s , o f t h i s
k i n d o f p e r s o n a l i z e d m e t a p h o r . I t is t h e cumulative a t t r i b u t i o n , i n t h e i r
w r i t i n g , o f i d e n t i t y , v o l i t i o n , a n d e v e n n o t i o n s o f i n n e r d e s t i n y , w h i c h
evo ke susp ic ion . W he n , in d i s cus s ing c la s s , on e f inds onese l f to o f re q u e n t l y c o m m e n c i n g s e n t e n c e s w i t h " i t , " it i s t i m e t o p l a c e o n e s e l f
u n d e r s o m e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t r o l , o r o n e i s i n d a n g e r o f b e c o m i n g t h e s l a v e
o f o n e ' s o w n c a t e g o r i e s . S o c i o l o g i s t s w h o h a v e s t o p p e d t h e t i m e -
m a c h i n e a n d , w i t h a g o o d d e a l o f c o n c e p t u a l h u f f i n g a n d p u f f i n g , h a v e
g o n e d o w n t o t h e e n g i n e - r o o m t o l o o k , t e l l u s t h a t n o w h e r e a t a l l h a v e
they been a b le to loca te an d c la s si fy a c l a s s . Th ey can on ly f ind a
m u l t i t u d e o f p e o p l e w i t h d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t i o n s , i n c o m e s , s t a t u s -
h ie ra rch ie s , and the re s t . Of course they a re r igh t , s ince c l a s s i s no t th i s
o r t h a t p a r t o f t h e m a c h i n e , b u t the way the machine works once i t i s
s e t i n m o t i o n — n o t t h i s i n t e r e s t a n d t h a t i n t e r e s t , b u t t h e friction o fi n t e r e s t s — t h e m o v e m e n t itself, t h e h e a t , t h e t h u n d e r i n g n o i s e . C l a s s i s a
soc ia l an d cu l tu r a l fo rm a t i on (o f t en finding ins t i tu t ion a l expre s s ion )
which canno t be de f ined abs t rac t ly , o r in i so la t ion , bu t on ly in t e rms o f
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h o t h e r c l a s s e s ; a n d , u l t i m a t e l y , t h e d e f i n i ti o n c a n o n l y
b e m a d e i n t h e m e d i u m o f time—tha t i s , a c t io n an d rea c t io n , ch an ge an d
conf l i c t . When we speak o f a c la s s we a re th ink ing o f a ve ry loose ly
d e f i n e d b o d y o f p e o p l e w h o s h a r e t h e s a m e c o n g e r i e s o f i n t e r e s t s , s o c i a l
e x p e r i e n c e s , t r a d i t i o n s a n d v a l u e - s y s t e m , w h o h a v e a disposition t o
behave as a c l a s s , to de f ine themse lves in the i r ac t ions and in the i r
c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r g r o u p s o f p e o p l e i n c l a s s w a y s . B u t
c la s s i ts e l f i s no t a th in g , i t i s a h a p p en in g .7 4
I f w e u s e t h i s c o n t r o l — i f w e k e e p o n r e m e m b e r i n g t h a t c l a s s - a s -
iden t i ty i s m e t ap ho r , he lp fu l a t t imes in desc r ib in g a f lux o f re l a t ion sh i p
— t h e n a v e r y u s e f u l d i a l o g u e c a n b e o p e n e d u p b e t w e e n h i s t o r i a n s a n d
t h o s e s o c i o l o g i s t s w h o a r e w i l l in g t o t h r o w a c r o s s t h e t i m e - s w i t c h a g a i n .
I f w e d o n o t u s e t h i s c o n t r o l , w e h a v e a v e r y b l u n t c u t t i n g i n s t r u m e n t
i n d e e d . F o r w h i l e w e m a y i m a g i n e a c e r t a i n i n t e r n a l l o g i c , a b o u r g e o i s
a rch , wh ich s t re t ches f rom the twe l f th cen tu ry to our own t ime , i t i s
r a r e l y h e l p f u l t o t h i n k o f t h e b o u r g e o i s i e i n t e r m s s o e p o c h a l t h a t t h e y
i n c l u d e W i l l i a m d e l a P o l e , O l i v e r C r o m w e l l , a n d M r . E d w a r d H e a t h .
