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Tennessee 4-H Jr. HighWildlife Manual

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICETHE UNIVERISITY OF TENNESSEE

PB1687

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

AUTHORS

Craig Harper, Assistant Professor,Forestry, Wildlife and FisheriesThe University of Tennessee

Tom Hill, Professor,Forestry, Wildlife and FisheriesThe University of Tennessee

Jim Byford, Dean,School of Agriculture and Applied SciencesThe University of Tennessee, Martin

David Mercker, Extension Associate,Forestry, Wildlife and FisheriesThe University of Tennessee

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Wildlife Ecology and Management 3

Habitat Management 7

Wildlife Management Methods 11

Backyard Wildlife Management 16

Reptiles and Amphibians 19

Fish Management 23

Forest Management 27

Glossary 31

A special thanks goes to theTennessee Wildlife ResourcesAgency for providing financialsupport and personnel assistance incarrying out the various programs inthe overall 4-H wildlife program.

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WILDLIFE ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

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Wildlife

ildlife management is the art and science ofmaking land produce and sustain more

wildlife than nature would normally produce. However,in order to manage wildlife, we need to understand theecological principles that apply to wildlife; that is, theinteraction of wildlife with the living and non-livingcomponents of the surrounding environment, orecosystem. Ecosystems are comprised of livingcommunities (plants and animals) and the non-livingenvironment (soil, water, minerals and air) with whichcommunities interact.

Humans have the ability to alter the environment andcontrol the density of other organisms. So, it isimportant that we know the effect of our activities on theenvironment and understand the response of wildlife tothese activities.

Traditionally, wildlife management has concentrated on1) conservation of wildlife through game laws, 2) re-stocking when necessary (using wild-trapped animals)and 3) habitat improvement. When wildlife populationsbegin to decline, people generally think and act in theorder listed above. This is unfortunate, because the thirditem is often more important than the first two. Ifsuitable habitat to support wildlife is lacking, protectionand re-stocking will not protect or restore populations.

Managing wildlife starts successfully with landmanagement, or what wildlife biologists call habitatmanagement. Land has the ability to support only acertain number of animals. This limit is termed thecarrying capacity and it is nature’s way of regulating

populations. Carrying capacity depends on a number ofthings, such as habitat quality, predation andcompetition.

Habitat is made up of four primary components: food,cover, water and space. All these things have to bepresent to support wildlife populations in a given area.The component in shortest supply is called the limitingfactor, because it is limiting the population on thatparticular tract of land. As populations increase beyondthe carrying capacity, nature quickly reduces theirnumbers, often through starvation,disease, predation or acombination of factors.

The only way to sustain largerpopulations is to increase thecarrying capacity. Habitatmanagement is the primarymethod of increasing carryingcapacity. By managing foradditional food, cover andwater on a given area, moreindividuals are able to sustainthemselves, providing there isadequate space.

Food provides energy, which iscontinually transferred through ecosystems by way offood chains. Energy transfer begins with the sun’senergy being fixed by green plants (or producers). Thisis accomplished through photosynthesis and by usingnutrients in the soil. Green plants are eaten byherbivores (such as rabbits and deer) and herbivoresmay be eaten by predators (such as great-horned owlsand bobcats). Predators may be carnivores oromnivores. Carnivores are meat-eaters (such aswolves) and omnivores are animals that eat both plantsand animals (e.g., black bears, humans). At each step ina food chain, a considerable amount of energy is lost.

A food pyramid can be used to show the steps of a foodchain. Plants capture about 1 percent of the solar energythat reaches their leaves. Herbivores keep about 10percent of the energy from the plants and carnivoreskeep about 10 percent of the energy from herbivores.

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PLANT MATERIAL - GRASS, HAY

CATTLE - BEEF

HUMANS

990 calories lostto the environment

1000 calories

10 caloriesplant matter availableas food 9 calories lost

to the environment

1 calorieavailableas food

Plant and animalmaterials are brokendown by fungi andmicro-organisms,

decomposing thesematerials to be reused.

The flow of energy decreases witheach step in a food chain

All food chains end with waste products of live animals,dead plant parts and dead animals. Decomposers (e.g.,bacteria and fungi) consume these products, break downthe remaining material and release the nutrients backinto the system to be used again by plants to begin a newfood chain.

The amount of food and cover on a given area changesover time. Succession is the orderly, predictable seriesof changes in plant species composition on a given areaover time. This is a very important principle, since allwildlife species are best adapted to a particularsuccessional stage year-round or during specific seasons.The same tools that destroy habitat are used to restoreand manage it, setting back succession. These includethe chainsaw, plow, disc, bushhog, fire, herbicides andgrazing. Consider a piece of land that has been clearedbare. It is reasonable to expect the following changes inplant composition over time.

1st year: Ragweed, panic grass, foxtail2nd year: Goldenrod, broomsedge3rd year: Dewberry, blackberry4th year: Sassafras, sumac, elderberry5th year: Pine, redcedar, cherry, elm

With these plant changes come changes in the associatedwildlife community.

Wildlife management objectives change with plantsuccession. Wildlife managers first determine theirmanagement objective and then work toward the stageof succession best suited for the species to be managed.

However, since wildlife managers rarely manage foronly one species, it is desirable to manage for severaldifferent successional stages and habitat types on a givenpiece of property. This way, many wildlife speciesbenefit.

Thus, 100 pounds of forage will produce 10 pounds ofbeef, which in turn will produce 1 pound of flesh on aperson.

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Wild Turkey

Ruffled Grouse

An ecotone is where two or more successional stages (ortwo or more habitat types) meet and is a very importantarea for wildlife. This area is commonly called an edge.The reason many species of wildlife are found nearedges is because this is where most resources areconcentrated. For species with small home ranges (suchas quail and rabbits), it is important that all of theresources needed to survive are in close proximity to oneanother. This reduces the need to travel far, which alsoreduces the risk of predation. Predators (such as foxesand red-tailed hawks) like edges as well because that iswhere prey can be found.

Some people think predators are bad; that they reducegame populations and take away individual gameanimals that could be hunted. Some also think ifpredators could be removed, game would be abundant.That is not true. In fact, predation performs a necessaryfunction by reducing surplus animals the habitat cannotsupport. If not reduced by predation, the populationeventually would be reduced by some other means (suchas starvation and disease). Often, before the populationis reduced, the habitat is severely damaged.

For example, many years ago, wildlife managers in theKaibab National Forest of Arizona wanted to increasethe deer population. A bounty was placed on mountainlions and essentially all of the mountain lions in the areawere killed. Then, deer became so numerous theydepleted their food resources and most of them died ofstarvation. This demonstrates the importance ofpredation in maintaining healthy habitats and wildlifepopulations.

White-tailed Deer

Ruffed

WildlifeChangewithSuccession

INTERSPERSION OF TYPES - RELATION TO MOBILITY &DENSITY OF QUAIL (same types and same total area of each)

A: Poor Interspersion(one covey)

B: Good Interspersion(six coveys)

Bare FieldCommunity Type

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Predation is not just game being killed by foxes,mountain lions or wolves. For example, the turkey poultfeeding on grasshoppers is just as much a predator as agreat-horned owl killing a grouse.

The lesson here is that all of our native wildlife speciesperform a critical role in the balance of our naturalworld. This role is called a niche.

In the absence of natural predators, it is up to man toregulate and manage our wildlife populations throughhabitat management and hunting. Hunters not only helpmanage game populations, they also provide themajority of the funding used to pay wildlife managersand biologists through the sale of hunting licenses andwith tax money levied on the sale of firearms andammunition. In addition, this money is used to manageand protect wildlife habitat.

REFERENCESLeopold, A. 1933. Game Management. Scribner, NewYork. 481 pages.

Robinson, W. L., and E. G. Bolen. 1989. WildlifeEcology Management. Macmillan, New York.574 pages.

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HABITAT MANAGEMENT

anaging habitats (or habitat types) is the primary method of managing wildlife. If the

habitat is not suitable, wildlife will not flourish (or insome cases, survive) in that area. Wildlife managersspend a great deal of their time manipulating land toensure suitable habitat is available for various wildlifespecies. In this chapter, you will learn about some of thetechniques used in managing habitats. Keep in mind,however, that no one technique is going to createfavorable habitat conditions for all species, or even forone species during the entire year. It is essential that avariety of habitats and successional stages be present,and usually well interspersed, for a variety of wildlifespecies to flourish.

