Title I and Parent Involvement

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Title I and Parent InvolvementLessons rom the Past, Recommendations or the Future

Karen L. Mapp March 2012

www.americanprogress.org www.aei.o

American Enterprise Institutefor Public Policy Research

Tightening Up Title I


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1 Introduction and summary

5 The genesis of parent involvement language in

Title I of ESEA

15 Emerging themes from the history of the Title I

parent provisions

19 Recommendations

23 Conclusion

24 Appendix: Highlights of the Family Engagement

in Education Act of 2011

26 Endnotes

29 About the author and acknowledgements

Contents


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Introduction and summary | www.americanprogress.

Introduction and summary

Wha role should amilies play in raising he achievemen levels o children and

in he eors o reorm our naions schools?1 Tis quesion has been a par o our

ederal, sae, and local policy discourse or more han 35 years, and has recenly

reached a new level o prominence. More han ve decades o research conrms

ha he engagemen o amilies in heir childrens educaion improves school

readiness, suden academic oucomes such as higher gains in reading and mah

achievemen, and graduaion raes.2

In his January 2011 Sae o he Union speech, Presiden Barack Obama

discussed he shared responsibiliy o he home, school, and communiy in

enhancing our counrys educaion sysem, saing, he quesion is wheher

all o usas ciizens and as parensare willing o do whas necessary o give

every child a chance o succeed. Ta responsibiliy begins no in our classrooms,

bu in our homes and communiies.

Secreary o Educaion Arne Duncan dened his vision or how parens can and

should be engaged in heir childrens educaion in his keynoe address a he

MOM Congress on Educaion and Learning in May 2010:

My vision or amily engagemen is ambiious. I wan o have oo many

parens demanding excellence in heir schools. I wan all parens o be real

parners in educaion wih heir childrens eachers, om cradle o career. In

his parnership, sudens and parens should eel conneced--and eachers

should eel suppored. we need parens o speak ou and drive change in

chronically-underperorming schools where children receive an inerior educa-

ion. Wih parenal suppor, hose sruggling schools need o be urned around

nowno omorrow, because children ge only one chance a an educaion.

Te presidens and secrearys remarks dene a robus and comprehensive view

o he role o amilies in heir childrens schooling. Insead o he involvemen

o parens being seen as a peripheral, compliance-driven aspec o whole school


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2 Center or American Progress | Title I and Parent Involvement

improvemen, heir vision calls or parens o beull parners wih school sa and

oher members o he communiy in he work o creaing and susaining excellen

schools. A symbol o his expanded view o he amilys role is represened by he

research-inormed shi in erminology rom parenal involvemen, represening

supporive aciviies ha occur primarily in he home beween paren and child,

o amily engagemen, broadening he role o amilies rom a-home aciviies oull parnerships wih school sa and oher parens and communiy members in

he overall improvemen o schools.3

Tis broader deniion requires ha amily engagemen be a shared responsibil-

iy among amilies, school sa, and communiy members where amilies are

commited o acively supporing heir childrens learning and developmen,

and school personnel and communiy members are commited o engaging and

parnering wih amilies in meaningul and culurally respecul ways. Tis shared

responsibiliy mus be coninuous across a childs liespan, rom cradle o career.

And i mus occur in muliple setings where children learn: a home, a school,and in communiy setings.4

Given his more comprehensive vision o amily engagemen, his paper exam-

ines he role ederal policy can play, specically, wihin he paren involvemen

provisions o ile I o he Elemenary and Secondary Educaion Ac, in moving

his more comprehensive vision o amily engagemen rom heory o pracice as

well as ullling he presidens and secrearys amily engagemen goals o shared

responsibiliy and he culivaion o paren capaciy o demand excellence in heir

schools. Tis analysis ocuses mos direcly on he naional dialogue concerning

he curren and proposed use o ile I se-aside unds, or unds specically desig-

naed by Congress or amily engagemen in heir childrens educaion.

Te mos recen reauhorizaion o ile I o ESEA in 2002, known more amil-

iarly as he No Child Le Behind Ac, addresses amily engagemen in a num-

ber o secions, mos noably in Secion 1118 o ile I. Trough Secion 1118,

disrics receiving more han $500,000 in ile I unds mus se aside a leas

1 percen or amily engagemen aciviies and disribue a leas 95 percen o

hose unds o ile I schools.5 In May 2010 Secreary Duncan announced he

Educaion Deparmens proposal o double he se-aside rom 1 percen o 2 per-cen as well as creae an opional Family Engagemen and Responsibiliy und or

sae deparmens o educaion o build wih exising ile I unds. Te new und

would be used o launch sae-run compeiions o suppor innovaive and eec-

ive local amily engagemen iniiaives.6


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Introduction and summary | www.americanprogress.

Te purpose o his paper is o review he hisory and evoluion o he ile I

paren involvemen provisions and o use he lessons learned rom his hisory o

assess he ecacy o hese provisions and he laes U.S. Deparmen o Educaion

proposals or reauhorizaion. Trough daa colleced rom inerviews wih seven

key inormans,7 alongside a review o he hisory o he paren involvemen lan-

guage in ile I, his paper idenies ve major hemes ha reveal shis over imein he inen and purpose o he law as well as recurring challenges ha impede

he applicaion o he law in pracice:

A decrease in he ocus on and commimen o building he capaciy o amilies

and school personnel o creae and susain parnerships ha suppor childrens

learning and developmen Te promoion o random acs o amily engagemen versus sysemic iniiaivesA ocus on a compliance versus an improvemenmindse or amily engagemenA shi in he emphasis o amily engagemen rom collecive growh o indi-

vidual developmenA limied commimen o monioring and evaluaion

Using hese hemes as a oundaion, his paper oers ve recommendaions or

consideraion or he reauhorizaion o ESEA. Several o he recommendaions

are aligned wih hose in he Family Engagemen in Educaion Ac o 2011, a

proposal craed by he Naional Family, School, and Communiy Engagemen

Working Group, a naionwide eam o amily and communiy engagemen

researchers, advocacy groups, praciioners, and policymakers. Te ve recom-

mendaions provided here are designed o complemen, no repea, hose oered

in he Family Engagemen in Educaion Ac:

Make permanen he increase in he minimum se-aside gure rom 1 percen o a

leas 2 percen, and revise he sauory language in Secion 1118 o direc his se-

aside unding and he proposed Family Engagemen and Opporuniy Fund oward

he design and implemenaion o iniiaives ha build he capaciy o amilies and

school sa o parner o improve suden achievemen and school qualiy. Reconsider he allocaion ormula or he disribuion o he amily engage-

men se-aside unds o he disrics and schools in order o promoe sysemic,

disricwide orms o engagemen. Change he sauory language o require ha schools involve ile I parens in

governance and decision making.


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Revise he sauory language regarding paren involvemen policies and

compacs o assure alignmen wih whole school improvemen goals o he

disric and schools. Provide suppor o monior and research innovaive amily engagemen

sraegies and iniiaives o build he knowledge base on bes pracice iniiaives

and sraegies.

