Tools to Structure Academic Interactions for Career and College Readiness Kate Kinsella, Ed.D. San Francisco State University, Center for Teacher Efficacy [email protected]; 707.473.9030 CA League of Schools ~ Common Core Institute Monterey, CA 1.11.13 Institute Objectives Participants will learn effective ways to: • Initiate a school-wide academic register campaign • Explicitly communicate and teach language targets • Facilitate inclusive and accountable participation • Set up and monitor productive student interactions • Structure inclusive verbal participation during lessons • Write sentence frames that guide accurate oral fluency • Teach high-utility academic vocabulary • Routinely integrate brief, constructed academic responses
Transcript
Tools to Structure Academic Interactions
for Career and College Readiness
Kate Kinsella, Ed.D. San Francisco State University, Center for Teacher Efficacy
Tools to Structure Academic Interactions for Career and College Readiness 1-21 References and Professional Reading CA ELA Common Core Standards Administrator Snapshot P1 22 Resources for Explicit Vocabulary and Academic Language Development 58 References on Academic Language Development 59 Structured Academic Interaction Resources Partnering Recommendations: Creating an Interactive Classroom 23-24 Language for Academic Interaction 25 Language for Classroom Collaboration (Source: Kinsella, Academic Vocabulary Toolkit) 26 Academic Response Frames – Resource 27-28 Parts of Speech (Source: Kinsella, Academic Vocabulary Toolkit) 29 Structured Academic Discussion Routine – Step by Step 30 Structured Academic Discussion Routine – Template 31 Structured Academic Discussion – Sample Lesson: Active Listening 32 Structured Academic Discussion – Sample Lesson: Class Discussions 33 Idea Tracker: Class Discussions 34
Teen Sleep Research Article, Page 1 – CCSS Vocabulary Analysis 35 Student Vocabulary Notetaking Guide – Sample Lesson: Teen Sleep 36 Structured Academic Discussion – Sample Lesson: Teen Sleep 37 Vocabulary Instruction and Assessment Resources
Vocabulary Instruction Routine – Step by Step 38 Student Vocabulary Notetaking Guide – Template 39 Student Vocabulary Notetaking Guide – Basic Notebook Format 40-41 Sample Teacher’s Guide (perspective): Academic Vocabulary Toolkit (Kinsella, 2012) 42-43 Academic Word List (Averil Coxhead, 2000): High-Utility Academic Word Families 44-45
High-Utility Vocabulary by Content Areas (Source: Kinsella, Academic Vocabulary Toolkit) 46
Structured Informational Text Reading and Writing Resources Language to Analyze and Discuss Informational Text 47 Summarizing Informational Text – Academic Language Resource 48 Writing Frame – Informational Text Summary 49 Lesson Observation and Planning Tools Academic Language Engagement: Observation & Planning Tool 50-51 Academic Language Engagement: Sample Completed Observation 52-53 Sentence Frame – Planning Tool 54 Sentence Frame – Sample Completed Tool 55 Dr. Kinsella’s Frequent Observation Feedback on Academic Language Engagement 56
audibly so __ can hear. § Thank you. This time, sit up
and project your voice. § Three times louder, using
professional voice. 5
Casual English § We think … We said … We talked about …
Academic English § We decided that … We agreed that … § We determined that … We concluded that … § We observed that … We believe that … § We have come to a consensus that … § We discussed … and decided that …
California Common Core Standards Introduction to the English Language Arts Administrator Snapshot
The content of the California Common Core Standards are similar to our current standards. Outlined below are some of the major shifts and areas of emphasis in the California Common Core Standards seen across all grades, K-12.
SHIFTS Organization of Writing Applications While our current standards specifically identify various writing applications, the California Common Core Standards organize the writing applications into three categories:
! Write Opinions (K-5); Write Arguments (6-12)
! Write Informative/Explanatory Texts
! Write Narratives
Shared Responsibility for Teaching the Standards ! A single set of K-5 grade-specific standards
! Two content-area specific sections for grades 6-12
– One set of standards for English language arts teachers
– One set of literacy standards for history/social studies, science, and technical subject teachers
AREA OF EMPHASIS ! Focus on Text Complexity
Reading standards place equal emphasis on the sophistication of what students read and the skill with which they read.
! Emphasis on Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum The standards emphasize the connection between reading and writing and the purposeful use of each to gain both general knowledge and discipline-specific expertise.
! Emphasis on Informational Text The structure of the standards highlights the emphasis on informational text. In all grades there are an equal number of standards for Literature and Informational Text. Additionally, the set of standards for history/social studies, science, and technical subject teachers in Grades 6-12 allows for students to read an increased percentage of informational text.
! Emphasis on Collaborative Conversations Speaking and Listening standards call for students to engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions.
! Emphasis on Writing Arguments and Drawing Evidence from Sources The standards place an emphasis on writing to persuade and explain; less emphasis is placed on narrative writing.
! Emphasis on Integrating Media Sources Research and media skills are incorporated in all four strands of the standards rather than being called out as a separate strand.
SNAPSHOT The following Snapshot provides exemplars of changes as well as what has moved or is no longer included at each grade level. While not an exhaustive list, this chart should help familiarize you with many of the California Common Core Standards and allow you to communicate with teachers about their grade-level content
The Standards aim to align instruction with the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) framework.
Distribution of Literacy and Informational Passages by Grade in the 2009 NAEP Reading Framework Grade Literacy Information
4 50% 50%
8 45% 55%
12 30% 70%
Gathering Contributions • What should we write? • What do you think makes sense? • Do you have a suggestion? • We haven’t heard from you yet. Confirming Contributions
• I see what you mean. • That’s an interesting example. • Now I understand your perspective. • I share your point of view. Clarifying Contributions
• I don’t quite understand what you mean by _. • I have a question about _. • Will you explain what you meant by__? • What makes you think that?