Quality habitat should offer adequate food, cover, waterand space. Habitats are managed to increase thosecomponents that are lacking. The following practices areused to enhance the habitat for many wildlife species.

MANAGING FORESTS FOR WILDLIFETimber HarvestForests can be managed for wildlife through timberharvest. Clearcut, shelterwood and group selection arethree commonly used methods to regenerate (or startanew) forest stands. While the primary objective may beregeneration of the forest, many species of wildlifebenefit when the trees are removed. By removing trees,more sunlight is allowed into the forest, whichstimulates lush growth on the forest floor. This new

growth provides lots of food—leaves, twigs and softmast (such as blackberries, blueberries andhuckleberries). Insects and other invertebrates (such asspiders and snails) are attracted to the new growth andare fed upon by wild turkey and ruffed grouse poults,songbirds and salamanders.

The lush natural growth following a timber harvestoperation is normally quite dense for a few years untilthe trees grow large enough to shade others out. Duringthis time, these “thick” areas provide excellent cover formany species, including white-tailed deer, ruffed grouse,black bears, rabbits, bobcats, foxes and several speciesof songbirds.

A timber harvest is especially important for wildlifewhere there are large tracts of unbroken forest with littleearly successional habitat. Typically, timber harvestsshould be 10-40 acres, but this can vary according tospecies being managed, surrounding land-use practicesand size of forest tract being managed.

ThinningThinning undesirable trees from a stand can improvehabitat for wildlife as well. Thinning forest stands forwildlife removes trees that are not beneficial to wildlife(such as sweetgum, winged elm, maples, ashes andyellow poplar), while others (such as oaks, hickories,American beech, black cherry, persimmon andmulberry) provide important seed and fruit crops used

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by many wildlife species.Thinning out “weed” treesallows the remaining trees togrow larger and producemore food. So, it is possiblefor many forests to producemore food for wildlife withfewer trees! The increasedsunlight coming in to theforest floor stimulates freshgrowth of forbs and grasses,providing additional foodfor wildlife, and thestructure many birds requireto nest.

Wildlife managers sometimes kill trees that need to beremoved by girdling them (cutting a circle through thebark around the tree) and spraying herbicide in thegirdle. These trees are left standing (snags) to providecavities used by birds and mammals for nesting, roostingand denning. Sometimes the trees to be removed are notcut all the way through, but just enough to fell the tree,leaving a hinge connecting the stem to the would-bestump (hinge-cutting). By doing this, the tree is knockedover, but remains alive, providing excellent cover atground level for wildlife.

Prescribed FirePerhaps the single-most important tool used to improvewildlife habitat is prescribed fire (or controlledburning). PRESCRIBED FIRE IS NOT A WILDFIREAND THE RESULTS ARE DRAMATICALLYDIFFERENT. Prescribed fire is used to decrease theamount of fuel (dead leaves, sticks and limbs) on theforest floor and stimulate growth of forbs and grasses.Not only does this promote increased food and nestingcover for wildlife, it also reduces the chance of wildfire,which could destroy the forest. The benefits ofprescribed fire are best realized after a stand has beenthinned. Debris left from the thinning is burned, alongwith the leaf litter layer, allowing seeds in the seed bank(seeds found in the top layer of soil) to germinate.

Prescribed fire is “controlled” by burning only underdesired conditions (i.e., correct temperatures, humidity,days after a rain and wind speed) and with the use offirebreaks. Burning when it’s too dry, when the wind isblowing too hard and without fire breaks can lead touncontrolled wildfires that can destroy property and

lives. You should NEVER attempt burn by yourself orwithout experienced personnel present. If you wish touse prescribed fire, contact the Tennessee Division ofForestry or the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agencyand they will conduct the burn for you.

Firebreaks are lanes of bare ground established aroundthe perimeter of an area to be burned. They help keepthe fire from spreading into an area that is not to beburned. Firebreaks are usually created by plowing ordiscing or with a bulldozer. After a burn, firebreaks canbe planted or left alone. If left alone, forbs (weeds) andgrasses beneficial to wildlife should germinate from theseed bank. If planted, wildlife managers use wildlife-friendly seed mixtures that provide forage and/or seedfor many species. Seeds planted are listed under FoodPlots.

MANAGING FIELDS FOR WILDLIFEOld Field ManagementOld fields are those that have been left fallow(unplanted) and allowed to grow up in various nativeforbs (weeds) and grasses. These fields can be havensfor many species of wildlife (such as rabbits, quail, deer,field mice, reptiles, hawks and foxes), especially if thefields are managed correctly. The various forbs foundgrowing in old fields can be particularly important.Forbs comprise approximately 70 percent of a deer’sdiet during spring and fall. Seeds from various forbs arethe main component in a quail’s diet during fall andwinter, providing the nutrition necessary to survive untilspring. Native warm-season grasses (NWSG), such asbroomsedge, big and little bluestem, indiangrass andswitchgrass, are often found in old fields and providepreferred nesting habitat for bobwhites and offer coverfor many other species. Unfortunately, many old fieldsin Tennessee were planted to fescue at some time in thepast. Fescue is an exotic, non-native grass that does notprovide habitat for wildlife. Fescue grows very thick atthe ground level, preventing quail and wild turkeychicks and young rabbits from traveling through thefield. Also, fescue tends to grow in solid stands, notallowing native forbs and grasses to germinate and grow.Fescue offers poor forage for deer and rabbits and doesnot harbor as many invertebrates for quail and turkeys tofeed upon. Thus, wildlife managers spray and kill fescuewith herbicides to allow growth of other grasses andforbs.

If left alone, old fields eventually become forests andwildlife needing old field habitat will diminish. That is

Snags usually contain cavities,which are used by many visitors

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why wildlife managers continually set back successionin old fields. This is best accomplished with prescribedfire as discussed earlier. Burning fields every yearpromotes annual forbs and grasses. Burning every twoor three years promotes perennial forbs and grasses.Burning every three to five years promotes perennialforbs and grasses and allows some woody succession toget started. Old fields of all three types should be presentto provide various food and cover requirements forwildlife.

Wildlife managers often disc strips through fields just topromote forbs and grasses. Sometimes strips are discedon a three-year rotation. This way, both annual andperennial food and cover is available each year.

Bushhogging is another way wildlife managers set backsuccession in old fields. Bushhogging should be done inlate winter, just prior to spring green-up. This way, morecover is available throughout winter and nests andyoung are not disturbed or destroyed during spring andsummer.

Fields larger than one or two acres are often broken upinto smaller fields by establishing hedgerows. The besthedgerows are planted to trees and shrubs that producesoft mast (such as persimmon, crabapple, hawthorn andwild plum) and evergreen cover (such as pines andeastern redcedar). By establishing hedgerows, travellanes are created across the field and the amount of edgeis increased. This allows wildlife managers to betterintersperse food and cover resources on the propertybeing managed. Small fruit-bearing trees and shrubs arealso planted along the edge of fields and woods to createa soft edge—where the transition between woods andfield is gradual—providing increased food and cover inclose proximity to one another. Hinge-cutting is alsoused at the edge of fields and woods to establish a softedge.

Food PlotsPlanting food plots is another way wildlife managersimprove available nutrition and increase the carryingcapacity of a piece of property. There are many differenttypes of food plots. Wildlife managers decide what toplant based on the site conditions (such as soil andtopography) and wildlife to be managed. Just like theforbs growing in an old field, food plots provide forageand/or seed and, in some circumstances, cover as well.Good forage plantings include: clovers, alfalfa, greens(such as rape and turnips),lablab, oats, wheat, rye andryegrass. Good seedproducers include: corn,milo (grain sorghum),millets and sunflowers.

Some plantings provide both forage and seed: cowpeas,soybeans and buckwheat. NEVER plant fescue ororchardgrass in a wildlife food plot. These grasseschokeout desirable plantings and leave wildlife with nofood or desirable cover.

Wildlife managers typically plant several small foodplots (<2 acres) instead of fewer larger food plots. Thisimproves habitat for more animals if the food plots arespread out evenly over the management area. Food plotsshould be planted next to good cover, such as a bramblethicket, dense stand of young pines or a brushyfencerow. Never plant your food plots within site of aroad. This only increases the chances of poaching.