Te nex reauhorizaion o he Elemenary and Secondary Educaion Ac will

be inroduced in he House o Represenaives and he Senae laer his year. Te

analysis and recommendaions in he pages ha ollow underscore or mem-

bers o boh chambers o Congress he criical need or educaion reorm ha

embraces parens and communiy members ully as parners in childrens educa-

ion and school improvemen.


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The genesis o parent involvement language in Title I o ESEA | www.americanprogress.

The genesis of parent involvement

language in Title I of ESEA

Sowing the seeds of parent activism and engagement

the civil rights movement and the War on Poverty programs

Pushed by he civil righs movemen and he ide o unres in he counry in

he 1960s, he ederal governmen, paricularly under he Johnson adminisra-

ion, proceeded wih he War on Povery programs. Tese iniiaives ushered in

ederal suppor or he engagemen o ciizen paricipaion in he planning and

execuion o hese programs. From he ederal perspecive, he suppor o ciizenparicipaion aimed o:

Make he services delivered o he poor more responsive o heir needs Inegrae he botom segmens o he urban populaion ino communiy lie,

hus quieing unres and promoing sabiliy8

Te Economic Opporuniy Ac o 1964, or example, required ciizens served by

EOA o have maximum easible paricipaion in he povery programs plan-

ning. EOA was he cenerpiece o he War on Povery, which in urn was a major

hrus o he Grea Sociey legislaive agenda o he Johnson adminisraion.

EOA provided or job raining, adul educaion, and loans o small businesses o

atack he roos o unemploymen and povery. EOA also esablished housands

o Communiy Acion Agencies hroughou he counry. Many o hese agencies,

suppored by ederal dollars, opened neighborhood ceners ha provided echni-

cal assisance and raining, spawning a generaion o communiy leaders and aciv-

iss, many o whom were parens.

Head Sar and Follow Trough, wo educaion-relaed iniiaives ha were a par

o he arsenal o anipovery programs, also operaed on he concep ha he poorshould paricipae in planning and carrying ou o programs designed or heir ben-

e.9 From is incepion in 1965, Head Sar emphasized paren paricipaion and

provided deailed language or how parens would be engaged in decision making.

Paren engagemen in Head Sar began wih paren advisory councils. When Head


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Sar was moved rom he Oce o Economic Opporuniy o he Oce o Child

Developmen in he Deparmen o Healh, Educaion, and Welare in 1970, hese

councils were upgraded o policy boards and given subsanial auhoriy, similar

o he kind associaed wih a governing board. Wide variaions were repored in

he eeciveness o hese policy boards, wih some evidence ha he public school

pushback on he ull engagemen o parens on hese boards was signican.10

Anoher example o an educaion-relaed program was Follow Trough, designed

as a comprehensive atack on povery where he local school would serve as a

ocal poin or coordinaion o services o he poor communiy. Follow Trough

sressed boh individual and collecive orms o paricipaion. Along wih Head

Sar and oher economic opporuniy eors, he vision o Follow Trough was

social change and collecive empowermen. Te goal o he program was o enable

local insiuions, parens, and communiy residens o be responsible or and

bring abou he needed changes in heir communiies.11

When he Follow Trough program was shied in 1969 rom he Oce o

Economic Improvemen o he Oce o Educaion a HEW, he programs ocus

shied rom one wih an emphasis on social change o one wih a concenra-

ion on evaluaion and improvemen o academic achievemen. Te Oce o

Educaion coninued o suppor he programs original inen o involve parens,

bu parenal involvemen became a means o improve he qualiy o he programs

educaional impac, noas a way o developing communiy leadership and collec-

ive srengh. Even wih his shi in ocus, he paren involvemen requiremens

or Follow Trough suggesed more ciizen infuence and engagemen han any o

he oher Oce o Educaion programs.12

An ineresing episode occurred during he Oce o Educaions adminisraion

o he Follow Trough program ha raised quesions abou he ederal role in

empowering parens o be engaged in educaion reorm. In an atemp o arm

is recogniion o he imporance o paren engagemen, he Oce o Educaion

conraced wih Aram Associaes, led by Harlem acivis and supporer o com-

muniy conrol Preson Wilcox, o organize and advise a group o Follow Trough

projecs.13 Arams suppor and assisance o hose programs was based on a srong

ideological belie abou paren engagemen:

Families have a naural nonnegoiable righ/responsibiliy o guard/proec he

righ o heir children o be perceived as human/educable, as being members o

a communiy and o be involved in shaping he conen/policy o heir childrens


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educaional programs. Te ailure o school sysems o eecively provide educa-

ional jusice o all children shis he exercise o parenal decision-making om a

righ/responsibiliy o an absolue necessiy.14

Aram and he Oce o Educaion ran ino diculies when Aram sa rejeced

he evaluaion o heir projecs based on sandardized es scores and ohermeasures o suden perormance, and in 1976 he governmen agency made he

decision no o reund Aram. A 1977 Cener or New Schools repor saed:

Te posiion o he Federal unders was ha Aam reused o ollow proper

procedures and ha services being provided by Aam a ha poin were

unclear. Aams perspecive was ha i was no reunded because i reused o

pu he mainenance o relaions wih unders above is direc work wih par-

ens, because i pressed or more paren conrol o Follow Trough, and because

i encouraged local sies o ake primary credi or heir successes raher han

osering dependency and claiming major credi or Aam.15

Te relaionship beween Aram and he ederal educaion agency raised ques-

ions abou wheher he ederal governmen would und iniiaives ha sough o

ranser power o poor people, ha emphasized preeminen roles or parens and

communiy members, and ha sough o uilize measuremen and accounabiliy

ools ha ocused on paren and communiy empowermen oucomes raher han

on more radiional academic achievemen measures.16

Parent involvement and Title I

Unlike he oher anipovery programs ha conained specic language abou

ciizen paricipaion, he Elemenary and Secondary Educaion Ac o 1965

creaed he ile I program wihou any menion o paren paricipaion in he

program.17 Senae Educaion Commitee members sruggled wih ideniying he

role o parens during hearings on he bill, and by 1966 ederal ocials looking

o implemen ile I began urging local ocials o involve parens. By 1967 he

Oce o Educaion required local school ocials o creae appropriae aciviies

and services in which parens could be involved.18

Tis language was expandedin 1967 in a governmen program guide where he goal o paren involvemen was

dened as building he capabiliies o parens o work wih he school in a way

ha suppors heir childrens well being, growh, and developmen.19


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In 1968 he requiremens or involving amilies grew in ocus and inensiy and

were more explicily saed in he ile I regulaions developed by he Oce o

Educaion. Tese regulaions required parens o be involved in he planning,

operaions, and evaluaion o ile I projecs. Tese new regulaions also gave

disrics he opion o esablishing paren advisory councils o mee hese require-

mens. Te momenum or even sronger language coninued o build. In heGeneral Educaion Provisions Ac o 1969, Congress gave he commissioner o

educaion he power o srenghen parenal involvemen language, and in 1972

he agency aced on he discreionary powers graned by Congress and issued

regulaions ha required each sae deparmen o educaion o esablish a disric-

wide paren advisory council.20

As he paren involvemen language was being srenghened in ile I, acivis

organizaions began o recognize he power o he law and became ineresed in

he opporuniy o encourage greaer paren paricipaion and voice in how ile

I unds were being spen in schools and disrics. Te Quakers American FriendsService Commitee, or example, had been working in he souhern saes on issues

o school desegregaion.21 In collaboraion wih he NAACP Legal Deense Fund,

AFSC ormed he Souheasern Public Educaion Program. SEPEPs work included:

Providing communiy groups and ciizens wih inormaion, leadership

developmen, organizing skills, and legal assisanceWorking wih ederal agencies o ensure accounabiliy o he communiies

hey servedAlering he ederal governmen o challenges o congressional mandaes22

In doing so, SEPEP learned wha was working and wha wasn in souhern

elemenary and secondary schools a he ime. As early as 1967, a SEPEP repre-

senaive repored o Congress ha:

Te lack o communiy involvemen in he creaion o ESEA ile I programs

oen resuls in grea misundersandings, and even hosiliy, beween he Negro

communiy and school ofcials. Unorunaely, school ofcials seem o ake litle

ime o ully explain o he communiy how he ESEA unded programs work

and he exen o heir limiaions. here needs o be some mechanism, hope-ully creaed volunarily by local school ofcials, bu i necessary, creaed by law

or required by he U.S. Ofce o Educaion, ha will allow parens and com-

muniy leaders o express heir ideas and opinions, and o know heir righs and

responsibiliies under ESEA unded programs.23


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As he ile I requiremens or paren involvemen began o srenghen, paricu-

larly he language requiring paren advisory councils a he disric level, groups

like SEPEP began o urn heir atenion o working on he elecion o parens o

hese advisory councils and he building o parens capaciy o undersand he

law and assure ha heir school sysems were in compliance wih ile I paren

involvemen mandaes.24

In addiion o SEPEP, organizaions such as he Lawyers Commitee or Civil

Righs, he NAACP Legal Deense Fund, and he Naional Commitee or

Ciizens in Educaion began o provide workshops and various raining oppor-

uniies or parens in urban and rural areas around he counry. As a resul o he

capaciy-building eors on he par o hese organizaions, he number o poor,

Arican American, and Laino parens willing and able o paricipae as paren

advisory council leaders grew subsanially.

The birth of the National Coalition of ESEA Title I Parents

William H. Anderson rom Wilmingon, DE, a ile I paren advisory council

chairman and acivis, had been working closely wih sa rom he Lawyers

Commitee or Civil Righs and he NAACP Legal Deense Fund on he rain-

ing and organizing o oher ile I parens. In 1972 Anderson learned ha he

Naional Advisory Council or he Educaion o Disadvanaged Children, a coun-

cil appoined by Presiden Johnson o oversee he adminisraion o ESEA, was

holding a meeing in Washingon, D.C., or ile I sae adminisraors. Anderson

also learned ha a porion o he meeing would ocus on paren involvemen.

Seeing ha his was an imporan opporuniy or parens o mee members o he

NACEDC and sae ile I coordinaors, Anderson organized and arranged or a

group o 14 parens o atend he meeing.25

In addiion o presening several resoluions and recommendaions or srengh-

ening he paren involvemen provisions o ile I, he group pushed or he

NACEDC o sponsor a naional conerence or ile I parens. Te council agreed,

and on January 4, 1973, 50 ile I parens rom across he counry me o discuss

he challenges o parenal involvemen in ile I. Te conerence resuled in heormulaion and passing o several dozen resoluions, wih one calling or he

esablishmen o he Naional Coaliion o ESEA ile I Parens.26


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Te Naional Coaliion uncioned as a small group o acivis ile I parens who

ocused on monioring pending ile I legislaion as well as building he capaciy

o oher parens o become more involved in he educaion o heir children. Te

group regularly esied in hearings on paren involvemen legislaion and was

insrumenal in pushing hrough, in 1974, Public Law 93-380, which saed ha

paren advisory councils were required or each disric and school being served byile I. Te coaliion also esied on a number o occasions in avor o addiional

resources or paren raining and leadership developmen.

In 1976 he Carnegie Corporaion o New York awarded he Naional Coaliion a

wo-year gran o $200,000 o esablish he Naional Paren Cener in Washingon,

D.C. Te new cener became he premier raining, inormaion, and resource cen-

er or parens as well as schools and disrics. Rober Wiherspoon, who began as

a rainer or he cener and laer became is direcor, saed ha he and oher coali-

ion members led hundreds o rainings around he counry or parens on heir

righs and responsibiliies under ile I. Te rainings ocused more on parensundersanding o he legislaion, he specics o he law, and leadership raining

raher han on parening classes and workshops. Wiherspoon saed ha he

classes were highly ineracive, wih parens oen quizzing each oher on he law.

Some workshops also augh parens abou heir eligibiliy or oher ederal

iniiaives such as Head Sar and he ree-lunch programs. One paren, Susanne

Jackson, in a alk a a Naional Coaliion meeing in 2003, described he early par-

en capaciy-building eors o he coaliion:

We sudied budges, ederal, sae and local regulaions, elecions, learning

echniques and programs, mehods o evaluaion, impacs o early childhood

educaion and compuer learning and much more. We augh each oher. We

brough in expers om educaion, governmen and oher groups o help us

learn. We used wha we learned o rain ohers in our regions and in our school

disrics. We believed Knowledge is Power. We were deermined o exercise our

Power o ac on behal o all he children. 27

The 1978 parent involvement amendments

Te mos subsanial vicory or he Naional Coaliion o ESEA ile I Parens

and oher paren advocacy groups came wih he passage o he Educaional

Amendmens o ESEA in 1978. wo ull secions o he amended law were dedi-

caed o ensuring parens would be included in he governance o he program. Te


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The genesis o parent involvement language in Title I o ESEA | www.americanprogress.o

rs secion required ha disrics give parens he opporuniy o be engaged in

he esablishmen o he programs and required ha parens be kep inormed o

and permited o make recommendaions o he insrucional goals o he program.

Te second secion o he law addressed he esablishmen and role o he advisory

councils, requiring ha parens be involved in he planning, implemenaion, and

evaluaion o programs.28

Councils could veo disric plans or he use o ederalunds; sae and local deparmens o educaion had o provide councils wih rel-

evan laws, guidelines, regulaions, and any oher relevan documens; and raining

had o be provided or boh local and disric paren council members. 29

Even aer he srenghening o he language in 1978, many schools and disrics

remained resisan o engaging parens. In one o he limied number o sudies

conduced on he impac o he ile I paren provisions, he lae poliical science

proessor Marilyn Gitell a he Ciy College o New York ound ha he impac o

he paren advisory councils was disappoining.30 Te sudy revealed ha, overall,

ew ile I parens were aware o he exisence o hese paren councils, schoolsdominaed he advisory councils, and paren members were seldom involved in

he planning o he ile I projecs.