Reporting Contributions • My partner , ___, and I discussed ______. • My partner and I/group decided/agreed on this response: __. • One example my partner offered was ____. • As a group, we determined that the correct ______is ___.
Rephrasing Contributions • In other words, you think _. • So, what you are saying is that _. • So, you are recommending that _. • If I understand you correctly, your idea is _.
§ CCSS provisions outlined to assist Els and SPES students in meeting the 6-12 ELA Listening and Speaking Anchor Standard for engaging effectively “in a range of collaborative discussions with diverse partners…building on others’ ideas, and expressing their own clearly and persuasively”:
§ Appropriate instructional supports to make grade-level course work comprehensible
§ Additional time to complete tasks and assessments § Opportunities for classroom interactions that develop
concepts and academic language in the disciplines § Opportunities to interact with proficient English speakers
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19October 2012 http://www.languagemagazine.com
Kate Kinsella recommends launchingan Academic Language Campaign to
prepare diverse learners for theCommon Core State Standards
DisruptingDiscourse
CurriculumCurriculum
They must also be exposed to an articulate command of Englishin every class and benefit from consistent school-wide academic lan-guage instructional principles and practices.
Ensuring that every student is well equipped with the linguisticresources to tackle grade-level curriculum and assessments in theCommon Core era is admittedly daunting. The language of schoolencompasses “words, grammar, and organizational strategies used todescribe complex ideas, higher-order thinking processes, andabstract concepts” (Zwiers, 2008). Academic language proficiency iswidely recognized as a pivotal factor in the school success of Englishlearners, and it has been increasingly cited as a major contributor toachievement gaps between language- minority students and Englishproficient students (Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, & Rivera, 2006).Students who use dialects or regional varieties of the English lan-guage that differ strikingly from the language of school are similarlydisadvantaged from the outset (Craig & Washington, 2004). Everychild is AELL, an academic English language learner, including thosefrom a home in which language usage maps more readily onto class-room contexts. However, youths with limited English proficiency, pri-mary language delays, or nonstandard dialects will arguably havemore acute and compelling academic oral language priorities asschools embark upon career and college readiness coursework.
Teaching Academic English by ExampleOne concrete and manageable way to begin addressing student lan-guage needs is to launch a school-wide academic English registercampaign. Instead of focusing immediately on faculty discussions ofstudents’ linguistic deficits or attributes, we can turn our attention toteachers’ and administrators’ adept and consistent modeling of aca-demic English language. When classes are comprised of studentswith differential exposure to advanced English vocabulary and sen-tence structures, it becomes all the more vital for teachers to serve as
proficient and unswerving academic language models. In manyschools, English learners and less proficient readers are surroundedby classmates equally challenged by academic language norms andconventions. For these students, the only reliable context for rich andvaried exposure to spoken English is the classroom. Teachers canfacilitate advanced English acquisition by serving as eloquent andarticulate users of both academic and social language. Using com-plete sentences, precise vocabulary, and a more formal register dur-ing lessons will model appropriate classroom language and create asupportive climate for second-language production and experimenta-tion.
In my role as a school consultant and instructional coach onEnglish language development in numerous states, I have becomeacutely aware of the countless register shifts students experiencethroughout the course of a school day. Many teachers segue routinelyfrom academic language use to casual vernacular, making it taxing forneophyte academic English speakers to get a handle on school-based language forms. As an illustration of instructional code-switch-ing, consider the linguistic impact when a teacher sets up a collabo-rative task in this manner: “OK, you guys. I need you to get in yourgroups right now and make sure you’ve got all your stuff out so youdon’t need to go back and get things later and bother anyone. Alrightkids, let’s look at your job. I need everyone to read the directions withme: Identify the most convincing evidence provided by the author tosupport his claim that cyberbullying is not adequately controlled onhigh school campuses.” Referencing students informally as “youguys” and “kids” cues informality as does use of imprecise terms like“stuff, “things, “bother” and “job.” Transitioning from processing verbaldirections posed in familiar social register to digesting written direc-tions and texts framed in sophisticated academic register is tanta-mount to a linguistic whiplash.
Chronic instructional code-switching serves as a confounding lin-
The Common Core State Standards (CCSS, 2010) rollingout in 46 states aim to graduate all U.S. high school students with21st century communication and literacy skills, career and collegeready. These new national standards signal a pronounced shift in howacademic language and literacy instruction must be approached.Four particular competencies are emphasized that represent decided-ly new expectations for communication, reading, and writing develop-ment: 1) engaging with complex texts, with increased percentage ofinformational material; 2) conducting research and using evidencefrom diverse sources to construct verbal and written arguments; 3)participating in collaborative academic discussions and presentations;4) and developing the advanced language proficiency to accomplishall of the above tasks. In grades K-5, the standards detail competen-cies for students in the areas of speaking and listening, reading, andwriting that apply to all elementary subject areas. In grades 6-12, thestandards are divided into two major categories: those specificallyaddressing English language arts and those intended for histo-ry/social studies, science, and technical subjects.
The new standards accentuate that career and college readinessentails approaching text with “an appreciation of the norms and con-ventions of each discipline” (CCSS, p. 60) and writing with under-standing of distinct tasks, goals, and audiences (CCSS, p. 63). Thisshared responsibility for communication and literacy mentoring pres-ents novel opportunities and challenges for educators across the K-12 curriculum. Throughout the school day, students will rely on eachand every teacher to adeptly articulate, demonstrate, and coach thefoundational language and literacy skills of their discipline.