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The Clemson beaver pond leveler is used to manage water levels in beaver ponds.

T-joint tilted with a drain plug may replace elbow

intake device

beaver dam

20’

pond side

MANAGING WETLANDS FOR WILDLIFEWetlands are habitats with standing water or wetsoils during part of most years. Wetlands are veryimportant because they improve water quality, provideflood control and are needed by many wildlife species(such as waterfowl and other wetland birds; manyturtles, frogs, and salamanders; otters, mink andbeavers). Unfortunately, most of our wetlands have beendrained; Tennessee has lost 60 percent of its originalwetlands. It is critical that we conserve our wetlands forgenerations to come.

Not all wetlands are alike. Some are open water, someare marshy and some contain brush or trees. All,however, provide habitat for wildlife. As withterrestrial habitats, the vegetative communitydetermines which wildlife species use the area.

Manipulating the water level is the main way wetlandsare managed for wildlife. Again, the seeds present in theseed bank are very important in providing food andcover. Wildlife managers often draw down the waterlevel using some type of water control device just beforespring. This allows weed seeds in the seed bank togerminate and grow. Many of these seeds are valuablefoods for wildlife. Later, the water level is graduallybrought back up, flooding the vegetation so it can beused by wetland wildlife.

In some areas, crops (particularly corn, milo and millet),or crop residue, are flooded in the fall to provide feedinghabitat and loafing sites for migrating and winteringducks and other wetland birds (such as sandpipers).Crop residue isn’t the only food available. Aquaticinvertebrates are important food resources for many ofthese birds.

Bottomlandhardwoods arealso flooded in thefall for similarreasons. Mallards,wood ducks andblack ducks reallylike these areas.Where the waterlevel ismanipulated, theseareas are calledgreentree reservoirs.They are flooded during fall and winter, but left dry inthe spring and summer to keep the trees from dying.

Wooded wetlands mimic some of the best wetlands ofall—beaver ponds. Over time, however, vegetationwithin beaver ponds can thin and die out, depending onthe depth and duration of flooding, as well as thevegetation present. Wildlife managers fluctuate thewater level in beaver ponds for the same reasons listedabove, using a Clemson beaver pond leveler. This deviceallows wildlife managers to adjust the water level so theappropriate amount of vegetation and water remains inthe wetland during the appropriate seasons.

REFERENCESHarper, C. A. 2000. Planting chart for wildlife foodplots in Tennessee, SP 550-A. University of TennesseeAgricultural Extension Service, P.O. Box 1071,Knoxville, TN 37901. No charge.

Kenyon, I. 2000. Beyond the food patch: a guide toproviding bobwhite quail habitat, Publication 00-01.Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, P.O.Box 11104, Richmond, VA 23230. No charge.ildlife management has made many advances over theyears. Today, wildlife biologists and managers use

1” rebar6’ long

8” diameter PVC pipe

Elbow and stand pipe are optional.Needed only to manage water level if

maintaining pond is an objective.

water flow

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WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT METHODS

Central tail feathers of juvenile wild turkeys are longer thanthose on either side. Tail fan of adults is even.

ADULT IMMATURE

Aging quail by wings.

Primary coverts(outer surface of wings)

ADULT IMMATURE

Left:Primary covertsin adults areuniformin color.

Right:Primary covertsin young quail havelight-colored tips.

ildlife management has made many advancesover the years. Today, wildlife biologists and

managers usedetailed techniques and equipment instudying relationships between wildlife species and theirhabitat. At the same time, biologists still rely on oldermethods in their wildlife management programs.

Here we will take a look at various techniques used bybiologists to solve research and management problems.While the techniques are interesting, the most importantthing to realize is what they can tell you.

AGING TECHNIQUESThe ability to age animals is important for wildlifemanagers. By aging several animals of the same speciesfrom an area, biologists can learn some important thingsabout the population in that area. For example, by agingdeer killed by hunters each year, biologists learn aboutthe age structure of the herd. A deer harvest containing80 percent bucks 11/2 years old indicates few bucks areattaining maturity and the social status of the herd maynot be healthy.

Several techniques for aging animals have beendeveloped over the years. The most common way to agebirds is by looking at the feather characteristics. Thepresence, length and coloration of certain feathers can beused to determine the age of many birds. Most evident isthe age of young birds, or juveniles, as they undergotheir first few molts.

Most mammals can be aged by inspecting their teeth.Inspecting the amount of wear on teeth is a commonlyused method to age white-tailed deer. Counting theannual growth rings in teeth (similar to growth ringsfound in a tree) is another way biologists age mammals(such as black bears). Other methods of determining the

Primary coverts(outer surface of wings)

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Barring on outer primaries of juvenile does not reach end offeather. Adult primary feather is rounded at tip, while it is sharp

on juvenile turkeys.

ADULTJUVENILE

age of mammals include eye lens weight and the lengthof certain bones. No one technique is useful for allspecies, so biologists rely on a variety of techniques.Some mammals have antlers, such as white-tailed deer,elk and moose. Antlers are grown and shed annually(once every year). Animals with antlers cannot be agedby antler characteristics—so you cannot tell the age of adeer by the number of points on its rack. Somemammals have horns, such as wild goats and sheep.Horns grow continuously and are not shed. Animals withhorns can be aged by the ridges on their horns.

SEXING TECHNIQUESMost folks can tell a male cardinal from a female by hisbright red plumage. And most people can distinguish amale mallard (drake) from a female (suzie) by his brightgreen head and white neck band.

Also, it is quite easy to tell a buck deer from a doeduring most seasons of the year by his antlers.However, the sexes of many wildlife species are difficultto distinguish from one another. It takes an expert todistinguish a male Canada goose from a female, or amale woodcock from a female.

The most common method to determine sex amongbirds is also by feather characteristics. As with agedetermination, the sex of many birds can be determinedby the presence, length and coloration of certainfeathers. Most often, male birds are more colorful thanfemales. Drab coloration in females serves ascamouflage during the nesting period. Other methodsused to determine sex of some species of birds includethe shape of droppings, cloacal exam, length of bill,presence of certain structures (such as spurs, beard andruff) and the size of the bird.

Deer is 11/2 years old or less if third premolar has three cusps.

Deer is 21/2 years old or older if third premolarhas only two cusps.

1st2nd 3rd 1st 2nd

3rd

1st 2nd 3rd

1st 2nd3rd

PRE MOLARS MOLARS

PRE MOLARS MOLARS

FEMALEMALE

Breast feathers of male wild turkeys (left) are black-tipped;whereas those of females are buff-tipped (right).

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Dropping shapes indicate sex of the wild turkey.

LEFT: Typical gobbler droppings RIGHT: Typical hen droppings

In mammals, the most common sexing technique is toexamine the reproductive organs. Sometimes this is notpossible. Other clues biologists use to determine sex ofmammals include the presence of antlers, urinationposture and the presence of young.

One of the oldest management tools for many specieshas been to harvest only one sex (males) during thehunting season. For years, hunters in Tennessee wereable to kill male deer (bucks) only, which allowed thepopulation to grow. Hunting gobblers only also enabledwild turkey numbers to rebound. Waterfowl hunters arestill allowed a larger bag limit of certain duck species(such as mallards) if they harvest drakes only. Hunterscan tell the difference between the sexes of thesespecies, and the removal of a certain number of malesdoes not hurt reproduction of the population.In recent years, however, populations of some wildlifespecies have increased dramatically and, as a result,

FEMALEMALE

Outer primaries of female woodcock are widerthan those of a male.

10thprimary

9thprimary

10thprimary

9thprimary

ADULT IMMATURESUBADULT

SUMMER BORN SPRING BORN ADULT

ADULTIMMATURE

A. Age may be determined by examination of the ventral(lower) surface of the tail. Left: juvenile, the shortersecondary hairs are absent on the lower side of thetailbone. Center: subadult, short appressed hairs arepresent on the lower third of the tailbone.

B. Mastology of the female squirrel. Left: juvenile, withnipples minute and barely discernible. Right: lacatingadult, nipples pigmented black with most of hair worn off.

C. Scrotal measurements of male squirrels. Left: summerborn, the testes are abdominal and the skin is just begin-ning to pigment. Center: spring born, the testes are largeand the scrotum is pigmented but heavily furred. Right:adult has shed most of the fur from the scrotum.