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 48/52
358 T H E S O C I A L I S T R E G I S T E R , 1965
B u t t h e N a i r n - A n d e r s o n e m p l o y m e n t o f " w o r k i n g c l a s s " d o e s e x ac t ly
t h i s ; w e a r e c a r r i e d a l o n g b y t h e i m p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n , f r o m 1 7 90 t o
1960 , sup po s in g a c l a s s wi th m or e o r l e ss un ch an ge d soc io log ica l
c o m p o s i t i o n , w i t h ( a f te r 1 83 2 ) t h e s a m e h e r m e t i c a l l y se a l e d " c o r
p o r a t e " c u l t u r e . T h e r e are con t inu i t i e s and fami ly l ikenes ses ; bu t fo r
m o s t p u r p o s e s t h e y a r e n o t t h e e p o c h a l r e s e m b l a n c e s b u t t h e d i s con t inu i t i e s which demand the c loses t ana lys i s . I t i s gene ra l ly a fa i r ly
e a s y m a t t e r t o l o c a t e o p p o s i n g s o c i a l p o l e s a r o u n d w h i c h c l a s s a l l e g i
a n c e s c o n g r e g a t e : t h e rentier h e r e , t h e i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r t h e r e . B u t i n
s i z e a n d s t r e n g t h t h e s e g r o u p s a r e a l w a y s o n t h e a s c e n d a n t o r t h e w a n e ,
the i r consc iousnes s o f c l a s s iden t i ty i s incandescen t o r s ca rce ly v i s ib le ,
the i r in s t i tu t ions a re aggres s ive o r mere ly kep t up ou t o f hab i t ; wh i l e
i n b e t w e e n t h e r e a r e t h o s e a m o r p h o u s , e v e r - c h a n g i n g s o c ia l g r o u p s
a m o n g s t w h o m t h e l i n e o f c l a s s i s c o n s t a n t l y d r a w n a n d r e - d r a w n w i t h
re spe c t to the i r po la r i za t io n th i s wa y o r tha t , an d wh ich fi tfu lly be co m e
con sc io us o f in te re s t s an d iden t i ty o f the i r own . Po l i t i c s is o f t en ab ou t
e x a c t l y t h i s — h o w w i ll c l a s s h a p p e n , w h e r e w il l t h e li n e b e d r a w n ? A n d
t h e d r a w i n g o f i t i s n o t ( a s t h e i m p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n n u d g e s t h e m i n d i n t o
a c c e p t i n g ) a m a t t e r o f t h e c o n s c i o u s — o r e v e n u n c o n s c i o u s — v o l i t i o n
of " i t " ( the c l a s s ) , bu t the ou tcome o f po l i t i c a l and cu l tu ra l sk i l l s . To
reduce c la s s to an iden t i ty i s to fo rge t exac t ly where agency l ies , not in
c la s s bu t in men .
( 5 ) A f i n a l r e s e r v a t i o n , w h i c h h a s g r o w n m o r e r a t h e r t h a n l e s s s t r o n g
w h i l e r e a d i n g t h e s e a u t h o r s , c o n c e r n s n o t w h a t t h e m o d e l p u r p o r t s t o
e x p l a i n b u t w h a t it d o e s n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t a t a l l . T h e p r e o c c u p a t i o n
i s w i th po we r , and wi th po l i t i c a l ana lys t s th i s i s p ro pe r . Bu t a l l h u m an
p h e n o m e n a c a n n o t b e a s s i m i l a t e d t o t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f p o w e r , n o r o f
c l a s s ; a n d y e t t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e s o m e t e n d e n c y a m o n g M a r x i s t s t o
a s s um e tha t they can , o r ou gh t to be . Th i s a r i s e s f rom the t e l eo log ica l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e m o d e l , a s i t is c o m m o n l y e m p l o y e d . T h e g o a l —
w o r k i n g - c l a s s p o w e r — i s al w a y s th e r e , s o m e w h e r e a h e a d , a n d h i s t o r y —
and e spec ia l ly the h i s to ry o f the work ing c la s s—is eva lua ted so le ly in
t e r m s o f a t t a i n m e n t t o w a r d s t h e g o a l .
T h i s i s a v e r y l a r g e q u e s t i o n , b u t t h r e e c o m m e n t s m a y b e m a d e .
