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History
Grade: XII
An Introduction to World HistoryFull marks : 100
Teaching hours : 150
Course Description
This course is designed to make students familiar with the development of
the human civilization, prominent religions of the world and main politicalevents of the modern world. The whole course is divided into two units. The
first unit entitled, Ancient Civilization includes the contribution as well as
the social, economic and religious life of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Indus
Valley, Vedic Era, Greece and Rome. The topics like the teaching of
Bhagawat Gita, Gautam Buddha, Mahavir Vardhamana, Jesus Christ and
Hajrat Muhammad are also included in the first unit.
The second unit of this course entitled, Medieval and Modern World includes
topics like the rise and fall of feudalism, causes, nature and effects of
renaissance and reformation, causes and effects of different revolutions such
as Glorious revolution,1688; American War of independence 1776-83,
Industrial Revolution, French Revolution, 1789 and Russian Revolution of
1917. The topics like the causes and the effects of the First and Second World
Wars and the establishment, objectives and organs of the League of Nations
and United Nations are also included in this unit.
The first topics of the first unit entitled Egyptian Civilization includes the
contributions as well as the social economic and religious life of Egypt.
Egyptian Civilization is regarded as one of the oldest civilization in the
World. Egypt would have become desert without Nile river. Egypt lies in
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history of its own. The Chinese legend highlight its golden age three
thousands years before the birth of Christ. However, the actual evidence of
the Chinese history mentions the date as 1000 B.C. Chinese civilization has
its own origin. It has glorious history of the past. However, it may be
comparable in some respect with the other civilization of the world. In this
regard, H.A. Davies in his book entitled, "An outline History of the World"
mentions "like Sumeria and Egypt, China was originally a land of city, states,
the art of writing originated with pictorial signs in China as in Egypt, there
was a feudal age in China as in Egypt, followed by a centralizing empire,
Chinese Civilization, like that of the Egyptian and the Sumerians, owed
much to its river the Hwang-ho (Huang-ho or Yellow River) and the Yang-
tse-Kiang."
The fourth topic of the same unit includes contributions as well as the social,
economic and religious life of Indus Valley Civilization. This civilization was
unknown to modern world before the excavation in 1922. The excavation
works were carried on in Punjab, Sind and Baluchistan and spread over an
area of 1200 x 700 miles. Mohanjodaro on the banks of the Indus, Harappa
on the banks of Ravi and Lothal on the Kathiawar coast were three most
important sites among one hundred forty discovered so far.
The fifth topic includes contributions as well as the social economic and
religious life of the Vedic people.
The Aryans were regarded as the founder of the Vedic Civilization. It is
believed that the Aryans originated in western part of Asia. One group of
the Aryan migrated to Europe and other group to Iran. They entered into
India around 2000 B.C. The four Vedas such as Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur
Veda and Atharva Veda describe the Vedic civilization. The Rig Veda hasbeen regarded as the collection of the earliest and most important hymns
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composed about 1500-1200 B.C. It is the source book of the development of
Hindu culture. The Sama Veda is the collection of melodies. The Yajur Veda
is something like a 'guide book' for rituals. Atharva Veda is the descriptions
of the belief and superstitions of the Aryans.
The sixth topic of this unit mentions contributions as well as the social,
economic and religious life under the Greek Civilization.
The Greek Peninsula lies in the south-eastern part of Europe and is separated
from the Asia Minor by the Aegean Sea. This peninsula is surrounded by a
large number of islands on all the three sides. Crete is the largest island
below the peninsula.
The mainland of Greece is full of rugged mountain. Therefore the people
developed number of small Greek city states. The majority of the people
were dependent on farming on the limited land. The scarcity of the
cultivable land and nearness of the sea forced the people to sea-farming and
trade. They came in contact with Phoenicians who supplied them necessary
goods. Hence, the Phoenicians alphabet has some impact on the Greek
script.
The seventh topic of this unit is the social, economic and religious life of the
Romans.
The Roman civilization has many common features with the Greek. The
Greek gave the idea of democracy, art, philosophy, science and literature to
the world and the Romans added their legal system. Like Greece, the Roman
civilization was also influenced by geographical or natural factors. The Alps
in the north and sea in all the three sides gave Rome a protection from theenemy. However, there were some differences between these two. The
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Greeks always remained disunited but the Romans had faith in unity and
consolidation. The former believed in theory and philosophy whereas the
latter in practice and reality of life.
It is said that group of people called Italics came to Italy about 1800 B.C. One
of their tribes was the Latins who settled in the south of river Tibar. Another
tribes who were called Itruscans, settled in the north of river Tiber. These
Tribes were regarded as the civilized people from the Asia Minor. Beside
these two there were other tribes who settled in Italy.
Rome was founded by twin brothers named Romulus and Remus on the
Palatine hill in 753 B.C, according to the legends.
Apart from civilization, this unit also mentions some philosophical thoughts
of the ancient times.
The Bhagawat Gita is one major focus in this unit. The literal meaning of the
Gita is singing or saying of the God, meaning Krishna. But the Bhagawat
Gita is related to the events of the Mahabharata. It is said that the Bhagawat
Gita is the divine word of Sri Krishna spoken to Arjuna, the third Pandava,in the battle of Kuruchhetra.
The whole text of the Bhagawat Gita has been divided into forty-seven
verses. In its first or the opening verse, King Dhritarastra, who is blind and
unable to assess the situation of the battlefield interrogates Sanjaya about the
details of the war. Thereupon Sanjaya describe in the second verse as to
how, approaching Dronacharya, Duryodhana starts his conversation. In the
third verse Duryodhana invites Dronacharya to observe the mighty army of
the Pandavas and devotes verses four to six to a recital of the names of theprominent warriors on the Pandava side. In the seventh verse Duryodhan
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asked Dronacharya the name of the main warriors and generls of his own
army, he gives in verses eight and Nine the names of some of them and
describes their heroism and skill in warfare. In the tenth verse Duryodhana
declared his own army as incomparable, and that of the Pandavas as
comparatively weaker, in the eleventh he requested all his warriors to guard
Bhimsen on all sides. The twelfth verse speaks of Bhisma blowing his conch
and thirteenth describes the noise produced by the sudden blaring forth of
conches, kettle drum, drums and trumpets, etc. in the Kaurava army.
Fourteenth to eighteen in verses speak of Bhagavan Sri Krishna, Arjun, Bhim,
Yudhistir, Nakula, Sahadeva and all other important warriors of the Pandava
camp blowing their respective conches.
The verse Nineteen tells about the terrible sound echoing through heaven
and earth and rending the heart of Duryodhan and his followers a feeling of
shock. Seeing the sons of Dhritarastra arrayed for battle Arjun requested Sri
Krishna, in verses twenty and twenty one to place the chariot between the
two armies, and in verses twenty two and twenty three he requested that the
chariot should be kept there till eh observed and scanned the warriors
assembled for the fight. The verses twenty-four and twenty-five describe
how placing the chariot between the two armies, as desired by Arjuna, SriKrishna invites the latter to behold the warriors assembled for the fight.
Then, up to the verse thirty there is a description, first by Sanjaya and then
by Arjun himself, of the latters perplexity and grief at the right of his
relations in battlearray. In verse thirty-one Arjun pointed out the evil
consequences of war and verses thirty-two and thrity-three are devoted to
his reasons for not covering either victory or the pleasures attending
sovereignty. In verse thirty-four and thirty-five Arjun stated his close
relationship with the warriors. viz, their being his teachers, uncles, etc, and
declared that he did not want to kill them though he might be killed by them.He proceeded in verses thirty-six and thirty-seven to say that even though
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Duryodhana and his brothers were desperadoes, their killing would result
only in sin and happiness could never be expected from it.
In verses thirty-eight and thirty-nine he pointed out why the Pandavas
should desist from the sin of destruction of their own race and enmity
towards friends, and devotes verses forty to forty four to a detail
enumeration of the evils resulting from the destruction of a family and its
traditions. In verses forty-five and forty sin Arjun argued that the
preparation for war with a view to kill his own relatives for throne and
enjoyment was nothing but preparation for the commission of a great sin,
and expressing regret for it he declared that it was better that the sons of
Dhritarastra should kill him. In the last forty-seven verse Sanjaya described
how having determined not to fight, and agitated by grief, Arjun laid down
his arms, and sank into his chariot.