Sex & age criteria for squirrels:

exceed the carrying capacity of the habitat in certainareas. The white-tailed deer is a good example. Today, insome areas of Tennessee, deer populations have grownto the point that the habitat cannot support them. It is theresponsibility of people to keep wildlife populations incheck. To do this, female deer (does) have to beharvested as well as males. Hence, hunters are allowedto kill does in these areas to reduce the number offemales and help improve habitat conditions. As a result,either-sex hunts have enabled the TWRA to bettermanage the deer population in Tennessee.

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Conibear trap set for beaver.

Leghold trap used to catch various mammals.

CAPTURE TECHNIQUESCapturing animals is extremely important for wildlifebiologists when learning about the behavior of manywildlife species and the habitats they use. Trappinganimals is also essential in cases where wildlife isdamaging property or otherwise causing problems.

Capture techniques (trapping) vary widely. There arekill-traps, live traps, snares, pit falls and many othertypes of traps. Traps are designed to work on a variety ofspecies in a variety of habitats. Some commonly usedtraps are: conibear trap, leghold trap, snap trap, snare,box/cage (or live) trap and glue board.

Other traps are specialized for certain species andhabitats. For example, the rocket net has been usedsuccessfully to capture turkeys, waterfowl and deer. Thedart gun has been effective in immobilizing largeanimals such as deer, bear and elk so they may betagged, measured and/or transported.

Trapping has enabled the Tennessee Wildlife ResourcesAgency (TWRA) to capture and relocate some species(such as deer and turkeys) into other areas of where theirnumbers were low but the habitat has since beenrestored. This has allowed those species to increase innumber in all areas of Tennessee.

Researchers sometimes put radio transmitters on trappedanimals to monitor the animal’s movements, behaviorand habits. This is the main way biologists find out howlarge an animal’s home range is and which habitats itprefers.

Trapping (or otherwise capturing) animals can beimportant when estimating the number of animals in apopulation. For example, biologists may capture animalsrepeatedly and see how many recaptures they get. Theythen use calculations to estimate the number of animalsin an area.

One way managers are “capturing” animals to estimatepopulations (such as white-tailed deer) is with infrared-triggered cameras. By placing these cameras in areasused by wildlife, managers are able to get pictures ofcertain animals and estimate how many are in the area.Other methods used to estimate trends in animalpopulations include track counts, roadside counts, pelletcounts, flush counts and call counts.

Trapping is one tool wildlife biologists use to remove orcontrol nuisance animals in a wildlife damagemanagement program. Managing wildlife damage mayinvolve any of several strategies to reduce or eliminateconflicts between wildlife and humans. These strategiesmight include:

• trapping—a raccoon that keeps getting in trashcansor eating corn in the garden.

• habitat modification—mowing and picking up debrisaround the shed to make the area less attractive to miceso fewer snakes use the area.

• exclusion—putting up a fence to keep deer, dogs,rabbits or groundhogs out of the garden, OR sealingholes leading into the attic to keep bats and squirrelsout.

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• frightening agents—some animals can be frightenedby sound or sight using noise makers or decoys ofpredators.

• repellents—substances that repel animals by smell ortaste are used to keep animals from eating things in thegarden.

• shooting and toxicants—many nuisance animals canbe killed by shooting or using poison baits.

The first step wildlife biologists use in solving a wildlifedamage problem is to identify the problem animal(s).This helps minimize danger to non-target species. Often,it is necessary to use two or more strategies at the sametime to solve the problem effectively and efficiently.

REFERENCESBookout, T.A.(editor). 1994. Research andmanagement techniques for wildlife and habitats.The Wildlife Society. Bethesda, MD. 740 pages.

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BACKYARD WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

O

House

bserving wildlife in your own backyard isenjoyable and convenient. It is comfortable to

sit in your easy chair or out on your patio and learn toidentify songbirds and other wildlife species. In someareas, excellent wildlife habitat exists and viewingopportunities are abundant. However there are usuallyseveral ways to improve wildlife habitat around yourhome.

WILDLIFE NEEDSWildlife need four basic requirements: food, cover,water and space. Considering these requirements, lookaround your home and determine what is lacking.

DRAW A MAPOne of the first steps toward improving wildlife habitatin your backyard is to draw a map. Include propertyboundaries, your house, driveway, fence, shed,shrubbery, trees, etc. You can step off distances to get arough check of scale on your map. By looking at the“holes” present and the arrangement of vegetation, youcan get a good idea of what is lacking and where it isneeded.

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHERThis is where the fun begins! Every area is unique, butmost backyards need more wildlife-friendly plantsarranged with increased edge and interspersion.

Edge is where two or more habitats come together.Generally, this is where most wildlife species are foundbecause it is probably close to food AND cover.

Interspersion is best described as the arrangement ofhabitats. A mixture of habitats arranged in a patchworkmosaic provides good interspersion. You can make youryard and surrounding area more attractive for wildlife byarranging different habitats close to one another. Forexample, an island of wildflowers or shrubbery in youryard increases interspersion and breaks up the yard ofgrass, making the area attractive to more wildlifespecies.

WHAT SHOULD YOU PLANT?It is important to realize that not all wildlife species havethe same habitat requirements. Thus, it makes sense thata variety of habitats and vegetative species benefitsmore wildlife species. Remember, increased plantdiversity leads to increased animal diversity, wherediversity is the number of species, not the number ofindividuals.

When deciding what to plant, consider what you havealready and keep in mind the year-round needs ofwildlife. Trees, shrubs, and vines that produce both softmast and hard mast are important. Soft mast includessoft, fleshy fruits (such as cherries, persimmons,mulberries, grapes, blackberries, blueberries, apples,plums) and is important during summer and fall. Hardmast (such as acorns and nuts) is important during falland winter when animals are looking for high-energyfood.

Herbaceous plants (forbs and grasses) are alsoused by wildlife. Many wildflowers (such asbergamot, jewelweed, cardinal flower andevening primrose) are planted specificallyto attract hummingbirds and butterflies.

Herbaceous plants also provideforage and seed for wildlife.Establish these plants along theborder of woods and fields toincrease the amount ofedge.

17

STRUCTURES FOR WILDLIFEIn addition to landscaping, there are several other thingsyou can do around your home to provide food, water andcover for wildlife.

Create a brushpile for wildlife. Brushpiles are magnetsfor lots of birds, small mammals and reptiles. Toconstruct a brushpile for wildlife, place the largest limbs(or logs) on the bottom and pile the smaller brush ontop. This provides more dens and crevices for wildlifeunder the protection of brushy cover.

Leave that dead tree standing! Dead, standing trees arecalled snags. Snags are great places for birds andmammals to nest, den, roost, perch and feed upon themany insects present. Unless the snag presents apotential hazard around your home, play area orother structural property, let it stand and watchwhat happens. You will be amazed at howmany wildlife residents and users itreceives.

A great way to provide additional foodand nesting habitat for wildlife is toerect feeders and nest boxes. The mostcommon feeders and nest boxes are forbirds; however, many roost/nest boxdesigns are available for mammals (suchas bats and squirrels).

You can cater to the species you want by usingselective feeder designs and seeds. Most birds eagerlytake black-oil sunflower seeds and white proso millet.Some prefer specific seeds (such as the Americangoldfinch, which likes thistle seed). Other foods youmight try include peanut butter squeezed into in pine “Rocket box” bat houses.

3'

Poplar or pine

Bats enterand exit

4" x 4"rough-cutoak.12 - 16ft. long.

2 1/2 - 3 ftin ground

Shingle roofing

Screenedvent1/2" to 3/4"in diameter

Cut top of4" x 4" post

Slightlyroundedpost corners

Additionalcuts couldbe madeto increaseroostingarea.

3/4" woodspacerattachedwithlug bolts.

Not an entrance hole,

but a screened vent.

here

18

cones, fruit, nuts, suet cakes and jelly. Put out severaltypes of foods—part of the fun is finding out who eatswhat!

Beware of cats around your feeders, as they may kill thebirds and mammals you are trying to attract. House catskill hundreds of thousands of birds and small mammalswhile roaming around outside each year. For this reason,cats should be kept indoors—that is the only way tokeep them from killing wildlife. House cats are NOTnatural predators in our ecosystems (they are exotic—brought to North America from Asia and Africa). Allferal cats should be reported to your local animal shelterfor immediate capture and removal.