All Students are Academic English LearnersTeachers serving students from diverse linguistic, social, and eco-nomic backgrounds will be particularly challenged to help every learn-er meet the language demands of rigorous CCSS performance-
based assessments, including constructed written responses and for-mal presentations. When students are already grappling to demon-strate mastery of 20th century academic communication and founda-tional literacy skills, the prospect of preparing them for 21st centurycareer and college readiness can appear to be a Herculean if notSisyphean task. English learners and community dialect speakers willindeed require a more informed and concerted school-wide initiativeto develop the verbal skills of synthesis, interpretation, explanation,and persuasion they can leverage in academic interaction, reading,and writing. Oral language proficiency underscores advanced aca-demic literacy (August & Shanahan, 2006); Language-minority youthsunderstandably struggle to read and write what they cannot articulateverbally.
With the prospective CCSS assessments 2014 start date looming,school districts across the nation are making initial strides to gear upstaff and students alike. Widespread faculty preparations include con-ducting a standards gap analysis, revisiting Bloom’s Taxonomy, writ-ing depth of knowledge questions, and wedging in informational textsto augment an outdated literature-centric English language arts cur-riculum. While these curricular-focused preoccupations may serve tointroduce more conceptual and textual rigor into conventional les-sons, ramping up the level of text and task complexity alone will notensure positive outcomes for learners lacking academic languageproficiency. The CCSS speaking and listening standards call uponstudents to listen critically and participate in cooperative tasks withinall core content classrooms. They must articulate their text compre-hension, summarize, make inferences, and justify claims using com-plex sentences, precise vocabulary, and grammatical accuracy. Fromkindergarten to high school graduation, English learners and under-resourced classmates will require successful experiences engaging instructured, accountable academic interaction across the school dayto meet these performance expectations.
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The Common Core State Standards for English LanguageArts (CCSS, 2010) articulate detailed grade-level expectations in theareas of reading, writing, speaking, and listening to prepare all stu-dents to be college and career ready, including English Learners(ELs). Major shifts include a focus on rigorous analysis of information-al text, and evidence-based argumentation in formal presentation andwriting. Equally emphasized is participation in academic discourseand collaboration with partners, as well as small and large groups.The prominent role of social interactional skills coincides with the ini-tiative’s aim to equip secondary school graduates for a more globallynetworked higher education arena, workplace, and marketplace.
To meet the communication demands of the CCSS 6-12 discipli-nary speaking and listening standards, students from all socio-eco-nomic and linguistic backgrounds will benefit from age-appropriateinstruction in the pragmatics and language of academic and profes-sional interaction. Every school-age youth is essentially an AcademicEnglish Language Learner (AELL), including those from professionalhomes in which language usage maps more readily onto classroomcontexts. However, adolescent ELs and under-resourced secondaryclassmates will undoubtedly approach collaboration on rigorous con-tent-based tasks with more pronounced academic oral language needs.
Communicating on the Same Wavelength
CurriculumCurriculum
Word Meaning Examples
productive pro•duc•tive (adjective)
____________
SP: productivo
produce pro•duce (verb)
making, creating, or completing a lot and doing it _____
If workers are _______, they are usually more productive.
On rainy days, elementary students are fidgety and less productive because they can’t __________.
§ According to results of the Workforce Profile, (source: www.workforce.com), the more valuable employee is one who can grow and learn as the business changes. Soft skills "are as important, if not more important, than traditional hard skills to an employer looking to hire -- regardless of industry or job type.
§ This could offer a major breakthrough as educators and training providers seek to develop and cluster training courses to fit business and industry needs."
§ Contribute thoughtfully and audibly. § Listen attentively to your partner’s ideas. § Strive to understand your partner’s ideas. § Provide constructive feedback. § Let your partner know if you do not fully
understand his/her ideas. § Remember your partner’s ideas.
Ways Teachers Can Encourage Contributions During Class Discussions
THINK: Briefly record your personal responses to this question:
How can teachers encourage more students to contribute during class discussions? 1.
2.
3.
WRITE: Rewrite two ideas using the academic sentence frames. Include precise verbs. Prepare to elaborate upon your idea verbally if you are asked to report.
Frame 1: From my perspective, teachers can more encourage students to contribute by (verb + ing: providing relevant examples; allowing them to first brainstorm with a partner)
Frame 2: Based on experience, more students contribute ideas during class discussions when the teacher (verb + s: allows adequate time to think; discourages blurting)
§ Rewrite two ideas using the academic sentence frames. Include precise verbs.
§ Frame 1: From my perspective, teachers can encourage more students to contribute by ___ (verb + ing: providing relevant examples; allowing them to first brainstorm with a partner)
§ Frame 2: Based on experience, more students contribute when the teacher ___ (verb + s: allows time to think; discourages blurting)
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§ Say something positive and affirming: § That’s an interesting (example/perspective). § A point well taken. § I see what you mean. § That’s really interesting. § That’s a perceptive observation. § I hadn’t thought of that. § Thanks for pointing that out. § That (example/idea/content) works perfectly.
§ Let your partner know if you missed information or if you are confused: § Can you please repeat your idea? § Can you please restate your idea? § I don’t quite understand your idea/example? § What exactly do you mean by __? § I am not sure I fully understand your opinion. § I missed the (first/last) part of your idea. Can
you please repeat your entire sentence?
§ Use your public voice if you are called: 3x louder and 2x slower than your partnering private voice.
§ Listen attentively and record notes on your classmates’ ideas.
§ Listen for and point out similarities. My example is similar to _’s.
Academic Discussion: Idea Tracker Lesson Topic: Instructional practices that promote or discourage democratic lesson participation Question: How can teachers encourage more students to contribute during class discussions?