F i r s t , h i s t o r y c a n n o t b e c o m p a r e d t o a t u n n e l t h r o u g h w h i c h a n e x p r e s s
races un t i l i t b r ings i t s f re igh t o f pas senge rs ou t in to sun l i t p l a ins . Or ,
if i t c a n b e , t h e n g e n e r a t i o n u p o n g e n e r a t i o n o f p a s s e n g e r s a r e b o r n ,l ive in the da rk , and d ie whi l e the t ra in i s s t i l l w i th in the tunne l . An
h i s t o r i a n m u s t s u r e l y b e m o r e i n t e r e s t e d t h a n t h e t e l e o l o g i s t s a l l o w
him to be in the qual i ty of l i fe , the suffer ings and sa t is fac t ions , of those
w h o li ve a n d d i e i n u n r e d e e m e d t i m e . T h e a b o l i t i o n o f f a c t o r y l a b o u r f o r
c h i l d r e n u n d e r t h e a g e o f 1 1 , o r t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f d i v o r c e , o r t h e p e n n y -
p o s t , m a y af fe ct t h e p o w e r - m o d e l s c a r c el y a t a l l ; b u t fo r t h o s e w h o w e r e
then l iv ing these may have a f fec ted them inexpres s ib ly o r qu i t e pe r
c e p t i b l y . I n N a i r n ' s s c h e m a s o c i a l r e f o r m s h a v e s c a r c e l y a n y p l a c e ,
u n l e s s a s d i s t r a c t i o n s f ro m " h e g e m o n i c " a s p i r a t i o n s ; t h o s e m o r e s u b t l e
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 49/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S O F T H E E N G L I S H 359
in f l ex ions in the qua l i ty o f l i f e have no p lace a t a l l . Bu t su re ly any ma tu re
v i e w o f h i s t o r y ( o r o f c o n t e m p o r a r y a c t u a l i t y ) m u s t i n s o m e w a y c o m
b i n e e v a l u a t i o n s o f b o t h k i n d s — o f m e n a s c o n s u m e r s o f t h e i r o w n
m o r t a l e x i s t e n c e a n d a s p r o d u c e r s o f a f u t u r e , o f m e n a s i n d i v i d u a l s a n d
a s h i s t o r i c a l a g e n t s , o f m e n b e i n g a n d b e c o m i n g ? '6
S e c o n d , t h e r e a r e o t h e r t h i n g s l e f t o u t . T h e m o d e l a p p e a r s t o b r u s hi m p a t i e n t l y a s i d e e x p e r i e n c e s a n d s o c i a l p r o b l e m s w h i c h a p p e a r t o b e
v e r y l i t tl e a f fe c te d b y t h e c o n t e x t o f c l a s s p o w e r . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e w o r k -
d i s c i p l i n e e n t a i l e d i n i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a p p e a r s t o h a v e af fi n it ie s i n q u i t e
d i f fe r e n t c o n t e x t s , w h e t h e r i t i s i m p o s e d b y a W e s l e y a n o r S t a l i n i s t
i d e o l o g y . A g a i n , t h e s c a l e o f a d v a n c e d i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s — t h e m a s s i v e
i n v e s t m e n t a n d t h e s c o p e o f c e n t r a l iz e d c o n t r o l — a p p e a r t o d w a r f
c e r t a i n k i n d s o f i n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e s , a n d t o d i s t a n c e t h e i n d i v i d u a l
f r o m p o w e r , w h a t e v e r t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s p o w e r . P r o b l e m s o f t h i s k i n d —
a n d t h e r e a r e v e r y m a n y o f t h e m — a p p e a r t o p r o d u c e o n l y s m o k e a n d
a n g r y w h i r r i n g i n a p o w e r - m o d e l w h i c h , l ik e a c o m p u t e r , c a n o n l ya n s w e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s f e d i n t o i t w h i c h i t s c i r c u i t s a r e a l r e a d y c o n
s t r u c t e d t o a n s w e r . W h a t g o e s w r o n g , i n t h e e x a m p l e s I h a v e c i t e d , i s
n o t a m o d e l w h i c h i n s i s t s u p o n t h e d i a l e c t i c o f s o c i a l b e i n g a n d s o c i a l
c o n s c i o u s n e s s b u t o n e w h i c h i n s i s t s t h a t t h i s d i a l e c t i c c a n o n l y b e
m ed ia t ed by , a n d t ak e i t s s ign i f i cance f rom , soc ia l c l a s s .
A n d , a t l a s t , i t h a s n o t e s c a p e d a l l n o t i c e , e v e n i n t h i s e m p i r i c a l
i s l and , tha t the Marx i s t t r ad i t ion has no t o f fe red ve ry e f fec t ive de fences
a g a i n s t a r a t h e r u n w h o l e s o m e o b s e s s io n w i t h p o w e r — w h e t h e r i n
i n t e l l e c t u a l t e r m s , i n t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f a l l p h e n o m e n a t o c r u d e
a d j u n c t s o f c l a s s , o r in m o r e " o b j e c t i v e " w a y s . T h e r e i s a s t r i d e n c y i nt h e w a y o u r a u t h o r s h a m m e r a t c l as s a n d ti d y u p c u l t u r a l p h e n o m e n a
in to c l a s s ca tegor ie s , a s we l l a s a ru th le s snes s in the i r d i smis sa l o f the
E n g l i s h e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h s t i r s u n e a s y m e m o r i e s .