Another type of feeder is for hummingbirds.Hummingbirds like nectar, and you can make your ownby using four parts water to one part sugar. Boil waterbefore mixing to dissolve sugar well.

Water is an essential component of wildlife habitat,providing refreshment for thirsty animals and a place tosplash and cool off. It is easy to provide water aroundyour house by erecting a birdbath. It is important to keepthe water in birdbaths fresh. Some folks even buildsmall ponds in their backyards for wildlife to use.

CONCLUSIONImproving wildlife habitat around your home can be arewarding experience. The effort you put forth in yourown backyard can make a big difference for wildlife.Remember, see what you have now, realize what islacking, and supply those things needed by “filling inthe holes” and creating more edge.

REFERENCESGardening with wildlife. National Wildlife Federation,1412 Sixteenth St., N.W., Washington, D.C.

Improving your backyard wildlife habitat, PB 1633.University of Tennessee Agricultural ExtensionService, P.O. Box 1071, Knoxville, TN 37901.

Henderson, C. 1987. Landscaping for wildlife.Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, NongameWildlife Program. St. Paul, Minnesota.

Henderson, C. 1995. Wild about birds. MinnesotaDepartment of Natural Resources, Nongame WildlifeProgram. St. Paul, Minnesota.

Woodworking for Wildlife in Tennessee. TennesseeWildlife Resources Agency (800) 262-6704. No charge.

19

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

CARAPACE (upper shell)

nucal

PLASTRON (lower shell)

marginals

marginals costals

vertebrals

femoral abdominal

anal

pectoral numeral

gular

R eptiles and amphibians are cold-bloodedvertebrates (that means they have backbones)

that hibernate below the frost line in winter. Their rolesin life may not seem spectacular, but both groups arebeneficial to humans and essential to nature’s scheme.

AMPHIBIANSAmphibians differ from reptiles in several importantways. Their skin is smooth, not scaled. Those with feetdo not have claws like reptiles. Their jelly-coated eggs,laid in water, hatch into larvae with gills.

Frogs & ToadsFrogs include the group of amphibians able to hop, leapor jump. Like other amphibians, they lay their eggs inwater. Their larvae have tails and gills, but no legs. Asthe larvae continue to develop, they lose their gills andtails, but develop legs. Most male frogs have large vocalsacs to call mates.

Toads are sometimescalled frogs, but theydiffer from frogs in thatmost have relativelydry, warty skin andthey hop to getaround. Most otherfrogs have moist,smooth skin and they leap.You cannot get warts fromtouching toads, but their skin-gland secretions can beirritating to mucous membranes.

Tree frogs have suction discs on the ends of their toes,which enable them to climb bushes, weeds or grass. Truefrogs are long-legged, narrow-waisted and rathersmooth-skinned. They have fingers free and toes joinedby webs. There are 21 kinds of frogs in Tennessee.

SalamandersTennessee has 48 kinds of salamanders. Salamandershave the same general appearance as lizards, with tailsand well-developed legs. They are very different,though. Lizards are closely related to snakes, whilesalamanders are more closely related to frogs.

Salamanders arecreatures of moisthabitats and somespend all their life inwater. They have noscales on their skin orclaws on their toes, of whichthey have only four on their front feet (as compared tolizards, which have five). Young salamanders have gillsfor breathing and some species retain these intoadulthood. Most salamanders, however, lose their gillsand live in moist areas, such as under a log in the woodsor near a creek. The skin must be kept moist forbreathing because oxygen is taken in through the wet,slimy surface.

REPTILESReptiles, unlike amphibians, have closed scales (with theexception of soft-shelled turtles) and can live in muchdrier areas. Reptiles with feet have claws.

TurtlesThe skeleton of turtles is a bony box, with the backboneand flattened ribs firmly fused together. The top part,covered with horny scales, is called the carapace andthe underside is the plastron. Turtles have no teeth, butcan tear food and eat with their sharp, hooked beaks.Turtles (even water turtles) lay their soft-shelled eggs onland in a shallow hole. We have 21 kinds of turtles inTennessee.

The scutes of a turtle’s shell.

20

LizardsThere are 10 kinds of lizards in Tennessee and none ofthem are venomous. They are scaled and all but onehave feet with claws. The slender glass lizard has no feetand almost looks like a snake, except it has external earopenings and movable eyelids, which all lizards have,but snakes don’t have. Lizards are able to lose their tailwhen caught and grow a new one later. They mostly eatinsects and reproduce by laying eggs.

SnakesSnakes are cold-blooded, limbless vertebrates lackingexternal ear openings and eyelids. Snakes are coveredwith scales and are not slimy. Since their temperature isclose to that of surrounding objects, they sometimes feelcool to the touch. All snakes eat other animals. Preyincludes earthworms, insects, eggs, frogs, lizards, fish,birds, mice and other snakes. Snakes do not chew theirfood, but swallow it whole. Some snakes lay eggs whileother give birth to their young. Snakes hibernate duringthe winter and shed their skin when they grow too largefor it.

Of the 45 species and subspecies of snakes in Tennessee,only six are venomous. The other 39 contain absolutelyNO POISON. And no one county in Tennessee containsall six of the poisonous snakes. The six are describedbelow and found only in the part of Tennessee shown onthe map.

SOUTHERN COPPERHEAD(Agkistrodon contortrix contortrix)The venom of this snake affects blood cells and tissue,causing swelling and discoloration. Coloration is hazelbrown above, with large crossbands of chestnut brown.Bands are narrow on top of the back and broad on thesides, giving the appearance of an hourglass whenviewed from above. Young copperheads have a yellow-tipped tail. Average length is about 30 inches;record—52 inches.

NORTHERN COPPERHEAD(Adistrodon contortri mokasen)This snake is very similar to the southern copperhead,but darker colored with wider crossbands on its back.Average length: 30 inches; record—53 inches.

WESTERN COTTONMOUTH(Akistrodon piscivorous leucostoma)The venom of this snake affects blood cells and tissueand causes swelling and discoloration. This snake isfound in swamps and low areas of West Tennessee. Itsbelly is dark brown or black. Dark crossbands may beevident on its back and are uniform or with duskycenters. Many specimens are plain black or dark brownwith little or no trace of markings. Young are stronglyand brightly patterned and the tip of their tail is yellow.Average length: 30 - 40 inches long; record—54 inches.

TIMBER RATTLESNAKE(Crotalus horridus horridus)This snake is highly venomous. Its coloration isvariable, from yellow to olive to blackish. Timberrattlesnakes have black jagged crossbands and a rusty-brown stripe down the center of the back. Its tail isvelvet black. Average length: 36 - 60 inches;record –74 1/2 inches.

21

NON-POISONOUS

POISONOUS

4.5.

CANEBRAKE RATTLESNAKE(Crotalus horridus atricaudatus)Coloration of this snake is gray or pinkish-gray withsooty black bands and a reddish stripe down the top ofthe back. It lives in low-lying areas, such as areas wherepatches of cane grow (hence its name “canebrake”).Canebrakes are highly venomous. Average length:42 - 60 inches; record—74 1/2 inches.

WESTERN PYGMY RATTLESNAKE(Sistrurus miliarius streckeri)Pygmy rattlesnakes have a tiny rattle and skinny tail. Itscoloration is light, usually pale grayish brown. One ortwo conspicuous rows of dark spots are located on eachside of the body and it has nine prominent scales on topof the head. Average length: 15-20 inches long;record—25 1/8 inches.

All six of the venomous snakes in Tennessee belong to agroup called pit vipers—so named because of a pitlocated between the nostril and eye, one on each side ofthe head. These pits are used to detect odors and senseheat. The venom of pit vipers is primarily hemotoxic,which means it affects the blood system. The other typeof snake venom is primarily neurotoxic (affecting thenervous system), but no wild snakes in Tennessee haveneurotoxic venom. Fangs of pit vipers are long andhollow with openings in the back near the tip.