Initial Ideas
Promote
• providing both written & verbal
directions
• clearly explaining and modeling
the task
• teaching language necessary for
the task
• providing a model response
• allowing us to brainstorm first with
a partner
Discourage
• giving quick verbal directions
• not modeling the task
• not allowing adequate think time
• only calling randomly
• only calling professional
participants
• not building adequate background
knowledge before asking
questions
Additional Ideas
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§ We’re going to engage in an academic discussion regarding __.
§ In preparation for discussing __, I would like you to contemplate the reasons for __.
§ Let’s explore the issue of __ by first considering __.
§ Before reading to build background, activate prior knowledge, and/or make predictions.
§ Before reading to teach a high-utility word.
§ During reading to scaffold academic responses to comprehension questions.
§ After reading to complete and/or articulate completed graphic organizers.
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The Academic Discussion Routine supports
English learners in developing academic
language proficiency by (verb + ing: providing)
Skills I will need to understand and practice
to orchestrate an academic discussion:
1)
2)
3)
§ Lived most/all of their lives in the U.S.
§ Verbally bilingual
§ Struggling academically
§ Accumulated learning gaps
§ Stuck in a language proficiency band
§ Demonstrate habits of non-engagement
§ Unrecognized and unaddressed need Laurie Olsen, Ph.D Reparable Harm: Fulfilling the Unkept Promise of Educational Opportunity for California’s Long Term English Learners (2010)
Essential Curriculum Components: § A focus on oral language § A focus on student engagement § A focus on academic language § Expository text (reading & writing) § Consistent instructional routines § Goal setting § Empowering pedagogy § Rigor § Community and relationships
Download: www.californianstogether.org
By Laurie Olsen, Ph.D.
Secondary School Courses Designed to Address The Language Needs and Academic Gaps of Long Term English Learners
§ I’d like to call on you to share your perspective at the beginning of our discussion.
§ You will jump-start our class discussion with this interpretation of the data.
§ Reread your example sentence several times because I plan to call on you first.
§ I would greatly appreciate it if you contributed this observation when I open up the discussion to volunteers.
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After beginning with 1 or 2 preselected responses:
§ Encourage partner nominations. (Nominate your partner to contribute if he/she had a different perspective/example/observation/interpretation.)
§ Invite all partner 1s/2s to stand and report. § Randomly select 1-2 students using name cards.
§ Allow a reporter to “popcorn” to (select) the next reporter. (Select a classmate from a different table/row/section of room; Males select females.)
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§ Structure listening for standing reporters: Listen carefully as I call on a classmate; if you had the exact same response sit down. Remain standing if you have a different or more detailed response.
§ Make selection of standing reporters more engaging by varying categories of students:
Determine with your partner who … § Ate the healthiest breakfast § Got the most sleep last night § Is …the youngest, an Angels/One Direction fan
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§ Invite a pre-invited participant with an exemplary response to contribute when you invite volunteers.
§ Ask for volunteers from sections of the classroom and specify the number of responses you desire.
§ Allow volunteers to contribute their partner’s response or an insight/novel ideal they had after listening to classmates’ diverse contributions.
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§ Explain the reasons for reporting audibly. § Conduct a “Public Voice Warm-up” § Provide phrased-cued and choral rehearsal
of model responses. § Coach less than audible students. § Don’t repeat responses for students.
Instead, request audible restatements. § Award participation points/incentives.
A Public, Professional Voice: • Sit up straight. • Move hands away from face. • Project your voice: 3x louder
audibly so __ can hear. § Thank you. This time, sit up
and project your voice. § Three times louder, using
professional voice. 61 62
Three strategies I will definitely use to
maximize verbal participation are
1)
2)
3)
§ Create a supportive range in ability (e.g., high with fairly high or average) rather than pairing extremes.
§ Include a newcomer or exceptionally low reader in a trio with capable students.
§ Include a chronically absent student in a trio.
§ Assign two “floaters” to work with classmates whose partner is absent.
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§ The words, syntax, style, and grammar used by speakers and writers in a particular situation or in a particular type of writing: § Writing a text message to invite a friend to a party § Writing an email message to a teacher requesting
an extension on a research report § Asking a coach for permission to miss practice § Asking a manager at an internship to clarify
expectations for a task
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What challenges do recent immigrants face?
Informal Verbal Response Jobs. The language. Learning English.
Formal Constructed Verbal Response One challenge that recent immigrants face is learning an entirely new language.
Formal, Brief Constructed Written Response One challenge faced by recent immigrants is learning an entirely new language. English communication and literacy skills are critical for adult immigrants if they want to have jobs that pay well or attend college.
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§ What challenges do recent immigrants face?
§ One challenge that immigrants face is ____ (verb + ing) learning a new language.
§ Verb Bank: Everyday Precise finding ________ knowing ________ dealing with adjusting to making earning
§ Who has an alternative perspective? § Who arrived at a different conclusion?
§ Who located evidence to support the claim that …? § Can anyone elaborate on this stance? § Who would like to respond to that statement?
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Positive § Great § Excellent § Interesting § Thank you (upbeat) § That’s right § Very good § Fine § That’s correct
Neutral/Negative § OK § Anyone else? § Not exactly § Thank you (quizzical) § Hmm…Interesting § I’m not sure about that § I don’t think so § That’s not correct
§ Good § Nice § Awesome § Interesting § Bad § Hard § Really § Fun
§ a particularly relevant example § a perceptive/insightful observation § a well-justified claim § articulate elaboration § appropriate content § a thoughtful/thought-provoking response § a unique/creative approach § a point well taken § precise vocabulary use/word choices
§ I am equally impressed with the insight in your analysis and your conscientious use of precise lesson terminology.