The teachings of Gautam Buddha have long and lasting effects in the society
of our region. In fact, Gautam Buddha was the worthy and respected son of
Nepal. He was born in 563 B.C. in Lumbini in Nepal. Min Bahadur Shakya
aptly writes "Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord Shakyamuni Buddha is the
scared palce for Buddhist from all over the world." Mr. Shakya has alsoquoted from a veteran Asian traveller and author as saying "as millions of
Chiristians look to Jerusalem for inspiration, as millions of Muslim turn to
Mecca, so do the three hundred million Buddhists see in the sacred kingdom
of Nepal hollowed thicket marked by a pillar left by the great Ashoka where
the Shakyamuni was born. Buddhist know that the Site was in Nepal."
Like Gautam Buddha, Mahavira Vardhamana was the worthy son of this
subcontinent. He was the founder of Jainism. His native place was
Kundapura near Vaisali in Bihar. He was born in a Kshatriya family.Siddhartha and Trisala were his father and mother respectively.
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Mahavira received the usual education and training in literature, philosophy,
military, administration, music and fine arts. During his youth he started to
make a plan for renunciation. His parents were unhappy to listen to the
plan. They tried to solve the problem by marrying him to a beautiful young
woman named Yasoda. Yasoda gave a birth of a daughter named Anoja.
However, after the death of his parents Mahavira left his residence for
renunciation at the age of thirty.
Mahavira started traveling from place to place, wearing no clothes. The most
prominent places of his visit were Nalanda, Rajagriha, Champaran, Vaisali
and Sravasti. He attained supreme enlightenment at the age of forty three,
in the thirteenth year after his renunciation. He was enlightened on the tenth
day of the bright fortnight in the month of Vaisakha, under a Sal tree in a
field near the village Jimbhikagrama (Jambhi gaon near the Damodar in
Hajaribagh). He started preaching soon after attaining the enlightenment.
He continued it until his death at the age of seventy at Pavapuri in district of
Patna. His first converts were eleven Brahmans. It is said that there were
14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns at the demise of Mahavira. He never forbid
women to be nun. As they wore no clothes, the nuns must have livedseparately. Although Mahavira organized a Sangha, he never allowed
monks to live together in monasteries. They used to spend their lives either
in the forest or in solitary place near towns and villages.
Jesus Christ was the founder of Christianity. He was born a Jew at
Bethlehem, a small village near Jerusalem in 4th B.C. He was born in a stable
and died a criminal's death at the age of 33. His father was Joseph of
Nazareth (a dessendant of King David) and his mother was Virgin Mary.
Jesus was born at a time when the Jews were under Roman control.
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Jesus Christ was very much influenced by his cousin, John the Baptist. John
was executed for his preaching as a baptised. Therefore, Jesus took the
responsibilities of his cousin and started preaching here and there. He talked
about the kingdom of God where there would be Justice, Love and Kindness.
He used to help those who were sick and exploited. His disciples called him
Messiah. Some of his teaching was against the spirit of the Jewish Laws. The
popularity of Jesus caused alarm and suspicion. He was executed by
crucifixion along with two thieves at Golgotha. While being nailed to the
cross, he said "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they are doing.
The book entitled, "My world and I, the way of Unification" mentions "He
did not leave any written works, and we have no description of what he
looked like. Yet our calendar starts from the year of his birth. Across the
world, people who are not even his followers, celebrate his birthday every
year. Who was this man who wrought such an incredible change in the
world history? Many years after Jesus died, accounts of his life were
committed to record his life and teaching for posterity. These are called
Gospels, meaning Good News. The earliest may have been written in about
50 A.D., although some scholars date them much later. The only sources of
the life of Jesus was the Gospels in the New Testament."
Hajrat Muhammad was born at Mecca in 570 A.D. His parents died in his
early childhood. He was looked after by his grandfather and later by his
uncle, Abu Talib. He could not receive any formal education because of his
poverty. However he was trained to look after sheep and camels. He
entered into the service of a wealthy widow named Khadija. Later on he
married her. They had two sons and many daughters. His sons died in their
early age. His daughter Fatima was very popular.
Muhammad was very popular for his honesty and sincerity. Therefore hewas called 'Amin' by his fellows. During his early youth he visited many
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places including southern Arabia and Syria. He met the Jews and the
Christians and was influenced by their ideas. He spent most of his time in
religious meditations. He started to visit Mount Hira, near Mecca, for
meditation and fasting. He fell into fits many times and uttered words
which became Koran, the religious text of Islam. Muhammad realised that
he had received divine messages from the God and he must spread it among
his fellow men. He declared "there is no other God but Allah, and
Muhammad is his Prophet". But his preaching made the priest of Mecca
especially the Temple of Kaaba, hostile against him. His life was in danger
and therefore he had to retreat to Medina in 622 A.D. It was the most
significant year for Islam and they called it Hijira, a new year in the Muslim
Calendar. He got warm welcome in Medina. He captured Mecca whose
citizens followed his faith. In this way Muhammad sowed the seed of new
religion called Islam (meaning Peace with God) in Arabia and it became the
great religion of the world. It is the main religion in most of the Middle East,
Northern Africa, Central Asia, Malaysia and Indonesia. Indonesia is the
largest Muslim country in the world. Today, about one billion people
around the world profess the Islamic faith. Mecca and Medina are the two
religious sites for all the Muslims of the world. Muhammad died in Medina
in 632 A.D.
The second unit of this course starts with the topic like the Rise and the Fall of
Feudalism. Feudalism was one of the most significant developments of the
Middle Age in Europe. It was based on the principles of decentralization of
political powers to fulfill the need of disturbed society. It began in France
after the death of Emperor Charlemagne (814 A.D.) and spread to many
parts of Europe. Feudalism was developed in Europe as a response to check
the disturbance created by the barbarian invaders.
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The second topic of this second unit is about the nature, causes and effects of
two important historical events in Europe and popularly known to outside
world as Renaissance and Reformation.
The term 'Renaissance' is used to describe the changes brought by the people
after the end of the Middle Age. it is a rebirth of Greco-Roman spirit of
scientific curiosity and of humanism in arts and letters. It was an intellectual
movement and spread all over Italy and remained in western Europe from
the middle of the fourteenth century to the end of the sixteenth century. It
enabled the people of Europe to have a new and rational approach towards
life.
The Reformation Movement in Europe was primarily aimed at reforming the
Roman Catholic Church. Like any other religion, Roman Catholic Church
became vulnerable in medieval period. The Pope became so powerful that
even the kings of all the countries of the Europe, found it difficult to defy the
orders of the church or stop its interference in matters exclusively coming
under state jurisdiction.
After the Renaissance and Reformation people of Europe felt the need forchanging their way of life. They tried to make their life more comfortable.
Therefore, they challenged and questioned the authority of Pope, Priest,
Kings and rulers alike. Hence, the revolution in different names and forms
started in Europe, the prominent among them were the Glorious Revolution
of England in 1688, the American war of independence, Industrial
Revolution of England, French Revolution 1789 and the Russian Revolution
of 1917.
The revolution of 1688 in England was called The Glorious Revolutionbecause it was bloodless. The king of the middle ages were helped by the
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feudal lords in the task to administration. But gradually the feudal lords
became weaker and the Tudor king abolished the feudalism. Afterward the
parliament endeavoured to take share in the administration with the king.
Therefore, a long struggle began between king and parliament for acquisition
of the sovereignty of the state. The result of this struggle was glorious
revolution.
H.A. Davies in his book entitled "An Outline History of the World' compared
the American and French Revolutions like this "Before the eighteenth century
ended there were two rebellions: the American Revolution of 1775-83, and
the French Revolution of 1789-95 which were both of them severe blows to
the theory of absolute monarchy, and which were destined to have a
considerable effect upon the subsequent history of the human race."
Clarifying the causes of the American war of Independence, H.A. Davies
writes "The American Revolution, or the War of American Independence, as
it is sometimes called, was a revolt against the autocracy of England which at
this time was ruled by a well-meaning but obstinate king George III. Who
had a desire to revive the personal power of the Crown. The Revolution was
a direct consequence of England's intervention in the seven year's war, and
of the ideas which prevailed throughout Western Europe at that time as tothe proper way of governing colonies."