I t i s e n c o u n t e r e d m o s t o f t e n i n N a i r n :
" . . . t hey t ended towards an impossib le and Uto p ia n re jec tion ofcapi ta l ism and indus t r ia l i sm (as wi th Ruskin and Wil l iam Morr is ) orre t rea ted in to obscuri ty and eccentr ic i ty ( l ike the novel is ts Meredi th and
S a m u e l B u t l e r ) " '6
T h e r e h a v e b e e n t i m e s , i n t h e p a s t h a l f c e n t u r y , w h e n that t o n e h a sa c c o m p a n i e d r e t r e a t s i n t o a n o b s c u r i t y w h i c h w a s p r o f o u n d in d e e d . I t
w a s t h a t t o n e — t h a t s o u n d o f b o l t s b e i n g s h o t a g a i n s t i m a g i n a t i o n a n d
e n q u i r y t h a t i m p e l l e d s o m e o f u s t o p r o c l a i m t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a N e w
Lef t in 1956 . I f th i s i s w he re w e a re , in 1965 , th en the loc us t has ea ten
n i n e y e a r s . I f i t s h o u l d b e s o , a n d if t h e r e s h o u l d b e a n y d a n g e r t h a t
t h a t t o n e w i l l b e m i s t a k e n f o r t h e v o i c e o f s o c i a l i s t h u m a n i s m , t h e n ,
if i t c o m e s t o t h a t , t h e r e a r e s o m e o f u s w h o w i l l m a n t h e s t a t i o n s o f
1 9 5 6 o n c e a g a i n .
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 50/52
360 T H E SO C I A L I ST R E G I ST E R , 1965
NOTES
1. Perry Anderson, "Origins of the Present Crisis," New Left Review, 23 (hereafter
Origins); Tom Nairn, "The English Working Class," NLR, 24; "The British
Political Elite," NLR, 23; "The Anatomy of the Labour Party—1," NLR, 27,
and "The Anatomy of the Labour Party—2," NLR, 28 (hereafter Nairn 1 and 2).
2 . Nairn, "Crowds and Critics," NLR, 17, p. 31.3 . "The English Working Class," NLR, 24, p. 48.
4 . Nairn—2, p. 61, and 1 and 2, passim.
5. "The British Political Elite," NLR, 23, p. 22.
6. Origins, pp. 40, 43.
7. "The English Working Class ," p. 43.
8. Origins, p. 40.
9. Ibid., p. 42.
10. Nairn—2, p. 49, [sic.]
11 . "The English Working Class," p. 57.
12 . Nairn—2, p. 60.
13. In this they differ from Marx whose abbreviated analysis of the genesis of
capitalism, in Capital, deals largely with agrarian capitalism, and who declares
unequivocally: "in the 'categoric' sense the farmer is an industrial capitalist as
much as the manufacturer": Capital, ed. Dona Torr (1939), i, p. 774, n. 2.
14. "The British Political Elite," pp. 20-1.
15. This is presumably not the editor of Burke's Peerage but the same E. Burke
whom Marx characterized curtly as "an out and out vulgar bourgeois": Capital,
p . 786 n.
16. Eileen Power, The Wool Trade in English Medieval History (1941), pp. 122-3.
Dobb has reminded us that there had already been an almost complete turnover
of landed property—a change in personnel—between the reigns of Henry VII
and James I: Studies in the Development of Capitalism (1946), pp. 181-9, esp. 187.
This recalls Harrington's famous analysis in Oceana, which concludes: "a
monarchy, divested of its nobility, has no refuge under heaven but an army.
Wherefore the dissolution of this government caused the war, not the war the
dissolution of this government." The general problems have been discussed by
Sweezy, Dobb, Hilton and others, in The Transition from Feudalism to
Capitalism (1954).
17. See Christopher Hill's discussion of "Republicanism After the Restoration," in
NLR, 3, pp. 46-51.
18. "The British Political Elite," pp. 21-2.
19. See e.g. note to Origins, p. 33.
2 0 . Nairn, op. cit., pp. 20-1; Origins, pp. 26, 33, 51.
2 1 . Ibid., p. 49.
2 2 . I have no doubt that I am often guilty of this in The Making of the English
Working Class.
2 3 . My objection applies with equal force to ideal types of the proletarian revolution;
see my "Revolution" in Out of Apathy (1960).