The best way to lose fear of snakes is to learn to identifythe six kinds of venomous snakes and learn them well.Learn to identify characteristics of venomous snakes asopposed to characteristics of nonvenomous snakes. Thefollowing are characteristics that always hold true for allsix of the venomous snakes in Tennessee:

1. Each has a pit between the eye and nostril.2. Each has a vertical, slit-like pupil (the black part of

the eye).3. On the underside of the tail (that portion of the body

from the anus toward the end of the snake), the scales go all the way across the tail (except

sometimes at the very tip of the tail where somescales may be divided).

The following characteristics hold true for allnon-venomous snakes in Tennessee:

4. There is no pit or indention between the nostril andthe eye.

5. The pupil of the eye is always round.6. On the underside of the tail (that portion of the body

from the anus toward the tip of the snake), the scales are divided in two rows down the tail.

anal plate6.

2. 1.

anal plate3.

anal platerattles

scales toward the tip are sometimes divided

22

Venomous snakes have venom for two reasons: 1) to killprey for food and, 2) protect themselves. They catchprey by striking and injecting venom as it passes by.After it dies, they casually track it down with nose,tongue and pits. They will not bite anything except foodunless surprised or cornered.

Only three percent of all snakes found in the UnitedStates are venomous. Only 10 percent of the species ofsnakes found in the United States are venomous. Thevenom from venomous snakes varies in potencydepending upon such factors as species, size, conditionof the snake and length of time since it last fed. Theeffect of a snakebite also varies according to the size andsensitivity of the victim, as well as the site andeffectiveness of the bite. Contrary to popular belief, fewsnakebite victims die within the first few hours. About70 percent of the fatalities occur six to 48 hours afterbitten. Only 0.2 percent (2 out of 1,000) of the peoplebitten by venomous snakes die from the bite.

Approximately 6,500 to 7,000 cases of snakebite occurin the United States each year. Of these, only 10 to 12result in death. All pit vipers in Tennessee are venomousand should not be handled by anyone withoutexperience. They do NOT make good pets and if kept incaptivity, snakes are a source of danger to everyonearound—not to mention, it is illegal to keep wild snakesin captivity.

REFERENCESConant, R. and J. T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to thereptiles and amphibians, 3rd edition. RiversidePress. Cambridge, MA 450 pp. Available from mostbookstores for about $17.

Wildlife of Tennessee. Tennessee Wildlife ResourcesAgency, Ellington Agricultural Center, Nashville, TN37220. No charge.

23

FISH MANAGEMENT

Why manage a fish pond? Fertilized pondsproduce four times as many pounds of fish as

unfertilized ponds.

Ponds with balanced bass:bluegill ratios yield morepounds of catchable-sized fish than ponds withunbalanced ratios—even if they both contain the samenumber of pounds of fish. A pond’s fish population isbalanced when both predator and prey spawn every year,while predators control the numbers of prey so there isan adequate food supply, and both types of fish grow toharvestable sizes.

Ponds without aquatic weeds tend to have betterbalanced bass:bluegill ratios, do not harbor as manymosquitoes (because fish can get to them better) and areeasier to fish than ponds containing weeds.

CONTROLGATE

STREAM

SPILLWAY

TRICKLE TUBE

Shallow pond edgesallow dense aquatic vegetation togrow, which can prevent large fish formpreying on small fish and lead to an unbalancedfish population.

There are six basic steps involved in establishing andmaintaining a good fish pond. Follow these steps andyou will catch more, better-quality fish.

Step 1: ConstructionIt is a waste of time and effort to build a pondimproperly. The first step in successful pondmanagement is proper construction. One consideration isthe pond-watershed ratio. (A pond’s watershed is theland area around the pond that catches rainfall draininginto the pond.)

Large streams should be diverted around fish ponds toprevent fertilizer nutrients and lime from washing away.

The plant cover on the watershed should be maintainedin grass, shrubs and trees. The pond-watershed ratioshould be adequate to maintain water levels but not toolarge that fertilizer nutrients and lime wash downstream.Each surface acre of pond should have a watershed of 10- 20 acres of pastureland or 30 - 35 acres of woodland. Ifthe watershed is too large, a diversion ditch should beconstructed around a portion of the pond to preventexcessive overflow during heavy rains.

Pond edges should be at least 2 feet deep to discouragegrowth of water weeds around the pond’s edge.

Other factors to consider in pond construction includethe emergency spillway, drainpipe and dam. Adviceconcerning proper pond construction is available fromthe U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service.

24

LARGEMOUTH BASSfins separated

BLUEGILL

REDEAR SUNFISH

CHANNEL CATFISH

upper jaw extendsbehind eye

dark, longitudinal stripe

dark spot withno margin

body sometimesshows crossbars

dark spot withmargin of scarlet

body withoutspots or barspectoral fin long

and pointed

eyes nearer upper thanlower surface of head

upper lobe longer

24-29 rays

rounded edgespotted

Step 2: EradicationIt is important that a managed fish pond contain theproper ratio of recommended fish species. Successfulfish ponds contain a balanced fish population withenough predator fish (bass) to keep prey fish (bluegill)under control. If there are too many bluegill (or otherprey species), the population becomes unbalancedquickly and excess numbers of little bluegill limit thefood supply—not leaving enough for them to reachcatchable size. These thousands of tiny bluegill alsoprohibit successful bass reproduction. Further, bluegillare unable to secure enough food to enable them toproduce eggs. Thus, a pond should have all sizes of fish,including fingerlings, intermediates and adult-sized.

For these reasons, it is important that the pond be free ofall fish before the prescribed number of fish of the rightspecies is stocked. Rotenone is the fish toxicantrecommended to kill all fish from the pond beforestocking. This toxicant (in concentrations recommendedto kill fish) is not harmful to eitherhuman or livestock. It kills fish byconstricting the capillaries in theirgills so oxygen cannot passthrough and the fish suffocate.The killed fish should notbe used for food;however, livestock cansafely drink water fromthe treated pond.

Step 3: StockingThe recommended stocking rate by the TennesseeWildlife Resources Agency (TWRA) in properlyfertilized ponds is 500 bream per acre stocked in the fall.Bream is a term used to describe several species of fishin the sunfish family. The 500 bream for farm pondstocking may be composed of bluegills only or may bedivided into 375 bluegills and 125 shellcrackers(redear). The following spring, 100 largemouth bassfingerlings per acre should be stocked. If catfish aredesired in combination with bass and bream, 50 - 100channel catfish may be stocked per acre.

Channel catfish are not likely to reproduce successfullyin bass-bream ponds. It is important that no otherspecies of catfish be stocked, as most of them willreproduce in bass-bream ponds and soon compete withthe bass and bream.

The following species should be used when stockingwarmwater farm ponds for good fishing.

25

jar lid

notch18”

clear waterallows weeds

planktonpreventsweeds

sunlight

Food pyramid in a fish pond.

IT IS VERY IMPORTANT THAT ONLYRECOMMENDED SPECIES BE STOCKED ATRECOMMENDED LEVELS.

Fingerling fish for stocking purposes are availablethrough the TWRA. TWRA is now charging $100 peracre for bass and bream for pond stocking. Channelcatfish fingerlings and Chinese grass carp can be boughtfrom private hatcheries. Consult the TWRA, NaturalResources Conservation Service (NRCS) or your countyExtension agent for application forms.

Step 4: FertilizationFertilizing ponds increases the fish yield by makingmore food available. In an unfertilized pond with abalanced fish population, you can expect 50 - 100pounds of fish harvest per acre. Once fertilized, a foodchain is started—fertilizer provides nutrients forplankton (microscopic plants and animals); plankton

provides food for insects (and other small pondanimals); insects provide food for small fish; small fishprovide food for larger fish; larger fish are harvested toprovide food for people. In a properly fertilized pond,you can expect 150-200 pounds of fish harvest per acre.

Another reason for fertilizing is to control submergedaquatic weeds. Fertilizer nutrients stimulate a planktonbloom, which makes the water appear greenish. Aplankton bloom is composed of millions of microscopicplants and animals suspended in water thriving on thefertilizer nutrients. When the bloom is heavy enough, itprevents sunlight from reaching submerged weeds andthey cannot grow.

Fertilizer should be applied anytime in warm weatherwhen a white disc (secchi disc) on the end of a stick canbe seen 18 inches deep or deeper. To make a secchi disc,nail a paint-can lid to the end of a stick and cut a notch18" from the jar lid.