After the discovery of the new continent, colonies of different European
powers such as Spain, England, France, the Netherlands and Sweden had
spread everywhere in the world. Spain had established her colony in
Florida, French in Northern America which were called as New France
(Canada) and Louisiana (USA), the British had thirteen colonies spread in
eastern coast of USA. The main reasons for the People of Europe and Britain
to emigrate were trade and religion. Jemestown in Virginia was the firstBritish settlement in 1607. It was started as a commercial venture by the
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Virginia Company. the Pilgrim Fathers who fled persecution in England,
came to America and established colonies. These people questioned the
British authority in America which resulted in the American war of
Independence.
The French Revolution of 1789, was another landmark in the history of
modern world. The Revolution began with the meeting of the States-General
in May 1789, and the destruction of the Bastille on July 14 the same year and
continued until the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
The social, economic and political situation in most of the countries in
Europe were more critical than France. Then the question arises why there
was no revolution in other countries before France. Because French people
were sufficiently enlightened to realise the evils and absurdities of the
system of government under which they suffered. The writings of Voltaire,
Montesquieu, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Diderot etc. influenced their lives very
much and they were encouraged to raise their voice against despotic rules of
King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette.
The western world witnessed many revolutions in the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries but Russia which had been made a first rate power by
Peter the Great (1672-1725) and Catherine II (1762-96), remained
undisturbed. It was not because the people of Russia were in much better
condition than the rest of the world. The fact was that the tower ranks of
Russian Society were among the most oppressed and exploited people in the
world. The Tsars and the nobles could prevent the entry of the ideas of
liberalism, nationalism, democracy, freedom and equality, and silence the
people for a longer time than their counterparts in other countries. But they
could not keep out new ideas permanently for all time and prevent thanfrom making an impact on the mind of the people.
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The idea of Karl Marx about communism was gaining ground in the Russian
soil. As a result a revolution broke out in 1905. But this revolution was
ruthlessly suppressed by the Tsar. The Tsar did not learn anything from the
revolution and continued to suppress the people. Naturally there was a big
revolution twice in a year viz. February and October 1917. These two
revolutions in Russia not only changed the course of Russian history, but
also the history of mankind, because the entire set of the old political, social,
economic and other principles and values were demolished Russia came to
have a new power structure, and a totally new social and economic order.
the happenings in Russia since 1917 had a profound effect on the whole
human beings. The course of history inevitably changed.
The last topics of this unit are related with the two world wars and two
world organizations such as League of Nations and United Nations
Organization.
A great war which the world had never seen or experienced broke out in
1914, and continued for four years, till 1918. It was for the first time in
history, almost all the countries in the world were directly or indirectly
involved in it, and its impact was felt by the whole world, by all the people,even by those, who were not aware of the war. That is why the great war
called the First World War (1914-18).
The Second World War broke out on 1 September 1939 before the world had
fully recovered from the havoc caused by the First World War (1914-18).
This war was longer and more devastating than the First World War. The
interval between the two world wars was twenty years and nine months.
The first international organization known as the League of Nations topresent world was established to avoid any war in the years to come.
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Because the horrors of the First World War, loss of life and property,
increasing debt burdens, storng conflicting emotions and dreadful sufferings
created a great urge among the leading statesmen and even the common
people to have a meaningful plan to save mankind from death and
destruction of a World War in the future. The purpose behind the
establishment of the League of Nations was that the problems of
international conflict or War should be settled peacefully at the conference
table and not on the bloody battle fields of the world.
It was President Woodrow Wilson of the US who took the initiative at the
Paris Peace Conference in 1919 in insisting on the establishment of the
League of Nations. In 1918 the President put forward his fourteen points to
prevent future World War before the end of the First World War. At the
Paris Peace Conference, President Woodrow Wilson insisted on the
incorporation of the League Covenant in the treaties. He wanted the League
to be established at once. The League was to come into existence on the day
on which the treaty of Versailles would come into force. President Woodrow
Wilson had strong believe that if the establishment of the League would be
postponed until after the treaties were put into effect, the League might not
be born at all. However, on 10 January 1920 the League of Nations wasestablish on the same day when the Allies and Germany exchanged the
Ratification of the treaty of Versailles with twenty four members.
On 15 November 1920, the first Assembly of the League was convened when
the number of the members was increased by forty-two. Geneva in
Switzerland, a neutral state in World War I became the seat of the League of
Nations. It was an international organization of many countries having its
own sovereignty. It was not a federation of states or super states or a world
government. It had no sovereignty, and could not take action on any state orcoerce any state by military might in the same way in which a state can
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Coerce its subjects or citizens. Sit did not have any territory. There were no
citizens or subjects over whom it could exercise control. Unlike a state it had
no army of any kind.
The failure of the League of Nations resulted in the Second World War and
the establishment of the United Nations Organization. The great statesmen
of the world realized during the course of the Second world War (September
1939 to August 1945) that the idea of establishing the UN, an international
organization much better than the discredited League of nations. In January,
1941, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt of USA declared that every
nationality had the right to nationhood, and the Allies were fighting against
the Axis Power to uphold this right.
In August 1945, the Second World War ended, and in 1946, the League of
Nations was dissolved, though some of its independent agencies were
permitted to continue functioning. Since the beginning of the war, people all
over the world wanted the democracies to declare and clarify their war aims.
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt of USA and Prime Minister Winston
Churchill of U.K. declared the war aims of the Allies through the famousAtlantic Charter on August 14, 1918. The Atlantic charter was a significant
as the Fourteen Points, which were put forward by President Woodrow
Wilson of the USA during World War I. On a January 1942, representatives
of Twenty-six governments adopted the United Nations Declaration based
on the Principles of the Atlantic Charter. On 25 June 1945, at a plenary
session, the charter of the United Nations was unanimously adopted by fifty
one nations. The charter came into effect on 24 October 1945 after Japanese
surrenders and ending of the Second World War. The UN Charter has a long
document consisting of a Preamble and III Articles. John D. Rockfeller Jr.donated land plot in Manhattan, New York, for the UN buildings.
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Overall Objectives of the Course
After the completion of this course the students will be able to:
discuss the social, economic and religious life of the people of
Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Indus Valley, Vedic Era, Greece and
Rome.
analyse the contributions of Egypt, Mesopotamian, China, Indus
Valley Civilization.
explain the teaching of Bhagawat Gita, Gautam Buddha, Mahavira
Vardhamana, Jesus Christ and Hajrat Muhammad.
explore the causes of the rise and the fall of the Feudalism.
review the causes, nature and effects of the Renaissance and
Reformation.
state the causes and the effects of the Glorious Revolution of 1688,
American War of Independence 1776-83, Industrial Revolution,
French Revolution 1789 and the Russian Revolution of 1917.
examine the causes and the effects of the First and the Second
World War.
justify the need for the establishment of the League of Nations and
United Nations Organization. identify the objectives of the League of Nations and United
Nations Organization and elucidate the functions of the different
organs of these two World Organizations.
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Unit OneAncient Civilizations
52 Teaching hours
1. Introduction to the unit
This course has been divided into two units and five sub-units. The first unit
of this course entitled Ancient Civilization includes first sub-unit and topic
like outstanding contributions as well as social, economic and religious life of
Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Indus Valley, Vedic Era, Greece and Roman
civilization. the second sub unit and topics of this unit include the teachingof Bhagawat Gita, Gautam Buddha, Mahavira Vardhamana, Jesus Christ and
Hajrat Muhammad.
2. Pre-requisites
Some knowledge of World Civilization at the Secondary School level.
3. Objectives, instructional materials instructional strategies and period
allocated
Objectives of the Unit Instructional
Materials
Instructional
Strategies
Teaching
hoursAt the end of this Unit
the students will be
able to :
- Examine the
contributions of
Egypt, Mesopotamia,
Indus Valley, Vedic
Era, Greece and Rome
to modern world.
Maps, picture
showing the
contributions
and handouts
Demonstration
the teacher will
demonstration in
the class
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- Explain the social
economic and
religious life of the
people of ancient
Egypt,
Mesopotamia, Indus
Valley, Vedic Era,
Greece and Rome
Pictures and
handouts
describing the
social, economic
and religious
life.