2 4 . See especially R. Cobb, Les Armees Revolutionaircs, Instrument de la Terreur
dans les Dipartements (1961), i, ch. 3 and 5.
2 5 . Anderson makes very much the same point in Origins, p. 47, with illustrations
from Honduras, Confucian China, etc. In his actual analysis, however, he has
not sufficiently taken his own point.
26. See The Making of the English Working Class (1963), pp. 544-5.
27. See Royden Harrison, Before the Socialists. Studies in Labour and Politics
(1965), ch. iii.
2 8 . See V. Kiernan, "Evangelicalism and the French Revolution," Past ami Present,
i, February 1952; The Making of the English Working Class, ch. xi.
2 9 . Origins, pp. 47-8.
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 51/52
T H E P E C U L I A R I T I E S OF THE E N G L I S H 361
30. It is amusing to see that Bagehot is rebuked by Mr. R. H. S. Crossman for
sharing the naieveties of Marx: "both succumbed to the temptation to 'explain'
politics in terms of the class struggle," The English Constitution (1964 edn.),
p p . 30-2.
3 1 . Origins, pp. 34-5, 41.
3 2 . Frank Owen, Tempestuous Journey (1954), p. 187. See also Lloyd George's
warning to the peers (November 1909): "The Peers may decree a Revolution,but the People will direct it. If they begin, issues will be raised that they little
dream of," p. 183.
3 3 . Origins, p. 32.
34 . My Apprenticeship (Pelican, 1938), i, pp. 64-9.
35. Origins, pp. 28, 30.
36. "The English Working Class," pp. 45, 48.
37. Origins, pp. 40-3.
38. They involve also, I suspect, an even larger confusion between ideology and
ideas, between intellectual culture and the mental universe, value-system, and
characteristic illusions of particular social groups, which has penetrated so
deeply into the Marxist tradition that it would require a distinct examination.
39. Bacon, Advancement of Learning (Everyman edn.), p. 26.
40 . The New Atlantis.
4 1 . When Darwin commenced work on The Descent of Man, Emma Darwin wrote
resignedly: "I think it will be very interesting, but that I shall dislike it very
much as again putting God farther off."
42 . William Morris and E. B. Bax, Socialism, its Growth and Outcome (1893), p. 116.
43 . Life and Letters of Charles Darwin (New York, 1896), i, p. 495.
44 . "The English Working Class," p. 57.
45 . Marx and Engels, Selected Correspondence (1943), pp. 472-3.
46. See F. Bealey, "Les Travaillistes et la Guerre des Boers, " Le Mouvement Social,
45 , October-D ecember 1963, pp. 69- 70; J. A. Hobs on, The Psychology of
Jingoism (1901).
47. Origins, p. 35.
48 . See especially B. Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform (1960), ch. iii, for theincredible story of the Coefficients. E. J. Hobsbawm, Labouring Men (1964),
ch. xiv, emphasizes (in terms which may be too emphatic) that "the actual
policies of the Society, up to just before the first world war, were almost always
at variance with those of most other sections of the political left, radical or
socialist" (p. 264).
49 . Independent Labour Party, Report of First Annual Conference (1893), pp. 3, 5.
Cf. Nairn—1, p. 50, and his co mme nt : "here was the authent ic spirit of Labour
ism; proudly anti-theoretical, vulgarly chauvinist, etc."
50. Origins, pp. 33, 39.
51 . See, for example, Asa Briggs, "Chartism Reconsidered," Historical Studies
(ed. M. Roberts), ii, 1959, pp. 42-59.
52 . W. Cooke Taylor, Notes of a Tour in the Manufacturing Districts of Lancashire(1842), esp. pp. 7, 43, 64, 115. Compare Marx: "The advance of capitalist
production , deve lops a working class, which by education, tradition, habit,
loo ksupon the conditions of that mode of production as self-evident laws o f nature.
The organization of the capitalist process of production, once fully developed,
breaks d own all resistance. . . . The dull compul sio n o f econ omic relations
completes the subjection o f the labourer to the capitalist " (Capital, p. 761).
53 . By one estimate there were in the early 1860s in the cot ton towns of South-East
Lancashire, 118 co-op stores with a capital of £270,267 and an annual turnover
of £1,171,066; 50 manufacturing co-ops, with a nominal capital of £2 million;
mortgages to building societ ies of £22 0,00 0 ("the bulk of this sum consists of
deposits by the lower middle, and the upper stratum of the working classes");
about £500,000 in 250 friendly societies, and "probably half as much more
7/28/2019 Thompson English
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/thompson-english 52/52