§ That is a very thoughtful observation, well justified with concrete data from your research.
§ I am not certain I fully grasp your perspective. Would you mind elaborating?
§ A point well taken. But what specifically led you to that conclusion?
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§ Expressing an opinion § Stating a claim § Asking for clarification § Paraphrasing § Soliciting a response § Agreeing/Disagreeing § Affirming § Holding the floor
Expressing an Opinion Drawing Conclusions I think/believe that Based on my experience, it seems that In my opinion The data suggests that From my perspective Based on __, I assume that From my point of view After reading __, I conclude that
Agreeing Disagreeing I agree with (a person) that I don’t quite agree. I share your point of view. I disagree (somewhat, completely). My perspective/experience is similar to _’s. I see it differently. My idea builds upon _’s. I have a different point of view.
Asking for Clarification Paraphrasing What do you mean by __? So what you are saying is that Will you explain that again? In other words, you think I have a question about __. If I understand you correctly, I don’t quite understand __ (the directions). your opinion/suggestion is that
Reporting a Partner’s Idea Reporting a Group’s Idea __ indicated that We decided/agreed/determined that __ pointed out to me that We concluded that __ emphasized that Our group sees it differently. __ shared with me that We had a different approach.
Soliciting a Response Holding the Floor What do you think? As I was saying We haven’t heard from you yet. What I was trying to say was Do you agree? If I could finish my thought What are your thoughts? I’d like to complete my thought.
Offering a Suggestion Interjecting an Idea Maybe we could try __. Can I say something? You/We might think about __. Can I add an idea? You/We might consider trying __. I have another approach/idea.
Everyday English § I think __. I don’t think __.
Academic English § I firmly believe __ / I’m inclined to believe __. § In my opinion, __. § Based on my experience, __. § From my perspective, __. § From my vantage point, __.
Academic English § What is your perspective? § What is your point of view? § What is your vantage point? § What are your thoughts (on this issue/topic)? § How do you see it?
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Everyday English § So you think __. § So you’re telling me that _.
Academic English § So your example, perspective, approach is __. § So what you are saying/suggesting is __. § In other words, you believe that __. § If I understand you correctly, you think that __.
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Casual English § Huh? What? I don’t get it.
Academic English § I don’t quite understand (the directions, the task). § Could you explain what you mean by __? § Could you provide another example of __? § Could you define the term __? § Could you show me how to _?
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Casual English § __ said that … § __ told me that …
Academic English § __ pointed out that … According to __, § __ indicated that … § __ observed that … § __ emphasized that …
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ACADEMIC LANGUAGE ENGAGEMENT ~ PLANNING & OBSERVATION TOOL
uses varied strategies to elicit additional reporters for discussion (partner nomination, name cards, all partner As stand, voluntary, etc.)
requires active listening and use of an audible public voice
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§ teacher talks too much § low level of accountable student responses § not using program engagement routines § little or no structured student interaction § peer interaction without language targets § chaotic and inefficient partner/group tasks § lethargic pacing suggesting insufficient
Structured Student Verbal Responses: § Whole Class (chorally, phrase-cued, oral cloze) § Partner/group to brainstorm, respond with frame § Partner/group to read text passages § Individually respond as preselected reporter § Individually respond as random reporter
(name cards, popcorn, partners stand, white board selector) § Individually respond as volunteer reporter
(pre-invited, raised hand, partner nomination)
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Structured Student Written Responses: § record information (white board, notebook, text) § complete provided response frame § incorporate precise words (frame, paragraph) § respond to a framed prompt (summary, etc.) § complete unstructured task (journal, free write)
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The teacher… § arranges seating and pairs students appropriately
§ consistently uses an academic register § refers to visible display of expectations and
procedures for partnering and/or group tasks
§ cues partner 1/A or group member 1 to start task
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“… Vocabulary knowledge is the single best predictor of second language learners’ academic achievement across subject matter domains.”
Saville-Troike, M. (1984). What really matters in second language learning for academic achievement? TESOL Quarterly 18: 199-219.
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§ U.S. preschoolers vocabulary exposure:
§ College educated, professional families: 2,250
§ Not college educated, working class families: 1,250
§ Welfare families: 620
Flynn, James R. (2008). Where Have All the Liberals Gone?: Race, Class, and Ideals in America. Cambridge University Press: 102
§ Interview Question:
What are some differences between cell phones and landline phones?
§ Words we understand and can use comfortably and competently in spoken and written communication;
§ Smaller than receptive word knowledge;
§ When limited, it can be stigmatizing during advanced academic and social interactions and written discourse.
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part of speech: adjective pronunciation: pä-lē-ˈsē-məәs, pəә-ˈli-səә-məәs definition: having many meanings
I am able to adeptly use the word polysemous. English learners are easily confused by polysemous words they encounter in academic material and inadvertently apply a common meaning (e.g., table: a piece of furniture) to a more technical context (a graphic aid including organized figures).
§ Explicitly teach words using consistent, familiar instructional routines that include guidance with pronouncing, decoding, understanding and applying the word in structured verbal and writing tasks;
§ Structure meaningful, engaging review and assessment tasks that require accurate word usage in complete sentences.
§ What words must they comprehend and recognize in reading and listening contexts?
§ What words must they master and utilize in speech and writing?
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Group 1/10 (Highest Incidence): analyze assume benefit concept consist context economy environment establish estimate factor finance formula function income indicate individual interpret involve issue labor legal major method occur percent principle section significant similar source specific structure . . .
word family: assume, v. assumed, adj. assumption, n.