Indeed, in ollowing up on complains lodged by parens, he Naional Council

discovered ha deceased parens names appeared on he rosers o paren

advisory councils, or ha parens names were pu on rosers wihou heir

knowledge. Eleced members o hese councils also complained ha i was

dicul o ge inormaion rom heir disrics and schools on how he ile I

money was being spen or o receive he raining and suppor ha disrics and

schools were supposed o provide.

Despie he ac ha he paren advisory councils sruggled, many, especially

hose in large urban disrics, gained srengh, power, and conrol over he pro-

gramming. Tis increase in he power and voice o poor parens o color resuled

in signican pushback rom disric and sae school ocials, eachers unions,

and superinendens.31

The weakening of the parental involvement provisions

In 1981, under he Reagan adminisraion, almos all parenal involvemen provi-

sions in ile I were eliminaed when ESEA was repealed and replaced wih he

Educaion Consolidaion and Improvemen Ac.32 ile I became Chaper 1, and

he paren involvemen language was reduced o a single requiremen ha schools


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and disrics hold an annual meeing o ile I parens o inorm hem abou he

program. In mos cases, he repeal o he 1978 provisions led disrics o abolish

boh disric- and school-based paren advisory councils. Some o he more acive

and powerul disric councils, such as hose in Deroi, Chicago, New York Ciy,

and Los Angeles, hung on, bu many were eliminaed.

According o Arnold Fege, direcor o public engagemen and advocacy or hePublic Educaion Nework, despie he repeal o he 1978 provisions, he ve-year

opening o he policy window ha srongly suppored paren involvemen in he

governance o ile I resuled in:

raining ha was developed by and or parens Parens learning abou and execuing planning, evaluaion, and programmaic

auhoriy Te culivaion o a new generaion o poor parens who were educaed on how

o use he educaional sysem and press or educaional and insiuional change 33

Tese parens coninued o ravel o Washingon o lobby or and suppor he

reinserion o parenal involvemen language ino uure reauhorizaions.

From 1988 to 2001the reemergence of parent involvement

language in Title I

Despie he repeal o he 1978 requiremens, groups like he Naional Coaliion o

ile I ESEA Parens, he Cener or Law and Educaion, he Childrens Deense

Fund, and he Naional Commitee or Ciizens in Educaion coninued o push

or he reinserion o sronger paren involvemen language in he law. Wih each

reauhorizaion o ESEA aer 1981 came some atemp o srenghen he ile I

paren involvemen provisions. Te Hawkins-Saord Amendmens o 1988, or

example, provided language ha required sae and local deparmens o educa-

ion o wrie policies o ensure paren involvemen in program planning, design,

and implemenaion; provide imely inormaion abou he program o parens;

and provide inormaion o parens in a language and orm hey could undersand.

Ten, in 1994, Presiden Clinon signed ino law he Improving AmericasSchools Ac. Tis reauhorizaion o ESEA ushered in a more comprehensive

model o paren involvemen. Te changes in language under Secion 1118

required ile I schools o develop a writen paren involvemen policy and

school-paren compacs, developed wih and approved by parens, ha would


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The genesis o parent involvement language in Title I o ESEA | www.americanprogress.o

ouline how sudens, parens, and school sa would work as a eam o mee aca-

demic sandards, and required muliple ypes o paren involvemen. Te 1994 law

inroduced he se-aside ha required ile I schools o spend a leas 1 percen o

heir ile I unds on parenal involvemen.34

Parent involvement and the No Child Left Behind Act

Te curren version o ESEA, he No Child Le Behind Ac o 2002, menions

paren involvemen in several secions o he law, bu mos noably in Secion 1118

(see ex box on page 14). Even hough advocaes lobbied and provided Congress

wih language oulining an increase in he se-aside rom 1 percen o 5 percen, he

NCLB reauhorizaion language emerged wih no increase o he se-aside dollars.

Ye, or he rs ime, ESEA included a deniion o paren involvemen. I saed ha:

he paricipaion o parens in regular, wo-way and meaningul communica-ion involving suden academic learning and oher school aciviies including

ensuring ha:

Parens play an inegral role in assising heir childrens learning;

Parens are encouraged o be acively involved in heir childrens educaion

a school;

Parens are ull parners in heir childrens educaion and are included, as

appropriae, in decision-making and on advisory commitees o assis in he

educaion o heir child;

Te carrying ou o oher aciviies, such as hose described in Secion 1118.

Tensions within the current regulations

Tough he curren law provides guidance on he implemenaion o Secion 1118

o ESEA, research and ederal monioring reveals ha, once again, sae educa-

ion agencies, disrics, and schools are sruggling o ulll he paren involve-

men requiremens.36 Case in poin: A recen repor rom he U.S. Deparmen

o Educaion concluded ha he paren involvemen requiremens, includingcompacs, are one o he weakes areas o ile I compliance. 37

Disrics also repor ha he curren language or he disribuion o ile I paren

involvemen dollars, where 95 percen o he se-aside mus be allocaed direcly


18/36


o schools, prevens he use o hese unds or disricwide, more sysemic amily

engagemen iniiaives. In 2010 and 2011, respecively, he Boson and Balimore

Public School disrics were resriced rom using heir ile I paren involve-

men unds or broader, more coheren disricwide amily engagemen iniiaives

because o he allocaion language in he law.

In addiion, he curren law does no require schools o link heir school-paren

compacs o achieving he goals o heir school improvemen plans, hus missing

an opporuniy o simulae eacher-paren collaboraion on a powerul muual

ineres: achieving suden progress in a given school year. In a review o school

compacs, or example, he Connecicu Deparmen o Educaion in 2008 ound

ha many were gahering dus and had no been revised in years. Few compacsdescribed home-school iniiaives ha could have a direc impac on learning.

Mos o he compacs parroed he general language in he law abou parens

responsibiliy o suppor childrens learning, such as monioring atendance,

homework compleion, and V waching.38

The Elementary and Secondary Education Act, Section 1118,

as amended in 2002, includes these six key leverage points or

parental involvement:35

(1) Every Title 1 school must have a written parent involvement

policy, developed with and approved by parents. This policy

should spell out how parents will be involved in a meaningul way

and how they will be involved in the school. The policy must be

updated periodically to reect the changing concerns o parents.

(2) Every Title 1 school must have a school-parent compact, devel-

oped and approved by parents, that describes how the school and

parents will build a partnership to improve student achievement.

This compact should explain how the school will meet the needs

o its students so that they will achieve high standards.

(3) Every school district must have a written Title 1 parent involvement

policy that is developed with and approved by parents, and

evaluated every year. This policy must spell out how the district

will engage parents in developing its Title 1 plan and how it

will help parents gain the knowledge and skills to be involve

eectively in decisions about the program and in the school

(4) The school district must distribute a report card speciying h

every school and the district as a whole is perorming. This a

to Title 1 and non-Title 1 schools, as well as to charter schoo

(5) I a Title 1 school has not made adequate progress over the

past two or more years, parents have two options. They can

to transer their children to a school that is making adequat

progress, or they can request supplemental services and be

involved in improving the school.