Seminar, Each
student should be
asked to prepare
seminar paper
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- Evaluate the
teaching of
Bhagawat Gita,
Gautam Buddha,
Mahavir
Vardhamana, Jesus
Christ and Hajrat
Muhammad
Pictures and
Flash Card
describing the
teaching of
Bhagawat Gita
and Gautam
Buddha
Discussion Method
the teacher will
divide the class into
five groups and ask
each group to discuss
and present in the
class.
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4. Description of the Contents of the Unit : Contributions of the
Egyptian Civilization
1. Writings
The Egyptian Civilization gave the world first form of writings called
Heiroglyphics. It was picture writing used for religious purposes. They also
developed twenty four letter alphabet.
EGYPTIAN SUMERIAN CHINESE XPA
TERRA HEBREW GREEK
2
WRITING, CALENDARS,
AND RELIGION HELP MENWORK TOGETHER
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2. Writing Materials
Beside Heiroglyphics and alphabet the Egyptians gave the world writing
materials such as paper, palette, reed pen Ink and Inkpot Paper was
produced by the papyrus plants. the name paper was also derived from the
word papyrus. They taught the world to make pen out of pointed reed and
make ink out of vegetable gum and soot.
3. Calendars
Ancient Egypt gave the World Lunar and Solar Calendars. They developed
Lunar calendar and when they found Lunar Calendar inadequate to measure
time correctly they evolved a new calendar based on the solar system. Theydivided the year into three seasons each having four months and thirty days
in the month. the last five days in each year were holidays. There were three
hundred and sixty five days in a year in Egyptian Solar Calendars.
Not only calendar, they also invented devices like sundial, water clock and
the Hour-glass to indicate the time. The world learned the value of time
from Egypt. Modern watch was the outcome of the devices developed by
Egyptians in ancient period.
4. Science and Mathematics
Egyptians were much more advanced in science and Mathematics. They had
very good knowledge of earth science and medicine. The physicians
diagnosed the diseases by investigating their symptom and prescribed
remedies. The Egyptian doctors were aware of the science of Surgery. They
performed setting of bone fractures and were expert in surgical operation.
Egyptians were well acquainted with the knowledge of mathematics. They
knew addition, multiplication, division and fraction. They maintain theaccount properly. They knew Geometry well. The structure of Pyramids
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clearly indicates their knowledge of Geometry. They were trained enough to
calculate the area of triangles and rectangles.
Modern world has learned many things from Egypt especially in the field of
mathematics and medical science.
5 Art and Architecture:Egyptian art and architectures were advance from The pyramid, temples and
toms were the examples of their skill of architectural engineering. Some
people were well-versed in medical science as well as architectural
engineering. Imhotep, the advisor of the king Zoser of ancient Egypt was the
example of such talent. He was quite popular as a great physician and
architect. He was the architect of the first Pyramid known as the Pyramid of
Zoser.
Egyptian paintings, beautiful jewelry, pottery, musical instruments, fine
linen cloth, weapons and tools, enchanting glassware and excellent vessels
had great impact on the art of modern world. Egyptian arts had great
influence on Hebrew, Greeks and Phoenicians.
Social Life of the Egyptian People
Egyptian society was divided into three classes known as High class or
aristocratic, the middle class and peasants and slaves. The Pharaoh, the
nobles and the priests were regarded as aristocratic who enjoyed much
power and wealth. The middle class of Egyptian society included
merchants, scribes, artisans, physicians and other professional. This class
emerged as the results of the growth of cities and towns in ancient Egypt.
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The condition of the peasants and slaves were miserable. They worked hard
but get little for their livelihood. The peasants had to pay taxes to the state.
The slaves were taken as captives after the war and brought to Egypt. Their
life was hard enough. They had to construct Pyramids and other buildings
for Pharaohs and their masters. The woman occupied great prestige and
high place in society. They were respected everywhere. They enjoyed
freedom and owned property. The Pharaohs married their sisters and
daughters to retain the purity of royal blood.
Religious life of the Egyptian People
The Egyptians were polytheistic. That is why they worshiped many gods.
Deities were visualized as animals and other creatures, such as the
crocodiles, the bee, the jackal, the bull, the ram, the falcon and others. The
creatures themselves were not gods but they were the seats of divinity.
The sun God called Ra was worshipped by all Egyptians. It was said that Ra
used to sail across the sky in a golden boat daily. He was supposed to
destroy the darkness and injustice and make life more happier and
comfortable. Osiris, the son of the sun God Ra was equally worshipped byEgyptian because it was he who caused the Nile to overflow to make the soil
fertile. The legend says that Osiris was killed by his bad brother but his
devoted wife brought him back to life. Osiris became the king of the dead
and judge the soul of the dead. They produced the book called the book of
the Dead which was used to test the dead to go to heaven. The failure in the
test indicated the life in the hell.
Egyptians believed that their Pharaoh was an incarnation of god Ra and
Osiris. They built temples, tombs and Pyramids to pay homage to their godand goddess. The temples constructed at Karnak, Luxor, Philae and Abu
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Simbel were worth seing. The temple of Karnak took nearly two thousand
years to complete and it is nearly quarters of a mile long.
Economic Life of the Egyptian People
The people of ancient Egypt were mostly dependent on agriculture. They
grew crops of wheat, flax, fruits and vegetables.
The fertile land of Nile had boost up the agriculture of ancient Egypt.
Therefore Hecataeus, the geographer once remarked, "Egypt is the gift of the
Nile." The ancient Egyptian also recognized the importance of Nile and
exclaimed" Hail to the E O Nile that comes to keep Egypt alive."
The Papyrus was made from the stem of the Papyrus plant which grew in
marshes and pools near the Nile. The fresco in Theban grave the process of
farming by Egyptian Peasants. It represents ploughing, sowing, reaping,
carrying and threshing corn. Cattle farming was also common practice in
ancient Egypt. A model found in a tomb dating from about 2200 B.C.
indicates a nobleman inspecting his many cattle with herdsmen. Beside
agriculture Egyptians were involved in many other profession and
occupations. There were potters who made vessels of great beauty, weaves
of fine linen stuffs, glass workers, makers of tapestry; cabinet maker whomade chair and conches for the king and nobles, goldsmiths etc.
The Egyptians were also involved in trade and commerce. They built ships
and started trading across the Mediterranean as far as Phoenicia. The
Pharaohs used to send caravans of donkeys far up the Nile into the Sudan to
deal with the black people of the south and bring back ebony, ivory, ostrich,
feathers, fragrant gums etc. to Egypt.
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make weapons and planned for war. The Assure and Nineveh were the chief
cities of Assyrians. Their cities were founded on the bank of river Tigris.
The Assyrians had extended their empire from the Persian Gulf to Egypt
along the Fertile Crescent. Their love of war and capacity to organize the
administration took them on the height of the glory of civilization. it was
because of their power and glory they were called "Romans of Asia".
5. Contribution in Science:Sumerians in Mesopotamian Civilization has made great contributions in the
field of science. they developed lunar calendar. They invented writing.
They divided time into hour, hour into sixty minutes and each minute into
sixty seconds. Along with astronomy astrology also developed. The
Chaldean kings encouraged the development of science by constructing
observatories for astronomers.
6. Hanging Garden of BabylonOne of the greatest contributions of Babylon was the Hanging Garden built
by Chaldean emperor Nebuchadnezzar (604-561 B.C) on the roof of his
imperial palace. The Greeks called it one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
Social Life of the Mesopotamian People
The Babylonian civilization reached its zenith during the time of
Hammurabi. He was the first to build an empire Mesopotamia and govern it
effectively with his code. His code was too harsh and cruel to some extent.
For example, if a house fell down and caused the death of the householder's
son, the code directs that the son of the builder shall be put to death. In other
word it was the old concept of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.
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The Babylonian society was divided into three classes. The first class
consisted of king and his family, priests, nobles, officers and rich merchants.
The middle class included peasant, artisans, shopkeepers and others. The
slaves were considered as the third and lowest class in the society. They
were brought as the captive of the war. However, the slaves in Babylonia
were in better condition in comparing with other parts of the world. They
enjoyed the right of property, marriage freemen or women and right to buy
their freedom with their savings. The women were enjoying freedom of
property and the choice of the profession. They were allowed to divorce
their husband in case of dissatisfaction. But the women in general were loyal
towards husband and family.