10. Students point to, repeat and fill in blank(s)
Transition to Verbal Practice
1. Introduce frame for verbal practice visibly displayed, include model response
2. Students repeat model response
3. Direct attention to grammatical target(s) (underline, highlight)
4. Prompt students to consider a response
5. Cue partner (A/B, 1/2) to share response with partner
6. Circulate listening, providing feedback, and preselect reporting
Transition to reporting
7. Elicit reporting with frame, visibly displayed
8. Cue preselected students to report
Ph
as
e 2
: V
erb
al P
rac
tic
e
9. Direct students to write the word and selected response in the frame (own, partner’s or strong response)
!
!
Transition to Writing Practice
1. Introduce frame for Writing Practice visibly displayed, include model response
2. Students repeat model response (silently, phrase-cued, chorally)
3. Direct attention to grammatical target(s) (underline, highlight)
4. Prompt students to consider a response, allowing adequate think time
5. Direct students to write the word and their response in the frame
6. Cue partner (A/B, 1/2) to read their sentence to their partner (twice)
7. Circulate listening, providing feedback
8. Cue partners to switch and read each other’s sentence (continue circulating)
Transition to reporting
9. Elicit reporting with frame, visibly displayed
10. Cue preselected students to report
Ph
as
e 3
: W
riti
ng
Pra
cti
ce
11. Elicit additional responses
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§ Guide students in reading and pronouncing the word a few times.
§ Have students clap/tap out the syllables. § Direct students to copy the word correctly. § Optional: Cue students to rate and discuss
their vocabulary knowledge with a partner. § Explain the meaning using familiar language. § Provide two relevant, accessible examples.
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§ Structure a verbal task with an engaging context to create some “vocabulary velcro”.
§ Model an appropriate response with a sentence frame. § Lead students in chorally repeating your response. § Partner students to share before calling on individuals. § Guide making a quick, simple sketch of abstract words. § Assign a writing task with a frame that requires the
appropriate form of the word and relevant content.
§ As you observe this (Kinsella, 2012) Academic Vocabulary Toolkit lesson in a high intermediate (CELDT 3-4) 6th grade ELD class, take note of student and teacher behaviors that indicate they are reaping the benefits of a consistent and accountable instructional routine.
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§ Each time you introduce a word’s part of speech:
1. State the part of speech using the technical term.
2. Define it using a consistent, student-friendly phrase.
3. Provide relevant context.
§ The word we are learning, evaluate, is a verb, an action word. This verb or action word is commonly used by teachers or scientists to discuss how they review assignments or results.
113 114
§ Choose a familiar context. § Write a sentence frame that doesn’t require overly
complex grammar. § Write a sentence frame that can be completed in
many ways using students’ background knowledge. § Prepare a model response that you anticipate
students will not come up with on their own. § Embed a grammatical target.
a custom; something that people have done for a _______ time
There is a tradition in the United States to eat ____________________ on Thanksgiving Day
A Halloween tradition for American children is ___ ____________________
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tradition (noun)
§ Verbal Practice: A birthday tradition in my family is (verb + ing) __________________
§ Writing Practice: Americans have many ____________ for the Fourth of July holiday such as (verb + ing) ___________________
Target Word: portion (noun) § I wish the cafeteria served two __ of __. § A healthy diet includes several __ of __. § For dinner we usually eat one __ of __. Target word: respond (verb) § A kind teacher always __ to students’ questions
in a __ manner. § When the bell rang, I __ by immediately __.
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Casual Language Cues § two, three, four, etc. § some § many § a lot of, lots of § a few of the/my § one of the … (reasons) § plenty of § a group of
Academic Language Cues § several § numerous § various § diverse § a number of § a variety of § a collection of § a percentage of
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Casual Language Cues § yesterday § last week § last year § earlier § before § a long time ago § when I was (little, a kid)
Academic Language Cues § in the past § previously § recently § formerly § prior § beforehand § while I was …
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Casual Language Cues § now § often § usually § mostly § mainly § sometimes § never
Academic Language Cues § frequently § generally § regularly § habitually § occasionally § seldom § rarely
§ Consistently model an academic register. § Partner students appropriately. § Use consistent terms in lesson discussions. § Structure at least two academic interactions
in every lesson with clear language targets. § Vary your strategies to elicit participation. § Assign accountable listening tasks. § Explicitly teach high-utility vocabulary. § Guide reading and writing with info. text.
Words that secondary students must master in order to:
• Comprehend test instructions • Analyze informational text • Engage in academic discussion • Make formal presentations • Follow lectures • Justify, argue, and synthesize data in formal writing
PREPARING ACADEMIC ENGLISH LEARNERS WITH LANGUAGE AND WRITING SKILLS
FOR CAREER AND COLLEGE READINESS
Kate Kinsella, Ed.D.
§ For information on the Academic Vocabulary Toolkit: elt.heinle.com/academicvocabularytoolkit
§ To download some of Dr. Kinsella’s practical tools for academic language instruction: www.sccoe.org/depts/ell/teacherresources.asp
§ To view an explicit vocabulary development webinar by Dr. Kinsella: http://pubs.cde.ca.gov/TCSII
§ To read a research brief on explicit academic English language development: : http://www.elresearch.org
§ To download articles by Dr. Kinsella on CCSS academic language demands: www.languagemagazine.com
§ Dr. Kate Kinsella grants permission for the materials included in this presentation to be used without modification and including proper credit to the author for district and individual school use.
§ These materials may not be published, presented at conferences, distributed on the internet, or used by any publisher or professional development provider without securing prior written permission via: [email protected]
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Kate Kinsella, Ed.D. San Francisco State University
California Common Core Standards Introduction to the English Language Arts Administrator Snapshot
The content of the California Common Core Standards are similar to our current standards. Outlined below are some of the major shifts and areas of emphasis in the California Common Core Standards seen across all grades, K-12.