(6) The state education agency must monitor the school distric

1 programs to make sure they carry out the law. I the distr

not involving parents, parents and community members sh

appeal to the state.

Six key leverage points for parent involvement


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Emerging themes rom the history o the Title I parent provisions | www.americanprogress.o

Emerging themes from the history

of the Title I parent provisions

Tis recouning o he hisory and evoluion o he paren involvemen provi-

sions o ile I reveal ve compelling hemes ha shape and undergird any uure

recommendaions o he law:

A decrease in he ocus on and commimen o building he capaciy o amilies

and school personnel o creae and susain parnerships ha suppor childrens

learning and developmen Te promoion o random acs o amily engagemen versus sysemic iniiaivesA ocus on a compliance versus an improvemenmindse or amily engagemenA shi in he emphasis o amily engagemen rom collecive growh o indi-

vidual developmenA limied commimen o monioring and evaluaion

Les now examine each in urn.

A decrease in the focus on and commitment to building the

capacity of families and school personnel to create and sustain

partnerships that support childrens learning and development

Harvard Universiy educaion proessor Richard Elmore, in his heory o

reciprociy, saes ha or every incremen o change in perormance ha is

expeced, here is an equal responsibiliy required o provide he capaciy o

mee ha expecaion.39 Troughou he hisory o he parenal involvemen

provisions, parens and school sa have been asked o engage in ways or which

neiher side is prepared.

Te anipovery programs o he 1960s provided echnical assisance and capac-

iy building o poor communiies and communiies o color, resuling in he

culivaion o a cadre o parens who were ready and able o paricipae in disric

and school councils. Over he pas ew decades, however, he overall ederal


20/36


emphasis on capaciy building has dissipaed, and or ile I here has been a

seady decrease in he ocus on he capaciy-building side o parenal involve-

men.40 Secion 1118 o ESEA, or example, places a heavy emphasis on he

role o parens in he developmen o paren involvemen policies a he disric

and school levels and he developmen o school-paren compacs, bu lacks an

equal and corresponding emphasis on he ype o capaciy building required orparens o ulll hese roles.

Similarly, sae-, disric-, and school-level sa receive litle o no raining on he

skills and compeencies required o parner wih amilies. Heaher Weiss and

Naomi Sephen a he Harvard Family Research Projec repor ha here has

been and coninues o be litle leadership rom any source demanding or provid-

ing pre- or in- service raining o eachers in his area.41

eachers are also unprepared o work wih amilies in supporing hese roles. Te

2005 MeLie Survey o he American eacher ound ha new eachers ideniedworking wih amilies as heir greaes challenge and he area where hey eel leas

well prepared.42

Te limied capaciy o boh parens and sae, disric- and school-level person-

nel o parner wih each oher and share he responsibiliy o improving suden

perormance acors heavily ino he relaively poor execuion and oversigh o he

ile I paren provisions.

The promotion of random acts of family engagement versus

systemic initiatives

An uninended oucome o he provisions has been he creaion o condiions

resuling in random acs o paren involvemen versus sysemic amily engage-

men iniiaives.43 Family engagemen ha is sysemic is purposely designed as a

core componen o whole school improvemen; in oher words, all iniiaives are

linked o suden learning and school improvemen. Tese iniiaives are ocused

on improving educaional oucomes or all children, are aligned and coheren

wih he overall improvemen goals o he disrics and schools, work o mobi-lize sakeholders rom diverse setings o share he responsibiliy or he work o

improvemen, and are no sandalone or bouique projecs bu iniiaives ha

are inegraed across all educaional setings.44


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Emerging themes rom the history o the Title I parent provisions | www.americanprogress.o

A focus on a compliance versus an improvementmindset for

family engagement

Troughou he hisory o he ile I paren engagemen language, here has

been an emphasis on a compliance mindseversus an improvemen mindse. Te

compliance mindse views he role o he ile I paren as he compliance oceror wachdog o he school sysem, placing parens in he posiion o making

sure he law is ollowed and schools are in compliance. Alhough his role may

be a necessary componen o paren involvemen, i is no sucien. Te heavy

emphasis on his compliance orienaion exacerbaes an us versus hem dynamic

beween parens and school sa raher han a dynamic o shared responsibiliy.

Tis mindse also pulls parens away rom he work o whole school improvemen,

making parenal involvemen appear o be more o a nuisance and an appendage

han an inegral par o he school improvemen process.45

In conras, an improvemen mindse would see parens as vial conribuorso he work o improving schools. As heir childrens rs eachers, parens oen

bring valuable unds o knowledge o he school ha inorm eaching and

learning sraegies.46 Parens are also key inormans abou communiy srenghs

and challenges, inormaion ha is vial or any comprehensive school improve-

men process. In order or improvemen sraegies o be ully implemened and

susained, he amilies aeced by hese changes mus be direcly engaged as

parners in he process.

A shift in the emphasis of family engagement from collective

growth to individual development

A noiceable shi over he years in he ile I paren involvemen language has

been rom an emphasis on ensuring he delivery o equiable and eecive pro-

gramming across ile I disrics and schools o an emphasis on a parens abiliy

o oversee he programs impac on heir own childs or childrens developmen.

In he early paren involvemen language, an emphasis was placed on oversigh

o how he ile I dollars were being spen in disrics and schools and he level

and ype o programming. Tose paren involvemen provisions enabled parenso quesion how he money was being used. Tis auhoriy led o he reporing

ou by parens o organizaions such as he NAACP Legal Deense Fund abou

he improper use o ile I unds in he Souh, which led o he groundbreaking

repor by Phyllis McClure o he NAACP Legal Deense and Educaional Fund


22/36


abou he supplaning o ile I dollars.47 Tus, parens did infuence program-

ming decisions made by disrics and school sa ha impaced no only heir chil-

dren bu also muliple children and communiies across he disrics and schools.

In conras, Secion 1118 places more emphasis on he parens role as a chooser

o services and schools or heir own child raher han on he overall improvemeno he school. Fege o he Public Educaion Nework saes ha while here had

been some srenghening o he parenal involvemen language in he mos recen

reauhorizaion o ESEA in he NCLB Ac rom previous versions o he law, he

emphasis has been on choice raher han poliical organizing and mobilizaion

and while choice may improve he educaion o some children, i drains he

responsibiliy ha parens and communiies have in working ogeher o improve

heir public schools.48

Tis ocus on he individual raher han on he collecive may also have an impac

on incenivizing amilies o be engaged in iniiaives. Social capial research saesha a key incenive in any mobilizaion eor is he paricipaion o oher mem-

bers o he communiy who one knows and russ.49 In a research sudy by he

auhor o his repor on how and why low-income, ile I-eligible parens were

involved in heir childrens educaion, parens indicaed ha he schools emphasis

on relaionship building wih school sa and oher parens was key.50 Te process

o joiningwelcoming, honoring, and connecing amilies o each oher, o

sa members, and o heir childrens learningserved as powerul incenives

or amily engagemen. Tus, individualized approaches or involving amilies ail

o recognize research-inormed sraegies or how o connec and susain educa-

ional parnerships wih ile I parens.