When fertilizing ponds, 40 pounds of 20-20-5 fertilizerper acre is recommended per treatment. This means youshould apply eight pounds of nitrogen, eight pounds ofphosphorus, and two pounds of potash to each surfaceacre of water. 20-20-5 is made especially for farmpond use.

Some ponds need liming with agricultural limestone.Liming makes the fertilizer nutrients more readilyavailable. Mud from the bottom of the pond should beanalyzed to get a recommendation on the amount oflime needed.

26

floating

emergent

submersed

bass

bream

Step 5: Weed controlPond weeds may provide excessive cover for bream sobass cannot adequately control their numbers. Breamsoon overpopulate and fishing success for harvestable-size fish suffers.

Water weeds are divided into three groups:

submersed - bottom-rooted with stems and leavesunderwater.

emergent - bottom-rooted with leaves on the watersurface or above.

floating - not bottom-rooted and floating freely onthe surface. Fertilization does notcontrol these.

Excessive pond weeds can be controlled mechanically orwith herbicides. Chinese grass carp stocked at 15 peracre provide biological weed control.

Step 6: Proper fish harvestThere are three things to remember in harvesting fishfrom a well-managed fish pond:

1. Don’t start fishing until the bass that were stockedhave spawned. This is around June the year

after stocking. When you can see or seine young bassreproduction, it’s time to go fishing.

2. Don’t over-fish. When a new pond is first opened tofishing, fish bite readily and you can get big

catches in a short time. But removing too many fishtoo quickly upsets the preferred balance between bassand bream. Do not remove more than 150 pounds ofbream and 30 bass per acre during the first year offishing. In following years, 150 pounds of bream andall bass over 12 inches may be harvested. All bassunder this size should be returned to the pond to grow,as they keep the small bream under control. Catfishmay be removed as desired as they reach harvestablesize.

3. Be sure to spread the harvest over the entire fishingseason. The pond can be thrown out of balance

quickly if the annual harvest is made in a short time.Also, mixed strings (both bass and bream) should beharvested. A good harvest ratio is 4 - 5 pounds ofbream for each pound of bass.

Another consideration in successful pond managementis to maintain cover in the watershed. A poorlymaintained watershed (without plant cover) is subject toerosion, causing silt and muddy water to collect in thepond. Over a period of time, silt can fill in a pond.

Muddy water is unattractive, harmful to pond fish andinterferes with photosynthesis. Good plant cover on thewatershed will stop erosion. If the watershed is eroding,plant cover can be improved by discing, fertilizing andseeding grass, legumes and/or trees.

REFERENCESFarm pond renovation, PB 1103. University ofTennessee Agricultural Extension Service,P.O. Box 1071, Knoxville, TN 37901. No charge.

Managing small fishing ponds and lakes inTennessee. Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency,Ellington Agricultural Center, P.O. Box 40747,Nashville, TN 37220.

Management of farm fish ponds in Tennessee,PB 1231. University of Tennessee AgriculturalExtension Service, P.O. Box 1071, Knoxville, TN37901. No charge.

27

FOREST MANAGEMENT

forest is more than just land covered with trees.It’s a community of trees and associated

organisms (plants, wildlife, insects, etc.), which useoxygen, water and nutrients to mature and reproduce.Forest ecology is the study of the interaction betweenforest organisms. A forester is an expert in managingthe forest. The practice of managing the forest is calledforestry.

As you walk through a forest, it may appear motionlessand not changing, but it is always changing. A complexmix of cycles is constantly working. If you lookcarefully, you can see the changes. For example, weathercan change considerably from day to day, but over ayear’s time the daily changes fit into a cycle of spring,summer, fall and winter. Trees continuously cycle withforest succession. Plant communities change and arereplaced as the forest matures. As the plant communitieschange, so does the wildlife community. Wildlifepopulations are influenced by stand age, food and coveravailability, disturbance and competition. There areother cycles in the forest as well.

Hydrologic (water) CycleForests play an important part in the hydrologic cycle.As leaves fall, they act like a giant sponge and helprecharge soil moisture, making water available for plantsand animals. Excess water is carried to streams andeventually finds the ocean. Living leaves return water to

the atmosphere through transpiration. Water thenaccumulates once again and falls back to the earth asrain, dew or snow.

Carbon CycleForests serve as a carbon sink, collecting carbon fromthe air and turning it into leaves, roots and wood. Afterdying, trees and other forest plants decompose andrelease carbon back into the air and water, completingthe cycle.

Nutrient CycleNitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) aremacronutrients important to trees. P and K are derivedfrom dissolved bedrock and are picked up by tree roots.N comes from the air. Leaves and roots are rich innutrients; wood is not.

TREE IDENTIFICATIONDendrology is the study of tree identification andclassification. Dendrology begins by determiningwhether a specimen is coniferous or deciduous.

Coniferous trees are cone-bearing evergreens withgreen needles or scales present during winter.

CONIFEROUS

SCALES

Example:Redcedar

Example:Frasier Fir

Example:Shortleaf Pine

Singular Bundles

NEEDLES

A

28

Soft MastPersimmonCherryCrabappleMulberry

Hard MastOaks (acorns)Hickory (nuts)American Beech (nuts)

• Simple leaf has one bladewith a petiole;

• Compound leaf is several smallerleaflets (blades) each attaching toa rachis, which is attached to thetwig.

LEAF TYPE

SIMPLE

Example:Sycamore

COMPOUND

Example:White Ash

DECIDUOUS

ALTERNATEARRANGEMENT

OPPOSITEARRANGEMENT

Alternate:a single leafat each node

Opposite:2 leaves ateach node

Deciduous trees have broad leaves that turn colors infall and drop off the tree, only to grow again eachspring.

Trees produce fruit called mast. Mast can be hard or softand is a vital food source for wildlife. Examples include:

leaflets

rachispetiole

blade

29

clearcut method

INTERMEDIATE OPERATIONS

FINALHARVEST

ESTABLISHMENT

FOREST PRODUCTSForests produce many goods and services. Some of theseare extracted from the forest, such as timber for woodproducts or wildlife through hunting. Other uses arenon-consumptive, such as hiking, camping andphotography.

Every year, through wood products, each of the earth’sinhabitants uses on average a tree that measures 18inches in diameter and 100 feet tall. Included in theseproducts could be plywood, furniture, books, toiletpaper, pencils, clothespins, cereal boxes, landscapemulch and more.

The United States is the world’s largest consumer ofwood products, consuming 3.5 times the world’saverage. But as a nation, we still continue to grow 30 –40 percent more wood than is harvested.

THE FOREST MANAGEMENT TRIANGLEForest management practices designed to satisfy timberproduction goals fall into one of three phases. Eachphase is like the legs of a triangle. They are 1)establishment 2) intermediate operations and 3) finalharvest. The range of practices used over the life of aforest is called the silvicultural system. Silviculture isthe art and science of producing and tending a forest. Itlinks the three phases together into a logical sequence tomeet your goals.

Examples of operations that occur within each of thethree phases include:

Young Stand• natural regeneration – forests will regenerate

naturally without planting; new trees grow from seeds,root sprouts and stumps

• site preparation – preparing the land for forestestablishment; methods used may include clearing thesite, vegetation control with herbicides and prescribedburning

• tree planting – usually done when establishing pines;either by hand with tools or by machine

• weed control – sometimes necessary for initialsurvival and growth of seedlings

Middle-aged Stand• thinning – reduces tree density and competition between individual trees, which increases growth rate;

increase the amount of sunlight reaching the groundand stimulates growth of ground vegetation, providingwildlife habitat and food

• prescribed burning – intentional, controlled groundfires set to accomplish a specific objective, such asstimulate herbaceous growth for wildlife, removedebris or create a favorable seed bed

HARVESTING MATURE TREESClearcut timber managementClearcutting is a regenerationmethod where all trees areharvested at once on a tract ofland. This creates earlysuccessional growth. Theincrease in woody sproutsand herbaceous growththat result from sunlightreaching the forest flooris beneficial to wildlife.Generally, the treespecies or wildlifecommunity that isbeing manageddetermines the size of the area cut. Species that do notfavor early succession should be provided anunharvested tract nearby. Many wildlife species preferthe edge between woods and clearcut openings. Several(4-5 per acre) den trees or snags (standing dead trees)should be left standing in harvested areas. Deer, bears,turkeys, rabbits, grouse, woodcock and songbirds allbenefit from clearcuts during various parts of the year.