SHIFTS Organization of Writing Applications While our current standards specifically identify various writing applications, the California Common Core Standards organize the writing applications into three categories:
§ Write Opinions (K-5); Write Arguments (6-12)
§ Write Informative/Explanatory Texts
§ Write Narratives
Shared Responsibility for Teaching the Standards § A single set of K-5 grade-specific standards
§ Two content-area specific sections for grades 6-12
– One set of standards for English language arts teachers
– One set of literacy standards for history/social studies, science, and technical subject teachers
AREA OF EMPHASIS § Focus on Text Complexity
Reading standards place equal emphasis on the sophistication of what students read and the skill with which they read.
§ Emphasis on Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum The standards emphasize the connection between reading and writing and the purposeful use of each to gain both general knowledge and discipline-specific expertise.
§ Emphasis on Informational Text The structure of the standards highlights the emphasis on informational text. In all grades there are an equal number of standards for Literature and Informational Text. Additionally, the set of standards for history/social studies, science, and technical subject teachers in Grades 6-12 allows for students to read an increased percentage of informational text.
§ Emphasis on Collaborative Conversations Speaking and Listening standards call for students to engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions.
§ Emphasis on Writing Arguments and Drawing Evidence from Sources The standards place an emphasis on writing to persuade and explain; less emphasis is placed on narrative writing.
§ Emphasis on Integrating Media Sources Research and media skills are incorporated in all four strands of the standards rather than being called out as a separate strand.
The Standards aim to align instruction with the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) framework.
Distribution of Literacy and Informational Passages by Grade in the 2009 NAEP Reading Framework Grade Literacy Information
4 50% 50%
8 45% 55%
12 30% 70%
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Creating a Classroom Culture for Structured Interactions
1. Arrange Classroom Seating to be Conducive to Structured Interactions Develop a seating arrangement that is conducive to alternate student pairs and groups, while maintaining visibility to you and necessary reference points (the board, displayed response frames, etc.). Arrange desks or tables so students will be able to easily partner with two different classmates. For example, students seated in desks arranged in a set of four can work in partners with the students sitting across from each other for one week, then partner students sitting next to each other the subsequent week.
The following are possible seating arrangements conducive to regular structured interactions:
• paired rows – one partner to the side and one partner behind
• tables or desks groups - one partner across and one beside
• chevron – one partner to the side and one behind
2. Assign and Alternate Appropriate Partners a. Allow random partnering. During the first few days of school, structure a few random interactive
tasks and observe student behavior and social skills, and to analyze academic needs.
b. Provide a response frame. Create a response frame that allows students to privately write and submit a statement about four students within the class with whom they would feel comfortable and productive working with during partner or group interactions. For example: Four students I could work productively with are __, __, __ and ___. Next, provide a frame that allows students to privately inform you about any concerns they might have about partnering. For example: I would find it challenging to work with ___ because ____. Tell students that you will do your best to accommodate their requests and that you will try to partner them with at least one or more of their choices over the course of the school year.
c. Assign partners but change pairings at regular intervals so students have the opportunity to experience working with different individuals. Assigning and alternating partners will foster expectations that collaborative interactions are an integral part of your learning environment.
d. Create pairings by considering variables. Carefully consider the following variables when determining appropriate partners:
• English language proficiency
• Communicative competence, including speaking and listening
• Reading and writing proficiency (review data from multiple assessment e.g. SRI, state, and grade-level reading and writing assessments, etc.)
• Attendance record
• Performance on assignments and during activities in the class
• Background (culture, community involvements, prior experiences)
After considering the above variables, it is also crucial to avoid paring high-performing students with low-performing students in terms of academic competence. High students can be placed with other high or mid-level performing students. It is also wise to avoid partnering your weakest and neediest students together.
The following process can be used occasionally to assign partners according to literacy and language skills. Rank your students numerically from highest (1, 2, 3) to lowest (28, 29, 30), then pair them at the mid point:
#1 is paired with #16;
#2 is paired with #17;
#3 is paired with #18; and so on until #15 is paired with #30.
23
Creating a Classroom Culture for Structured Interactions
e. Make adjustments and avoid excessive use of ranking. Carefully observe how these partners work together and adjust as necessary. Avoid using literacy and language ranking as your only means to pair students as it will limit student experiences with classmates.
f. Identify and inform “substitute” partners. Pair two students who are flexible, reliable, and socially competent who are willing to take on the added responsibility of substituting when a classmate is absent. When a student is absent, have one of the substitutes work with the student missing a partner. Have the remaining substitute work with a pair of students who might benefit from an extra contributor. Remember to have the additional student in all trios work as a second number 2 or second “B” in structured partnering tasks in order to keep interactions automatic and consistently paced, and avoid having to cue interactions for a random trio.
g. Teach expectations for absences in advance. Instruct and provide the means for students early to easily notify you immediately if their partner is absent, or to alert you about any issues. This will enable you to efficiently assign a substitute or adjust pairs before beginning instruction and avoiding interruptions to your prepared lessons.
3. Teach, model, provide practice and reference expectations for productive partnering a. Explain partnering directions
b. Extablish expectations
Justify partnering and group expectations: at the beginning of the course, provide a compelling justification for the 4Ls: For example: My goal is to help prepare you for the communication demands of secondary school, college, the workplace, and formal contexts like speaking to a bank manager or police officer. Knowing how to interact with a classmate, coworker, supervisor or professor is essential to academic and professional success. When you are communicating with a work partner at school or on the job, it is important to observe the 4 Ls of productive partnering: • Look at your partner: In North America, eye contact signifies respect and active listening
when two people are interacting. Looking directly at the other speaker is critical at school, work, and other formal social contexts. Looking away or fiddling with something can readily signal that you are distracted or disinterested. This isn’t universal; in some cultures eye contact may either be unnecessary or a sign of disrespect if a child looks directly at an adult.