Education was common practice in Babylonia. The children used slate of soft
clay to write their lesson in school. The children were taught to write on the
slate and memorise some three hundred and fifty sign of alphabet. The
writing and memorising all the sign were not easy job. Hence, a proverb was
written on the wall of the school hour "He who shall excel in tablet writing
shall shine like the sun."
Religious Life of the Mesopotamian People
The prestige of the chief local deity varied with the renown and power of
city. Anu of Erah as gods of the sky, Ea of Eridu as god of water, Nanna of
Ur as god of the moon were recognised as supreme gods. But the thing
changed when Babylon became the capital of the empire. The attempt was
made to raise the prestige of the Babylonian god, Marduk. He was
promoted from a minor water god to a god of magic, and to a sky god. The
priest of the god announced that he was lord of the universe. But this
concept was not accepted widely.
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Ishtar, the mother of gods and also goddess of love and Tammuz, the god of
vegetation, were also worshiped. Enlil, the supreme god of Sumerians was
replaced by Marduk, the supreme god of the Babylonians when they were in
power. During the time of the Chaldeans or the new Babylonians, seven
main gods came to be worshipped in rotation based on the principle of each
god a day like the sun God on first day as Sun day and Moon God on second
day as Monday.
Economic Life of the Mesopotamian People
The primary occupation of the people of Mesopotamia was agriculture. Like
in Egypt they produced wheat, barley, spelt, onions, beans, grapes and dates.
The dates were widely used for various purposes. They provided flour,
fruit, wine, rope, wood etc. Cows and sheep were domestic animal used for
milk and meat. A plow was used as farm implement which dropped seeds
through a funnel while the earth was prepared to receive them.
The trade and commerce were in advanced stage. Mesopotamia had more
convenient access to the western end of the Fertile Crescent and to caravans
from east than Egypt. The roving nomad population near the land of two
rivers Tigris and Euphrates facilitated the exchange of goods.
Mesopotamian exports were grain, cloth, dried fish and finished metallic
products in exchange of imports of Ores, fine woods such as cedar and
walnut, building stone etc. Professional accountants were appointed by the
traders to keep the account properly. Mesopotamian seals or duplication of
them were found in Fertile Crescent and in Asia Minor. Babylonian
contracts were carefully drawn. Contracts for all business transactions were
required with death penalty for failure to fulfill. Gold and Silver by weight
served as media of exchange. Originally the Ziggurat had been the store-
house for product.
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Slowly it acquired great capital from gift of worshippers. Having acquired
so much capital the temple acted as a bank which supplied seed to farmers in
the growing season and money or precious metal for various enterprises.
The craft and craftsmen were controlled by the temples and priest. But their
tradition was challenged by the Code of Hammurabi and it was controlled
and supervised by the State.
Contributions of the Chinese Civilization
Chinese people of ancient ages have made immense contribution to world
civilization in the field of science, art, education, music, literature etc.
1. Science
China was on the top of progress in ancient period in the field of astronomy,
mathematics, agronomy and medicine. The silk technology in ancient period
made China world famous. The high way of China linking outside world
was also addressed as Silk Road to signify the importance of silk. The
manufacture of porcelain ware was so famous that the country itself
acquired its name as China. She has taught to the world the method of
making paper, printing, gunpowder, compass etc. The Great Wall of China
and the imperial palaces and garden building in Beijing represented theachievement of ancient China in the field of Science and Technology.
2. AstronomyIn ancient China astronomy developed in order to arrange farm and animal
husbandry in accordance with the change of seasons. That is why they badly
needed astronomical knowledge in making calendar. Ancient Chinese made
great contributions not only to calendar making, but also to the keeping of
astronomical records and the manufacturing of astronomical instrument.
Another significant contribution of ancient China was the records ofsunspots, comets, polar lights, novas and meteorite showers. Ancient China
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recorded more than 90 novas and supernovas which have attracted great
attention among modern radio astronomers.
3. MathematicsChina made great contribution in the field of mathematics also. The decimal
system was for the first time adopted in China. The Chinese were proficient
in the use of the decimal system and the fractions for the four arithmetical
operations. The ancient Chinese mathematician Jiu Zhang Suan Shu wrote a
book entitled "Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art" in the first Century.
This book is not only a Chinese classic of mathematics but also well-known
scientific work in the world.
4. AgronomyAncient China led the world in the practice of agronomy. In the Zhou
Dynasty, over 3,000 years ago crops like glutinous millet, broomcorn millet,
rice, barley, wheat, soya bean grew in Chinese farmland. The agricultural
book of entitled Qi Min Yao Shu (Import Arts of the peoples Welfare) written
in the 6th Century, records over eighty six specimens of millet, indicating
that Chinese agriculture had reached a very high level of development.
5. ArchitectureAncient Chinese architecture has some originality of its own. The Great Wall
erected in the 2nd or 3rd Century B.C. and rebuilt continually afterwards has
remained an architectural beauty of the world. It is one of the man-made
structures that can be seen from satellites.
Social Life in Ancient China
China has a recorded history of about 3,600 years. The first primitive man so
far known to have exited in China is Yuanmou Man, who lived about 1.70
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million years ago. Peking Man was discovered at Zhoukaudian to the south
west of Beijing (Peking) lived 400,000 to 5000,000 years ago.
The ancient Chinese society consisted of various classes. They were
educated elite, the peasants and workers and the merchants. Slavery existed
in China. In the 11th Century B.C. The Zhou people (people of modern
Shaanxi) under the leadership of King Wu, destroyed, the Shang Dynasty by
military force and founded a new slave regime known as western Zhou (11 th
Century to 770 B.C.). The Zhou kings adopted the system of fiefs in which
land and people were awarded to various dukes and princess. All land was
belonged to the king and all slaves were compelled to work collectively for
the king.
Religion and Philosophy
Worship of nature was the most primitive way of religious tradition of
China. It was followed by ancestor worship. During the warring states,
many schools of Philosophy flourished, such as Mohism, Confucianism,
Leagalism, Mencius and Taoism. Buddhism was introduced in China in 67
A.D.
Mohism Philosophy was propounded by Mo Zi or Mo Di (C. 478 392 B.C.).
He advocated Universal love, pacifism, and emphasized on honouring of the
virtuous. He had many followers and exercised influence on the society of
his time.
Confucius (551- 479 B.C.) was a philosopher, educator and the founder of
confucianism. His real name was Kong Qill or Kong Zhongxi. He was born
in Zhou yi state of Lu.
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Confucius expressed his philosophy on politics, morality, love and
education. He proposed that good and capable people should be appointed
to official posts. He emphasized the importance of benevolence and
regarded it as the highest ideal of morality. He advocated more love for
those who were close and less for those who were distant, more for the
highly placed and less for the lowly. For education confucius emphasised
'the teaching according to individual talent, learning and relearning and
learning about new things by reviewing old things "For learning process he
advised," when you know, say you know and when you do not know, say
you do not know."
Confucius words and works were compiled by his students to form book
entitled the Analects of Confucius. He himself edited Book of Odes, Book of
History, Book of Change, Spring and Autumn Annals etc.
Han Fei (C. 280 233) founded the idea of Legalism. He opposed such
concepts as heavenly mandate and questioned the existence of ghosts and
spirits. He did like the idea to return to old. He advocated the concentration
of all power in the hands of the sovereign, and rule by law. He was the
representative of legalist school. It was also called the school of logiciansthat studied the distinction between name and reality- a school that
emphasized the importance of logic and debate.
Mencius (C 372 289 B.C.) advocated the ruler to win the hearts of their
subjects so as to secure their own rule. He believed that every person should
have his own immovable property. There should be schools to teach people
to be dutiful towards their parents and respectful towards all elders. He
argued if all this was done people would be "friendly towards one another,
helping one another in difficulties or in poor health. In that case the peoplewould have no desire to move to other places all their lives. Saying all these
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things Mencius wanted to built a strong Nation. The purpose of having
immovable property for everyone, as proposed by Mencius, was to combine
tilling with weaving to create a small- scale agricultural economy where
labour would be permanently tied to land.
Lao Zi (C 604 517 B.C.) was regarded as the founder of Taoism. He
believed that there was nothing man could do regarding the change of events
which was controlled by the way of heaven. What man could and ought to
do was to follow nature, remaining passive and doing nothing in particular.