A limited commitment to monitoring and evaluation

Sadly, ew lessons abou bes or promising pracice amily engagemen srae-

gies and iniiaives can be derived rom he ile I program. Wih he excepion

o a ew sudies, such as he one conduced by educaion policy expers Arhur

Reynolds and Melissa Clemens on he impac o he Chicago-based Child-Paren

Cener program,51

ew in-deph evaluaions have been conduced recenly on herange o amily engagemen iniiaives ha have emerged rom ile I. In addi-

ion o he lack o invesmen in research on he paren involvemen aspec o he

program, here has been relaively litle eor made o monior saes and disrics

or accounabiliy and compliance.52


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Recommendations | www.americanprogress.o

Recommendations

Using he hemes rom he hisory o he ile I parenal involvemen provisions

as a oundaion, his paper oers ve recommendaions or consideraion or

he reauhorizaion o ESEA. Several o he recommendaions are aligned wih

hose in he Family Engagemen in Educaion Ac o 2011, a proposal pu orh

o Congress in he all o 2010 by he Naional Family, School, and Communiy

Engagemen Working Group, a naionwide eam o amily and communiy

engagemen researchers, advocacy groups, praciioners, and policymakers

(see Appendix). Te ve recommendaions provided here are designed ocomplimen, no repea, hose oered in he FEEA:

Make permanen he increase in he minimum se-aside gure rom 1 per-

cen o a leas 2 percen, and revise he sauory language in Secion 1118

o direc his se-aside unding and he proposed Family Engagemen and

Opporuniy Fund oward he design and implemenaion o iniiaives ha

build he capaciy o amilies and school sa o parner o improve suden

achievemen and school qualiy.

Reconsider he allocaion ormula or he disribuion o he amily engagemen

se-aside unds o he disrics and schools in order o promoe sysemic,

disricwide orms o engagemen.

Change he sauory language o require ha schools involve ile I parens in

governance and decision making.

Revise he sauory language regarding paren involvemen policies and

compacs o assure alignmen wih whole school improvemen goals o he

disric and schools.

Provide suppor o monior and research innovaive amily engagemen

sraegies and iniiaives o build he knowledge base on bes pracice

iniiaives and sraegies.


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In his secion we will deail each o hese recommendaions in urn.

Make permanent the increase in the minimum set-aside and revise

the statutory language in Section 1118

Te language in he law mus incenivize saes, disrics, and schools o develop

innovaive capaciy-building iniiaives or parens and school sa o enable hem

o carry ou he various amily engagemen provisions oulined in ile I. Te

language should require saes and disrics o parner wih communiy-based

organizaions wih experise in leadership developmen and capaciy-building

iniiaives. Parnering wih communiy-based organizaions wih his experise

will reconnec and inegrae more collecive capaciy-building oucomes ino he

inen and goals o he law.

In order or parens o be acive and eecive paricipans in he school-reormprocess, hese capaciy-building eors mus enable hem o be collaboraive

agens o change in suppor o suden achievemen and school improvemen.53

Te se-aside unds mus be direced o suppor he enhanced capaciy o amilies

o engage in all ve o he ollowing roles a home, school, and in he communiy:

As supporers o learningAs eecive decision makersAs leadersAs advocaesAs parners in shared accounabiliy

eachers, paraproessionals, and disric, sae, and school leaders are in grea need

o pre-service and in-service inensive and coninuing proessional develop-

men opporuniies o help hem creae and susain, wih amilies as heir parners,

sysemic and comprehensive iniiaives.54

Reconsider the allocation formula for the distribution of the family

engagement set-aside funds to the districts and schools

Even wih an increase o unding o a 2 percen se-aside, he requiremen or

disrics o direc 95 percen o he unding o individual schools prevens he

implemenaion o sysemic, inegraed, and susainable sysemic disricwide


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Recommendations | www.americanprogress.o

iniiaives. In many cases he direc allomen o schools is oo small o suppor a

sysemic approach o amily engagemen.

Te unding language insead should be fexible enough so ha disric amily

and communiy engagemen planning eams, consising o parens, school sa,

and communiy members, can design iniiaives ha are linked o learning andimprovemen, raher han coninue o run random, sandalone projecs ha have

litle o no connecion o school improvemen and eaching and learning.

Change the statutory language to require that schools involve

Title I parents in governance and decision making

Schools receiving ile I unds should be required o have ile I paren represen-

aion on heir governing bodies. Mos schools have a school sie council or local

school council, and ile I parens should occupy a leas 50 percen o he seasreserved or parens. I he capaciy-building eors are enaced, hen a number o

parens who can eecively serve on hese governing bodies will be available.

Having ile I parens as members o school and disric governance groups ha

are responsible or sraegic decision making connecs hem o, raher han sepa-

raes hem rom, he work o improving schools.

Revise the statutory language regarding parent involvement

policies and compacts to assure alignment with whole school

improvement goals of the district and schools

Te research on amily engagemen indicaes ha when sraegies o engage ami-

lies are linked o suden learning, hese sraegies have a greaer eec on achieve-

men han more general orms o involvemen. o be eecive, amily engagemen

sraegies mus be ocused on improving achievemen and be designed o engage

amilies and sudens in developing specic knowledge and skills.55 Te sauory

language abou he creaion o school-paren compacs should require ha com-

pacs be linked o achieving he goals o he whole school improvemen plan.

Te Connecicu Deparmen o Educaion, or example, recenly underook a

major iniiaive o help ile I schools ransorm heir school-amily compacs

rom boilerplae documens o acion plans laying ou how parens, school sa,


26/36


and sudens will collaborae over he coming year o achieve key goals or suden

achievemen. A a minimum, he language should require ha compacs ocus

direcly on suden learning (no behavior or dress, which can be covered in he

school handbook), be linked o he suden achievemen goals in he school

improvemen plan, and be developed collaboraively by parens and school sa

each year.56

Tis recommendaion ies in wih one o he educaion prioriies ohe American Recovery and Reinvesmen Ac o 2009 o provide inormaion o

amilies o help hem evaluae and improve heir childrens schools, and o educa-

ors o help hem improve childrens learning.

Provide support to monitor and research innovative family

engagement strategies and initiatives

Te ile I unding or amily engagemen, i direced o suppor no only he

creaion o innovaive amily engagemen iniiaives ha suppor whole schoolimprovemen bu also proper evaluaion o hese iniiaives, could be used as a

research and developmen opporuniy o add o wha we know abou bes prac-

ice in his area. Sae and local deparmens o educaion need suppor and guid-

ance in he idenicaion o appropriae merics and ools o measure he impac

o amily engagemen across muliple domains.

Insead o monioring and evaluaion being seen as only a ool o compliance,

ederal suppor can incenivize saes and disrics o engage in monioring and

improvemen research o inorm and srenghen he eld o amily engagemen.