30

selective cut

group selection

BILTMORE STICK

INCREMENT BORER

Selective cut timber managementWhen using this regenerationmethod, only a few selectedtrees in the stand are cut at atime. Stands managed thisway have trees of three ormore ages. Some folksthink this method “looksbetter” than othermethods, but it is verydifficult to manage andis not necessarily thebest method for manyforestry and wildlifemanagement objectives. Often,this strategy results in high-grading, where the besttrees are removed and the poor-quality stems are leftstanding. This reduces the value of the forest from botha forestry and wildlife perspective. If conducted withwildlife in mind, selective cuts allow timber harvestwhile protecting the mast producing ability of the standby primarily cutting trees that do not produce mast (suchas maples, poplar, sweetgum, ashes and elms).

Group selectionThis regeneration methodcreates small clearcutsthroughout the forest standlike a checkerboard. Theprocess is repeated on 10-20 year intervals, resultingin a series of even-agedstands within an uneven-aged forest.

MEASURING THE FORESTIt is often necessary to measure the forest to make forestmanagement decisions. The practice of forestmeasurement is called biometrics. Foresters estimatethe amount of board feet in a tree using a Biltmorestick. A prism is used to learn about forest stocking (ordensity of trees). Other characteristics, such as the sun’sradiation, precipitation, carbon and mast production, canalso be measured. By measuring the forest, we can findout how healthy it is and determine its potential uses forwildlife and us.

REFERENCESForest practices guidelines for Tennessee, PB 1523.University of Tennessee AgriculturalExtension Service, P.O. Box 1071, Knoxville, TN37901.

Behind the wall of green. Tennessee Department ofAgriculture, Forestry Division. EllingtonAgriculture Center, Box 40627, Melrose Station,Nashville, TN 37204.

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GLOSSARYantlers – a pair of bony structures protruding from the

skull of deer, elk, moose and caribou; grown and shed annually; on males only (except caribou)aquatic – pertaining to water or wet environmentsaquatic invertebrates – invertebrates associated with

and found in aquatic habitatsBiltmore stick – a calibrated stick used to measure treesbiometrics – field of study where measurements are

taken on biological systemsboard foot – a piece of wood 1 inch thick by 12 inches

wide by 1 inch longbramble – any of the species of blackberries and

raspberriesbushhog – a rotary mower mounted behind a tractor;

primarily used to mow brushy, overgrown areascarapace – the upper part of a turtle’s shellcarbon – an element of all living or formally living

thingscarnivore – a meat-eatercarrying capacity – the maximum population an area

can hold without causing damage such as over-browsing; usually measured in number of animals perunit area

clearcut – a forestry practice that cuts all trees in a standat one time

communities – the living components of an ecosystem;the animal community and the plant communitytogether form the biotic community

conifer – a cone-bearing tree (e.g., pine, cedar, spruce,fir, hemlock)

conservation – the wise use of something; biologists actto conserve our natural resources

dart gun – a specialized gun used to immobilizeanimals by shooting a dart containing a drug

deciduous tree – a tree that loses its leaves each year inautumn

dendrology – the identification and classification oftrees

diversity – being distinct (or different) in kind;represented by different species

early successional habitat – habitats that have beendisturbed recently; vegetation usually represented bygrasses and forbs

ecosystems – an area where living components (such asanimals and trees) interact with nonlivingcomponents (such as soil, air, water and sunlight)

ecotone – the area where two or more habitats blendtogether

edge – the contact zone where two habitats cometogether; may be hard or soft; a hard edge is distinct;a soft edge is gradual

exotic – non-native; imported from some other areaferal – refers to normally domestic animals that have

escaped and gone wildfirebreak – a strip of land that has been plowed, disced

or bulldozed to expose bare ground, thus limitingthe spread of fire

food chain – the step-by-step passage of food andenergy through an ecosystem

food plots – patches of food planted specifically forwildlife to feed on

forbs – broad-leaved herbaceous plants; many arecommonly referred to as grasses

forest – a community of trees and associated plants andanimals

forest ecology – the study of the interaction of the livingand nonliving parts of a forest

forester – a trained professional who manages a forestforestry – the science, art and practice of managing

forestsgreentree reservoirs – a forested area flooded in the

winter and drained before spring—managed in such away so the trees are not killed from flooding

group selection – a forestry practice that cuts smallgroups of trees

habitat – the physical and biological surroundings of anorganism

habitat management – the science, art and practice ofmanaging habitats for various wildlife species

herbivore – a plant eaterhigh-grading – the degrading practice of cutting only

the best-quality trees and leaving the resthome range – the area where an animal spends the

majority of its lifehorn – a structure protruding from the skulls of goats,

sheep, antelope, cows, bison and rhinos; occurs in both sexes; not shedhunting – the art of pursuing game for food or sport; a

necessary practice to manage several species of wildlife successfullyinterspersion – the mixture of habitats in a patchwork

patterninvertebrates – animals without backbones (such as

beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, spiders and snails)land-use practices – the way an area is being managed

or used (such as different types of agriculture andforestry)

limiting factor – the factor needed for survival (such asfood, cover, water or space) that is in least supply

macronutrients – a chemical element necessary in largeamounts (such as nitrogen, phosphorous and

potassium)

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mast – fruit from brambles, shrubs and trees; may behard (such as acorns, beechnuts, hickory nuts) orsoft (such as persimmons, grapes, mulberries, applesand plums)

native warm-season grasses – those grasses occurringnaturally, which grow during the summer and aredormant in winter; examples for Tennessee includebroomsedge, big bluestem, little bluestem,indiangrass, switchgrass, eastern gamagrass

niche – the functional role of an organism in the areawhere it lives

photosynthesis – the chemical reaction in green plantswhere solar energy converts carbon dioxide andwater into oxygen and sugars

pit viper – a venomous snake that has facial pitsbetween the eye and nostril; includes copperheads,cottonmouths and rattlesnakes

plastron – the lower shell of a turtlepoaching – the illegal kill of wildlifepoult – a young turkey, grouse or quailpredator – an organism that depends of killing another

animal for foodprescribed fire – the use of fire as a management tool

for improving plant and animal communitiespreservation – to protect from harm; in natural

resources management, preservation impliesprotection without management, even if it isdetrimental to the plant or animal community; seeconservation

prey – an organism killed and eaten by a predatorprism – a small piece of glass that is cut in a particular

way and used to tally trees in a forestproducer – represents the base trophic level—green

plantsregenerate – to start a forest stand anewregeneration – young trees occurring from seed, sprouts

or roots after a timber harvestregeneration method – one of many types of timber

harvest techniques (such as clearcutting orshelterwood)

rocket net – a trap net that is propelled by canisters ofgun-powder charges

Secchi disc – a circular disc, usually quartered in blackand white, used to monitor water clarity bylowering it in the water and measuring the depth atwhich it disappears

seed bank – seeds present in the top few inches of soil,waiting for optimum conditions to germinate andgrow

shelterwood – a timber harvest technique where part ofthe existing stand is removed; then, once theregeneration is established, the rest of the stand(called the overwood) is removed

silviculture – the applied science of reproducing andmanaging a forest

snags – dead, standing treessoft mast – fleshy fruits from trees, shrubs and brambles

(such as persimmons, mulberries, cherries,grapes, blueberries and blackberries)

succession – the predictable, orderly change ofvegetative growth following a disturbance

suet – animal fat; commonly cooked and melted downwith various seeds, cornmeal and/or fruit added asa high-energy bird food in fall/winter

terrestrial – of, or pertaining to, land—as opposed towater

thinning – a silvicultural operation where a certainnumber or percentage of trees are removed from theforest to allow increased sunlight into the stand andhelp the remaining trees grow faster

transpiration – evaporation of water from plant leaveswetland – an area with standing water or wet soils

during part of most years; critical for many wildlifespecies

wildlife management – the art and science of managingwild animals and the habitats necessary for theirexistence

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The Agricultural Extension Service offers its programs to all eligible persons regardless of race,religion, color, national origin, sex, age, disability or veteran status and is an Equal Opportunity Employer. COOPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK IN

AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and county governments cooperating in furtherance of Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914.

Agricultural Extension Service, Charles L. Norman, Dean

PB1687-2M-11/01E12-4915-00-008-02

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