His ideal society was one small in size and spare in population where people
had neither desire nor knowledge and do not communicates one another for
the entire duration of their liver.
Buddhism was introduced in China in 67 A.D. when Buddhist monk
Kasyapa Mataeng and Dharmaranya came to Luoyang at the invitation of
the Han emissary to their country. Emperor Ming Di ordered the White
Horse Monastery built in their honour and asked them to translate Buddhist
sutras into Chinese.
Economic Life in Ancient China
Chinese society in ancient period was primarily based on agricultural
economy. Iron Plough and ox farming were popularized and improved.
New methods of farming were also introduced such as "alternation method"
and "small plot method". In the "alternatives method" the land was
ploughed into furrows and the earth turned up to make ridges crops seeds
were sown into furrows. To maintain the fertility of the land, the ridges
crops seeds were sown into furrows. To maintain the fertility of the land, the
ridges and furrows were alternated every year so that the ridges of this yearbecame furrows of the next, and vice versa. In small plot method deep
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ploughing and close planting were applied on small plots, where water and
manure were sued effectively.
1. IndustryBeside agriculture, the Chinese were heavily involved in industrial activities
in ancient period. Cloth-weaving, the main household sideoccupation
covered silk, flax, kohemp and woolen fabrics. The silk fabrics used by
aristocrats were of fine workmanship and exquisite design. The cotton cloth
from the prefecture of Silkman and the silk from Shandong were famous at
the time. Chinese brocade which was characteristic of high standards of
Chinese textiles, found a brisk market in Rome. The hand operated spinning
wheels, weaving looms and figures fabric weaving looms of the time had
lasting influence over China's textile.
Salt making, iron smelting and cloth weaving were three principal handicraft
of ancient China. By the Easter Han Dynasty, iron and steel had replaced
bronze in making the weapons.
Paper making in China began in the 2nd Century B.C. when people used
worn out bast fibres to make rough paper. In the second Century writingpaper was invented and the raw materials extended from bast to bark fibres.
It is said China's paper making technology spread to Korea in fourth Century
and Japan in Tenth Century, Ararb Countries in eight century and Europe
after twelve Century. Chinese wood block printing was made between the
period six and seven Century. The movable type printing was invented at
the beginning of the eleventh century. During the period between second
Century B.C. and second Century AD the building of wooden vessels was
well developed. Chinese invented Gun-powder in seventh Century and
used in fighting war in tenth Century.
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2. TradeThrough the Silk Road and the sea routes, Chinese Silk and Silk products
were transported to Europe, Asia and Africa where they ere well received.
Not long afterward the technology of silk weaving also spread to foreign
countries. For several times between the Fifth and Sixteenth Century,
figured fabrics weaving looms were transported to Europe. The Eastern Han
Periods witnessed a steady rise in the export of Chinese silk to the western
world.
Chronology of Chinese History
Dynasty DurationPrimitive Society 4,000 years ago
Slave Society Around 21st Century 476 B.C.
Xia Around 21st - 16th Century B.C.
Shang Around 16st - 11th Century B.C.
Western Zhou Around 11th - Century 770 B.C.
Spring and Autumn Period 770 - 476 B.C.
Feudal Society 4756-B.C. - A.D. 1840
Warring States Period 475 - 221 B.C.
Qin 221 - 207 B.C.
Western Han 206 B.C. - A.D. 24
Easter Han 25 220
Three Kingdoms 220 280
Wei 220 265
Shu 221 - 263
Wu 229 - 280
Western Jin 265 - 316
Easter Jin 317 - 420
Southern and Northern Dynasties 420 - 589
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Southern Dynasties 420 - 589
Song 420 - 479
Qi 479 - 502
Liang 502 - 557
Chen 557 - 589
Northern Dynasties 386 - 581
Northern Wei 386 - 534
Eastern Wei 534 - 550
Western Wei 535 - 557
Northern Qi 550 - 577Northern Zhou 557 - 581
Sui 581 - 618
Tang 618 - 907
Five Dynasties 907 - 960
Song (Northern and Southern) 960 - 1279
Liao 916 - 1125
Western Xia 1038 - 1227
Kin 1115 - 1234
Yuan 1271 - 1368
Ming 1368 - 1644
Qing 1644 - 1911
Greek Civilization
Contributions of Greek Civilization
Greek civilization is called the mother of European Civilization. Europe andthe World as a whole learned many things from the ancient Greeks. Shallay,the eminent English poet once wrote "We are all Greeks, our laws, ourliterature, our religion, our arts have their roots in Greece. "Regarding the
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impact of Greek civilization on Italy H.A. Davies Writes, "It was in southern
Italy and Sicily that the most famous of the Greek colonies were founded.Southern Italy became a kind of new Greece, and it had its full share of theculture which afterwards came to the Greeks. This is a matter ofconsiderable importance, because it was through the Greeks that literature,art, architecture, and the knowledge of how to write came into Italy, so thatthe Roman civilization is the debtor of the Greek, just as the Greek is thedebtor of Phoenicia, and the Phoenicians the debtor of Egypt."
Greek civilization has made great contribution to world in the field ofliterature, sports, political science, Philosophy and Science. The GreekScientists made important contributions to the scientific knowledge for
which the world is greatly indebted.
GREEK HISTORY
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Social Life of the Greeks
1. SocietyThe word "Greeks" came from Latin, the language of the Romans not of the
Greeks themselves. They called themselves "Hellenes" which applied to
many different Aegean communities.
Although Greece was divided into hundred of city states, the people had
strong feeling of Patriotism. It is said that no people have ever loved their
country more passionately than the ancient Greeks loved their cities. The
Athenians during the time of Pedicles did not regard their lives as their own,but as the property of the state.
The most prominent among several city-states of Greece were Athens,
Sparta, Corinth and Thebes. There was the different system of governance
between Athens and Sparta. Athens believed in Democracy. She made
significant achievements in the field of politics, laws, literature, art, science
and Philosophy. They discarded oligarchy and accepted democracy. In
contrast to Athens, Sparta was basically the military state. In Sparta, there
were three classes in society known as Peers, Freemen and Helots. TheHelots were aggressive. Only Peers were enjoying privileges and
citizenship. The remaining two were deprived of the privileges and
citizenship.
2. Greek LiteratureAncient Greece was rich in Language and Literature. The llliad and Odyssey
composed by the blind poet Homer were the sources of the inspiration for
the people of Greece. Less than a century after Homer, Hesiod wrote two
significant books entitled "Theogony" and 'Works and Days'. The book
Theogony gave a systematic account of the genealogy of the gods, and the
others Works and Days, dealt with farm life of the period.
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The woman who came up with lyric poetry was Sappho before 500 B.C. The
name lyric means verse that was recited and sung to the accompaniment of a
lyre. However, the lyric poetry was not new for Greece. Because the epic
legends of Homer were also recited and sung.
The Periclean age was regarded as the golden age of Greek plays. The
Athenian government used to award an annual prize to the best play wright
after an open contest. Aeschylus Sophocles and Euripides were the three
great tragic poet of ancient Greece.
Herodotus (484 - 425 B.C.), the father of History, brought changes by writing
authentic history of persian wars. Thucydides (C 455 - 400 B.C.) another
Athenian gave the world first scientific history. His history book on
Peloponesian War (the great war between Athens and Sparta) introduced
scientific approach in writing history, for example, cause and effects
relationship.
3. PhilosophyGreece produced many famous Philosophers of the world. Socrates(469 - 399 B.C.) was one of the greatest philosophers who taught his
pupils not to accept any principle without putting it to a severe test of
reasoning. The Athenian government found his ideas as dangerous and
corrupted the youth. He was given hemlock (poison) to die. Before his
death he proclaimed "know thyself, I will rather die having spoken
after my manner than to like and speak in your manner". One of the
students of Socrates was Plato (C 428 - 347 B.C.) who contained the
teaching of his teacher in his book entitled Dialogues. Plato producedanother book named Republic in which he described ideal state
governed by philosopher king. Another Philosopher of Greece was
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Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.). He was one of the students of Plato.
Aristotle was the tutor of Alexander the Great. He wrote on a great
variety of subjects such as philosophy, politics, ethics, poetry, physics,
biology and medicine.