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Conclusion | www.americanprogress.o

Conclusion

In heir groundbreaking longiudinal invesigaion o he inernal and exernal

condiions ha impac elemenary school improvemen, he Consorium on

Chicago School Research idenied ve essenial suppors or school improve-

men. Tey are srong leadership, insrucional guidance, proessional capaciy, a

suden-cenered learning climae, and las bu no leas, srong paren and com-

muniy ies, which ogeher were idenied as ingrediens ha inerac wih one

anoher and drive he school improvemen process.

Schools wih srong amily engagemen were our imes more likely o improve

suden reading over ime and were 10 imes more likely o improve suden learn-

ing gains in mahemaics.57 Tis research underscores he need o elevae he role

o amilies rom backsage o ron and cener in he school reorm policy, research,

and pracice discourse.

oo oen, amily engagemen is seen as an aerhoughan add-on aciviy ha

is separae rom he real work o creaing sysems o eecive schools. Building he

awareness o he essenial role ha amilies play in he reorm o Americas schools

as well as he capaciy o creae and susain eecive educaional parnerships

beween amilies and schools requires a new level o commimen and suppor

o he developmen, execuion, oversigh, and evaluaion o curren and uure

ederal policy in he area o amily engagemen.


28/36


Appendix: Highlights of the Family

Engagement in Education Act of 2011Purpose:

(1) Incenivize disrics and schools o use bes pracices or amily engagemen: Provide recommended, research-based naional sandards or amily school

parnerships and providing guidance or he use o he se-aside. Incenivize school disrics o meaningully engage amilies by increasing he

local se-aside rom 1 percen o 2 percen and providing addiional raining

and echnical assisance on amily engagemen bes pracices. Engage paren leaders in developing and assessing he implemenaion o

amily engagemen policies and pracices.

(2) Build local and sae capaciy or eecive amily engagemen in educaion by

esablishing a 1 percen se-aside or a Family Engagemen and Responsibiliy

Fund. Te und would resource: Local Family Engagemen Ceners ha would provide innovaive program-

ming and services, such as leadership developmen and amily lieracy. Sae Family Coordinaing Councils comprised o parens, educaors, early

learning and high educaion insiuions, and business and communiy

organizaions o coordinae sysemic amily engagemen iniiaives ha

suppor children rom cradle o career. Sae capaciy or developing, assessing, and evaluaing amily engagemen

Iniiaives.

(3) Resrucure Parenal Inormaion and Resource Ceners o provide high-qual-

iy services and reach more amilies: Shi scope rom providing inormaion and limied services o providing

capaciy building, raining, and echnical assisance o sae and local depar-mens o educaion.

Esablish a minimum gran award o $500,000 o assure baseline am-

ily engagemen and rename Parenal Inormaion and Resource Ceners

Saewide Family Engagemen Ceners o beter refec heir role.


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Appendix: Highlights o the Family Engagement in Education Act o 2011 | www.americanprogress.o

(4) Improve proessional developmen in amily engagemen in educaion.

(5) Exend amily engagemen in educaion o negleced and delinquen youh.

(6) Build naional-level capaciy or amily engagemen:

Require he secreary o convene a body o amily engagemen researchersand exper praciioners o develop recommended merics o assess he

impac o amily engagemen policies and pracices.Require he Governmen Accounabiliy Oce o conduc sudies on he use

o unds or amily engagemen, he barriers o implemening provisions, and

he innovaive policies and pracices suppored by Secion 1118 o ile I.


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Endnotes

1 The terms amily(ies) and parent(s) will be used in this articl e tomean any adult caretaker o children. This can include biologicalparents, grandparents, oster parents, siblings, other relatives, orctive kin.

2 Xitao Fan and Michael Chen, Parental Involvement and StudentsAcademic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis, Educational PsychologyReview13 (1) (2001): 122; Anne T. Henderson and Karen L. Mapp, ANew Wave o Evidence: The Impact o School, Family, and CommunityConnections on Student Achievement (Austin, TX: National Centeror Family & Community Connections with Schools; Southwest Edu-cational Development Laboratory, 2002); William H. Jeynes, A Meta-Analysis: The Eects o Parental Involvement on Minority ChildrensAcademic Achievement, Education and Urban Society35(2) (2003):202218; Heather B. Weiss, M. Elena Lopez, and Heidi Rosenberg,

Beyond Random Acts: Family, School and Community Engagement asan Integral Part o School Reorm (Department o Education, 2010).

3 Dennis Shirley, Community Organizing or Urban School Reorm (Aus-tin, TX: University o Texas Press, 1997).

4 National Family, School, and Community Engagement WorkingGroup, Recommendations or Federal Policy (2009).

5 National PTA, Parental Engagement in the Elementary and Second-ary Education Act-No Child Let Behind Act (ESEA-NCLB) (2009),available at http://www.pta.org/Issue_Brie-ESEA.pd.

6 U.S. Department o Education, Department Proposes Doubling Fed-eral Funding or Parental Engagement, Press release, May 5, 2010,available at http://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/department-proposes-doubling-ederal-unding-parental-engagement.

7 Thanks to Anne Henderson, Don Davies, Arnold Fege, Robert

Witherspoon, Hayes Mizell, Paul Weckstein, and Mishaela Duran orproviding valuable inormation or this analysis.

8 Don Davies and others, Federal and State Impact on CitizenParticipation in the Schools (Boston, MA: Institute or ResponsiveEducation, 1979).

9 Ibid., p. 5.

10 Ibid.; M. Hayes Mizell, Implementation o Title I Parent AdvisoryCouncils in the Rural South (Columbia, SC: American FriendsService Committee, 1980).

11 Davies and others, Federal and State Impact on Citizen Participa-tion in the Schools.

12 Ibid.

13 Ibid.

14 Ibid.

15 Ibid., p. 11.

16 Ibid.

17 M. Pastrevich, Legislative History o Parental Involvement Requirementsin Title I and Chapter I(unpublished manuscript, 1991).

18 Mizell, Implementation o Title I Parent Advisory Councils in theRural South .

19 Ibid.

20 Ibid.

21 Ibid.

22 Ibid.

23 Ibid., p. 4.

24 Ibid.

25 A. Bailey, History o the National Coalition o Title 1 ESEA/Chapter 1 ECIAParents (unpublished manuscript, 1983).

26 Robert Witherspoon, National Coalition o Title 1/Chapter 1 Parents.In Faustine C. Jones-Wilson and others, eds., Encyclopedia o Arican-

American Education (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996), pp.320322.

27 Susanne Jackson, Refections on the National Coalition o Title IParents, 1973-2003 (unpublished manuscript, 2003).

28 Pastrevich, Legislative History o Parental Involvement Requirements inTitle I and Chapter I.

29 Arnold F. Fege, Getting Ruby a Quality Public Education: Forty-TwoYears o Building the Demand or Quality Public S chools Through

Parental and Public Involvement,Harvard Educational Review76 (4)(2006): 570586.

30 Marilyn Gittell, The Consequences o Mandating Citizen Participa-tion, Review o Policy Research 3 (1) (1983): 9095.

31 Ibid.; Fege, Getting Ruby a Quality Public Education; NationalCoalition or Parent Involvement in Education, Milestones in ParentInvolvement o Americas Schools (2007).

32 National PTA, Parental Engagement in the Elementary and Second-ary Education Act-No Child Let Behind Act (ESEA-NCLB).

33 Fege, Getting Ruby a Quality Public Education.


35 Anne T. Henderson, No Child Let Behind: Whats in It or Parents

(Lexington, KY: Parent Leadership Associates, 2002).


37 Ofce o Elementary and Secondary Education, 2003 2006 Monitor-ing Cycle Report(Department o Education, 2008), available at http://www.ed.gov/admins/lead/account/monitoring/monitoringcy-clerpt1008.pd.
http://www.pta.org/Issue_Brief-ESEA.pdfhttp://www.ed.gov/admins/lead/account/monitoring/monitoringcyclerpt1008.pdfhttp://www.ed.gov/admins/lead/account/monitoring/monitoringcyclerpt1008.pdfhttp://www.ed.gov/admins/lead/account/monitoring/monitoringcyclerpt1008.pdfhttp://www.ed.gov/admins/lead/account/monitoring/monitoringcyclerpt1008.pdfhttp://www.ed.gov/admins/lead/account/monitoring/monitoringcyclerpt1008.pdfhttp://www.ed.gov/admins/lead/account/monitoring/monitoringcyclerpt1008.pdfhttp://www.pta.org/Issue_Brief-ESEA.pdf


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Endnotes | www.americanprogress.o

38 Anne Henderson and Judy Carson, Making the Most o SchoolFamily Compacts, Educational Leadership 68 (8) (2011); Oliver C.Moles, ed., Reaching All Families: Creating Family-Friendly Schools(Washington: U.S. Department o Education, Ofce o EducationalResearch and Improvement, 1996), available at http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/ReachFam/index.html.

39 Richard F. Elmore, Bridging the Gap Between Standards and Achieve-ment: The Imperative or Proessional Development in Education(Washington: The Albert Shanker Institute, 2002).

40 Heather B. Weiss and Naomi C. Stephen, From Periphery to Center:

A New Vision and Strategy or Family, School, and CommunityPartnerships. In Sandra L. Christenson and Amy L. Reschly, eds.),Handbook o School-Family Partnerships (New York: Routledge, 2010),pp. 448472.

41 Weiss and Stephen, From Periphery to Center, p. 454.

42 MetLie, Inc., The MetLie Survey o the American Teacher: Transi-tions and the Role o Supportive Relationships, 2004-2005 (NewYork: Harris Interactive, 2005).

43 K. Gill Kressley, Breaking New Ground: Seeding Proven Practices intoProven Programs, presented at the National PIRC Conerence inBaltimore, MD, August 1, 2008.

44 Weiss, Lopez, and Rosenberg, Beyond Random Acts;Anne T. Hender-son, Karen L. Mapp, Vivian R. Johnson, and Don Davies, Beyond theBake Sale: The Essential Guide to Family/School Partnerships(NewYork: W.W. Norton, 2007).


46 Luis C. Moll and others, Funds o Knowledge or Teaching: Using aQualitative Approach to Connect Homes and Classrooms, Theoryinto Practice 31(2) (1992): 132.

47 Phyllis McClure and Ruby Martin, Title I o ESEA: Is It Helping PoorChildren? (Washington: Washington Research Project and NAACPLegal Deense and Educational Fund, 1969).


49 Doug McAdam and Ronnelle Paulsen, Speciying the RelationshipBetween Social Ties and Activism,American Journal o Sociology99(1993):640667.

50 Karen L. Mapp, Having Their Say: Parents Describe Why and HowThey Are Engaged in Their Childrens Learning, School Community

Journal13 (1) (2003): 3564.

51 Arthur J. Reynolds and Melissa Clements, Parental Involvement andChildrens School Success. In Evanthia N. Patrikakou and others, eds.,School-Family Partnerships or Childrens Success (New York: TeachersCollege Press, 2005), pp. 109130.

52 Weiss and Stephen, From Periphery to Center; Fege, Getting Rubya Quality Public Education.

53 National Family, School, and Community Engagement WorkingGroup, Recommendations or Federal Policy.

54 Weiss and Stephen, From Periphery to Center.

55 Henderson and Mapp, A New Wave o Evidence.

56 Anne T. Henderson and others, Making the Most o School-FamilyCompacts, Educational Leadership 68 (8) (2011): 4853.

57 Anthony S. Bryk and others, Organizing Schools or Improvement:Lessons rom Chicago (Chicago, IL: University o Chicago Press, 2010).
http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/ReachFam/index.htmlhttp://www2.ed.gov/pubs/ReachFam/index.htmlhttp://www2.ed.gov/pubs/ReachFam/index.htmlhttp://www2.ed.gov/pubs/ReachFam/index.html


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About the author and ack nowledgements | www.americanprogress.o

About the author

Karen L. Mapp is a lecurer on educaion a he Harvard Graduae School o

Educaion and he aculy direcor or he Educaion, Policy, and Managemen

masers program. Her research and pracice experise is in he areas o educaional

leadership and parnerships among educaors, amilies, and communiy membersha suppor suden achievemen. Ms. Mapp joined HGSE in January o 2005 aer

serving or 18 monhs as he inerim depuy superinenden or amily and com-

muniy engagemen or he Boson Public Schools, or BPS. While working wih he

BPS, she coninued o ulll her duies as presiden o he Insiue or Responsive

Educaion, or IRE. Ms. Mapp joined IRE in 1997 as projec direcor or he Boson

Communiy Parners or Sudens Success iniiaive, and served as presiden rom

Sepember 1998 o December 2004.

Ms. Mapp holds a docorae rom HGSE and a masers in counselor educaion

rom Souhern Connecicu Sae Universiy. She is he auhor o Making heConnecion beween Families and Schools, published by he Harvard Educaion

Leter(1997) and Having Teir Say: Parens Describe How and Why Tey Are

Engaged in Teir Childrens Learning in Te School Communiy Journal (2002).

She co-auhored wih Anne Henderson A New Wave O Evidence: Te Impac o

School, Family and Communiy Connecions on Suden Achievemen, published

by he Souhwes Educaional Developmen Laboraory in January o 2002, and

wih Anne Henderson, Vivian Johnson and Don Davies, Beyond he Bake Sale:

Te Essenial Guide o FamilySchool Parnerships published by Te New Press

in 2007. Ms. Mapps recen publicaions include he 2010 aricle, Debunking he

Myh o he Hard o Reach Paren, wih Soo Hong, and he 2011 publicaion (in

press), A Mach on Dry Grass: Communiy Organizing as a Caalys or School

Reorm, wih Mark Warren.

Acknowledgements

Te auhor would like o hank Beh Schueler or her work as he research assisan

or his repor.
http://www.sedl.org/pubs/catalog/items/fam33.htmlhttp://www.sedl.org/pubs/catalog/items/fam33.htmlhttp://www.sedl.org/pubs/catalog/items/fam33.htmlhttp://www.sedl.org/pubs/catalog/items/fam33.html


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Title I and Parent Involvement

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