4. SciencePythagoras was the first and the greatest mathematician, the world ever
knew. Hippocrates (460-357 B.C.) was the father of medical science. A
Greek, Aristarchus of Samos (250 B.C) was the first person to state that the
earth moves round the sun. Anaxagoras (503 - 428 B.C.) was a great
Philosopher and geometrician in Athens. Democritus developed the theory
of Atoms. Archimedes (C 287 - 12 B.C) is well known to present world for
his discovery of the principle of gravity.
5. Greek Art and ArchitectureThe Greeks' primary interest was in people and the preference naturally was
reflected in the choice of subject for sculpture. The gods were supermen.
The Hellenic treatment of people or of humanized gods, showed a deliberate
attempt to represent actual human anatomy. The fifth and early fourth
century sculptors perfected anatomical realism.
The fifth and early fourth century sculptors added something else to the
accurate portrayal of anatomical features. People, ro gods were represented
as doing something that was typical. The subjects were caught in a
momentary pose or action. Myron's Discus Thrower is in the act of throwing
the discuss, Polycleitus' youth is carrying a spear, Praxiteles Faun leans upon
a Pedestal, Phidies Athena shows active power and benevolence that were
assumed to be consistent with her character.
In the centre of Athens there rises a hill known as the Acropolis, a rock table
standing well above the rest of the city. Acropolis means high point. On the
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highest peak, the temple of Parthenon was built. The features of the Greek
temple that have persisted because of their usefulness are the rectangular
shape, columns as support, the porch and the type of roof. Doric, Ionic and
Corinthian were the three types of Greek Columns.
Economic Life of the Greeks
There was not enough fertile soil in Greece to feed her people. Therefore it
has to import food and export finished good. Easy access to the sea
encouraged the Greeks to make contact with the outside world.
The exchange of food and other articles brought fifth century Athenian trade
to a new height and this flourishing commerce also contributed to a sense of
economic well-being. Athens exported processed goods and some raw
materials needed by industries elsewhere. The exports included wine, olive
oil, minerals, marble, pottery, arms, books (Scrolls) and works of art. The
sources of Athenian imports were spread through out the Mediterranean
World, ships from many lands depositing their cargoes at the sea-port of
Athens, known as the Piraeus. Wheat came from Syria, Egypt, Italy and
Socily, preserved fish from the black sea and iron from its perimeter, copper
from Cyprus, tin from Britain, gold from Thrace, timber from Thrace andCyprus, Wool, flex and dyes from Phoenicia, ivory and spices from North
Africa, perfumes and ointments from Arabia, slaves from Lydia, Syria and
Scythia. By the fifth century coined money had become the usual medium of
exchange, and advance beyond the barter of the Phoenicians.
The first banks were temples which, receiving the gifts of the devoted, lent
this treasure for various purposes.
Fifth Century Athens benefited by certain economic advantages not enjoyed
by other Greek City states. The State operated mines of silver that made
possible an unchanging content of precious metal in Athenian currency.
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Other cities, without the supply of precious metal, often reduced the
percentage of silver in their coins.
The dependability of Athenian currency, in comparison with that of other
states, caused it to be readily acceptable to the advantage of Athenian
merchants.
Religious Life of the Greeks
Beside language, Greeks also had a religion in common. The practice of
religion consisted for the most part of carrying out rituals which would keep
the god happy. Like Hindu, Greeks thought of the gods as very much like
themselves.
The king of god was called Zeus. It has terrible figure which gives hurling
thunderbolt. The goddess of love and fertility was called Aphrodite. These
deities were involved in human affairs too. They did not stand aloof from
men.
The god of the sea and earthquakes was called Poseidon. Apollo was the
god of the sun and of the art. Athena was the god of the sun and of the art.
Athena was recognized by all Greeks as the goddess of wisdom. TheAthenians also claimed her as the patron goddess of the city. She was also
the virgin goddess of war and wisdom.
All the Greeks believed that they had descended from a common ancestor
Hellen. In spite of local deities all Greeks accorded deference to the same
company f gods and goddesses on Mount Olympus.
Olympic Game was also connected with the religion in Greece. The Olympic
Games were held every four years in Elis in the South-western parts of
Greece. Traditionally the games constituted a religious festival in honour of
Zeus. The winner of the game received a great honour. Events were similar
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to those in modern Olympic Games. There were races by men, and by horses
throwing the discus and Javelin, wrestling and boxing.
Roman Civilization Chart
Chronology of Roman History
1000 B.C. Latins and Etruscans move into Italy
Roman Confucius
800 B.C. Foundation of Rome, about 753 B.C. EARLYIRON AGE
600 B.C. Etruscan kings expelled, 509 B.C.
Consuls elected to head the republic500 B.C. Tribunes win rights for plebeians, 448 B.C. GOLDEN
AGE
OF GREECE
400 B.C. Rome begins conquest of Italy, 323 B.C
Italy united, 275 B.C.
Sicily ceded by Carthage, 241 B.C.
War with Hannibal, 218 B.C. to 202 B.C.
200 B.C. Cicero, 106 B.C. to 43 B.C.
Caesar elected consul, 59 B.C.
Octavian's victory at Actium brings peace in 31
B.C.
Rule of Augustus, 31 B.C. to 14 A.D.
HELLENISTI
C AGE
1 A.D. Nero emperor, 54 A.D. to 68 A.D.
The Five Good Emperors, 96 A.D. to 180 A.D.
200 A.D. Military despots and civil wars AGE OFROMAN
EMPERORS
300 A.D. Christianity made the official religion of the
Empire400 A.D. Barbarian invasions
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Contributions of Roman Civilization
1. Preservation of Greek CivilizationRomans have made great contribution in the preservation and spread of
Greek civilization in Europe. They acted as agent of the Greek to familiarize
the glory of the past. It was true that the Romans took the ideas on religion,
philosophy, art and architecture learning and science from Greek. But it is
also not untrue to say that Greek civilization would not have been flourished
without the help of Romans. Similarly Romans were much more advanced
than Greeks in the organizing central and provincial governments, laws,
principles of taxation, citizenship rights, construction of public works like the
fountains, theatres, baths, bridges, aqueducts arterial roads, hospital and
sanitation system. The Roman not only built an empire covering all the
peripheral countries of the Mediterranean Sea including Britain and
Mesopotamia but also organized the local and provincial governments in
such a way as to ensure peace and harmony among the people. They did not
inter-fare the local tradition and religion to introduce reform in the
administration of the conquered land.
Roman Law
The most significant contribution of the Roman Civilization to the world was
their law. It had made great impact on the law of almost all the civilized
nations of the world. The first written code came in the form of Twelve
Tables in 150 B.C. which were inscribed on the twelve table of bronze and
publicly displayed in the market. This law was classified and codified by the
Roman Emperor Justinian and it was called Justinian Code. This code
adapted the principle of equality i.e. all are equal before the law.
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2. Architecture and DesigningThe Romans were highly developed in the construction of all kinds of
buildings. They learned the construction of columns or pillar from Greek but
the arches and domes were their own inventions.
3. Learning and LiteratureThe Romans learned education from Greeks. But they developed it in their
own way. The Greeks taught the Roman children in the beginning but later
on they were replaced by the Romans themselves. There is no doubt that the
Romans copied literature from Greek but the Latin literature reached its
height during the reign of Roman emperor Augustus. Julian Calendar was
introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 B.C.
4. Health and HygieneThe Romans were highly advanced in health and hygiene. The Europeans
have learned many things from Romans especially in building of hospitals
and drainage system.
Social Life of the Romans
It is said that a group of Indo-European called Italies came to Italy through
Alpine passes. One of their Tribes was the Latins settled in Latium, the
central plains of Italy lying south of the river Tiber. They constructed houses
and small walled village for their protection. They used to speak Latin.
Other tribe which came to Italy was Etruscans. Etruscans came from Asia
Minor and settled in the north of the River Tiber about 800 B.C.
The legend tells that Rome was founded by two brothers named as Romulus
and Remus in 735 B.C.
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H.A. Davies mentions "The earliest inhabitants of Italy of whom we have any
very definite records were lake dwellers, who probably came from
Switzerland and settled on the lakes of the north and over the marshes of the
Po Valley."
Slavery: There was very large number of slaves in Rome. It is said that
there were slaves twice in number than freemen in Italy; and the proportion
was still higher throughout the whole empire. The slaves were mainly
domestic and not treated cruelty.
Life of the People
The lives of Romans were both luxurious and hard. The wealthy people
lived in very beautiful mansions on the hills, the poorer classes were
crowded into poor and thickly populated tenements in the Valleys. But
luxury, idleness, and self-indulgence were probably confined to a very small
class. The civil servants who carried on the administration of the Empire
were extremely industrious, and there was a marked improvement in the
treatment of the provinces. Even the worst of the emperors found it to their
interest to rule them wisely, and when they were in need of money theygenerally wrung it from wealthy nobles at Rome not from the provinces.
Economic Life of the Romans
The main source of the income of ancient Rome was agriculture. The land
supplied the substance of life, the basis for wealth and the credentials of
social standing small farms existed. As time went on, however, the small
farmer was crowded again.
The food product most needed from agriculture was grain, for it continued
to be the basis of Roman diet. The Romans had subsisted largely on porridge
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or mush, made of coarsely ground wheat. Romans did not grow much food
but imported it from outside world such as from Egypt, North Africa and
Sicily. Romans gradually shifted to more profitable crops like grapes and
olives, and were raising sheep.
Romans developed manufacturing more slowly than large-scale farming. In
Rome itself very little was manufactured beyond necessities. They made
clothes out of wool, implements of clay, wood and metal, flour from grain,
wine from grapes, oil from olives, bricks of clay. The only Roman industry,
however, which attained a size appropriate to metropolis was the making of
bricks for building.
Commerce and industry, so largely in the hands of non-Romanas, were
facilitated by condition created by Rome. The Roman peace established
tranquility in which business functions well. There was a great and a great
demand, without benefit of theory. They removed the obstacles between the
demand and the theory of benefit.
The Romans were directly responsible for markets even if they left to others
the business of supply. Old cities in the East expanded, new towns in theWest grew. But Rome was the greatest of all. The system of selling and
buying was well developed. Upon arrival, the goods were put to
government use, purchased by large households, or sold in city stores. The
streets were lined with stores and booths.
The techniques of banking, initiated in the Hellenite Age, were developed
still further to meet the demand for greater mobility of large sums of money.
Roman money circulated throughout the Mediterranean region and beyond,
but there were other coins as well, and so the money changers flourishedBankers, often freedmen, accumulated and guarded large stores of cash,
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while letters of credit made easy the payment of debts overseas and
eventually the employment of similar devices for local use.
The Romans contributed the capital and energy of planning necessary for
World Commerce and industry.
Religious Life of the Romans
Roman religion reflected Roman characteristics and reinforced them. Deities
at first were merely spirits, or impersonal functional powers, who watched
over the farm, the home and the state and whose good will be advisable tosecure by following the proper rituals. The lakes watched over the farm, and
Saturnus over sown crops, the Penates were spirits of the storeroom, Janus
guarded the door way and Vesta the hearth. The Genius of the house-hold,
guarding the father and fertility, was a sort of alter ego and was worshipped
like other gods. The male Genius was matched by a Juno for the matron of
the household.
The state gods were household gods promoted with some additions. Janus
protected the gates of the city, as well as the door of the private dwelling,and when army was in the field the doors of the temple of Janus remained
open until it returned. Vestal virgins were charged with the duty of
watching the sacred fire of the city that it should never die. Jupiter, god of
the sky was like Zeus in Greek and Juno was Jupiter's Queen. Minerva was
goddess of wisdom, Mars was god of war, Dianna was goddess of the moon
and of the hunt and Venus of fertility, love and beauty. The Romans
sacrificed animals and plants to their deities like Nindus and others.
Like the Greeks, the Romans thought of their gods like a heavenly expeditersof earthly affairs and did not associate them with a better life in another
world. Romans were in the belief that relation with a god were in the nature
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of contact, mortals contributed their share by sacrifice, and the god was
expected to do something in return. The Romans like other ancient peoples,
attempted to divine the future. No project, private or public, should be
begun until the omens were found favourable. Priests wanted the skies,
especially for lighting, or they observed the flights of birds, the movements
of quadrupeds or the entrails of domestic animals. If anything peculiar was
noted in any one of these sources of foreknowledge, it was considered an evil
omen, and the project was postponed or abandoned. Even the meetings of
the comitia and of the senate could not begin until the omens were consulted
and found favourable. Veneration of ancestors was almost a religion. The
best families treasured death masks of departed kindred. These images were
kept in a scared nook in the home along with the statues of household gods
and were displayed in funeral processions of members of the family. The
great deeds of the departed were inscribed in the tablets.
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The Vedic Aryans
Contributions of the Vedic People
The root of the Hindu philosophy, religion and culture was the vedic
civilization. The Vedic literature reflects the different walk of the life of
Vedic era. The most important and the earliest among the Vedic literature
was Rig Veda. The Rig Veda was followed by other Vedas such as Yajur
Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda.
The political organization of Vedic civilization had great impact on the livesof the monarchs of Rajans. They were morally bound by the teaching of the
Vedas. Even today people follow the teaching of Vedas and act accordingly.
The people's representatives called Sabha and Samitee still exist in one or
other form.
Social Life of the Vedic People
1. Family SystemFather was the head of the family system. Mother was next to the
importance in the family. Everybody had to obey their father and mother
alike. The mother looked after the management of household affairs and
helped her husband in religious ceremonies and sacrifices. All the members
of the family lived in the same house made of wood and bamboos.
2. EducationEverybody had the opportunity of education. The girls and boys were
equally educated. The girls were highly educated. They had full liberty of
choosing their husbands. They composed hymns and sometime rose to the
position of Rishis.
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3. Caste SystemThere was division of labour and work but not the system of caste and
touchability or untouchability in the beginning of the Vedic civilization. The
warriors class known as the Kshatriyas was the result of the continued war
and need for permanent class of fighting men. The priests were called
Brahman. Vaisyas were engaged in agriculture, trade and commerce and
Sudras belonged to the wild tribes.
4. Food and DrinksThe people of Vedic era ate meat, vegetable, rice, barley, bean, seasame etc.
They sued to take different kinds of fruits and fruit juice. They made sura orliquor from barley and corn and Sama from plant. They offered these
alcoholic drink even to the Gods. The people were very much fond of milk
and milk product things such as ghee, butter and curds. They prepared
bread and cakes out of flour.
5. Dress and OrnamentThe people of Veic era wore Vasas and Adhivasa. The garment of the lower
part of the body was called Vasas and Adhivasa for upper part. Similarly the
under garment was called Nivi. Embroidered clothes were worn by thedancers, brides and other wealthy women. The Hermits wore skin clothes
especially made of deer.
Men and Women both wore different types of ornaments. The ear ornament
of man was called Karnasobhana. Kurisa, the head ornament, Khadi, the
ring like an armlet and Nishka, the neck ornament were the most popular
among the people of the Vedic era.
6. EntertainmentGambling, Chariot racing, dancing, playing dice, wrestling, music were the sources
of entertainment of the people. They enjoyed vocal and instrumental music.
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Economic Life of the Vedic People
1. AgricultureThe People of Vedic era primarily dependent on agriculture. They cultivated
land and grew wheat and barley. They were very much fond of cattle. The
wealth of the people could be measured by the size of the cattle.
2. IndustryThere were many professional groups who engaged in different profit
making activities. These were carpenters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, butchers,
potters, barbers, boatmen, hunter etc. They worked in small industry toproduce things to meet the demand of the society.
Cotton and woolen garments were produced by the industry. They
produced utensils house furniture, chariots, carts, boats, ships, sickles,
razors, plough, weapons like spears and swords.
3. TradeThe trade and commerce were in flourishing stage. The people were
engaged in inland and river trade. Inland trade was carried out by cart
driven by oxen and river by boat. The people had commercial contact withthe different part of the world. The tradesmen were also engaged in sea-
born trade. The trade was carried on barter except a few nishka, a small gold
piece.
Religious Life of the Vedic People
The people of Vedic era primarily worshipped nature or the god and
goddesses symbolising the nature. These can be classified into three groups
viz. terrestrial gods like Prithvi, Agni, Soma and Brihaspati, the atmospheric
gods like Indra, Marut, Vayu, Parjanya and Rudra, the celestial gods like
Varuna, Dyus (the sky god), Sun god like Mitra, Savitri and Vishnu.
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The