• Lean toward your partner: Like eye contact, leaning toward someone during a formal interaction indicates you are focused on what they are saying and not paying attention to other people or things. On the other hand, leaning back communicates that you could be bored and inattentive.
• Lower your voice: Use a private voice when interacting with a partner at school or work. Speak loudly enough for your partner to easily hear what you are saying but not so loud that you are distracting or interrupting anyone nearby.
• Listen attentively to your partner: Your responsibility is to not only share your perspective and contribute equally but also understand and remember your classmate’s idea. If you were not able to catch what your partner said, ask him/her to repeat the idea. If you don’t quite understand the idea, ask/him her to explain it. To make sure you have truly grasped the idea, repeat it using your own words. This shows that you care enough to get the idea right. You should understand your partner’s contribution well enough to be able to report it confidently to the class.
c. Review and reinforce: review procedures the 4 Ls of by providing and referencing a chart
Expressing an Opinion Drawing Conclusions I think/believe that Based on my experience, it seems that In my opinion The data suggests that From my perspective Based on __, I assume that From my point of view After reading __, I conclude that
Agreeing Disagreeing I agree with (a person) that I don’t quite agree. I share your point of view. I disagree (somewhat, completely). My perspective/experience is similar to _’s. I see it differently. My idea builds upon _’s. I have a different point of view.
Asking for Clarification Paraphrasing What do you mean by __? So what you are saying is that Will you explain that again? In other words, you think I have a question about __. If I understand you correctly, I don’t quite understand __ (the directions). your opinion/suggestion is that
Reporting a Partner’s Idea Reporting a Group’s Idea __ indicated that We decided/agreed/determined that __ pointed out to me that We concluded that __ emphasized that Our group sees it differently. __ shared with me that We had a different approach.
Soliciting a Response Holding the Floor What do you think? As I was saying We haven’t heard from you yet. What I was trying to say was Do you agree? If I could finish my thought What are your thoughts? I’d like to complete my thought.
Offering a Suggestion Interjecting an Idea Maybe we could try __. Can I say something? You/We might think about __. Can I add an idea? You/We might consider trying __. I have another approach/idea.
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Gathering Contributions • What should we write? • What do you think makes sense? • Do you have a suggestion? • We haven’t heard from you yet. Confirming Contributions
• I see what you mean. • That’s an interesting example. • Now I understand your perspective. • I share your point of view. Clarifying Contributions
• I don’t quite understand what you mean by _. • I have a question about _. • Will you explain what you meant by__? • What makes you think that?
Reporting Contributions • My partner , ___, and I discussed ______. • My partner and I/group decided/agreed on this response: __. • One example my partner offered was ____. • As a group, we determined that the correct ______is ___.
Rephrasing Contributions • In other words, you think _. • So, what you are saying is that _. • So, you are recommending that _. • If I understand you correctly, your idea is _.
Academic Response Frames What is a response frame?
A response frame is a structured, topic-related response scaffold that elicits application of carefully targeted language forms, and provides an opportunity for students to add relevant content to demonstrate understanding of the context.
What is the value of using a response frame?
A response frame provides students with a linguistic scaffold for responding competently by explicitly modeling and clarifying the features of an accurate response in the specific lesson context: appropriate syntax, correct grammar, and precise vocabulary. Response frames in academic language development curricula written by Dr. Kinsella (English 3D, Academic Vocabulary Toolkit) enable a teacher to construct a model verbal and written response, deconstruct the response, and guide students in reconstructing their own proficient response. This form-focused modeling and guidance helps students notice linguistic features in meaningful contexts. Of equal importance, a response frame encourages more efficient use of their limited exposure to vocabulary, sentence structures, and grammatical forms of advanced social and academic English.
How does a response frame differ from a cloze sentence, and a sentence stem or starter?
It is important to distinguish the differences between a “cloze” sentence, a sentence starter and a sentence frame. These three response scaffolds differ in both function and form. Cloze sentences are generally used for assessment purposes, to determine whether students can successfully recall focal lesson content. Cloze sentences require students to merely “fill in the blank,” usually eliciting identical responses. [Dolphins are marine __ (mammals) closely related to whales and __ (porpoises)]. Because cloze sentences largely produce identical responses, they do not provide ideal opportunities for students to develop verbal skills with engaging partner interactions and rich whole-class discussions.
In prior curricula and training, Dr. Kinsella provided “sentence starters” to encourage more productive and competent verbal contributions. Mimicking her lead, many publishers have included starters or “sentence stems.” A sentence starter may help students initiate a response with a safe linguistic start in an academic register; however, the remainder of the sentence is often casual or grammatically flawed. [Based on his previous actions, I predict the president ___ is gonna say no.] Impromptu corrections of “bi-register responses” do little to promote linguistic understandings and communicative competence.
Therefore, to address the complex linguistic needs of English learners, particularly long-term English learners with superficial oral fluency and various “fossilized errors,” Dr. Kinsella has drawn upon her linguistic background and developed academic RESPONSE FRAMES. Response frames provide considerably more guidance than sentence starters by enabling students to produce accurate target language forms (vocabulary, syntax, grammar) and the ability to discuss, follow along and comprehend while listening to increasingly sophisticated language. Response frames are optimal when a discussion prompt is open-ended, with a range of conceptual and linguistic options. A response frame can be strengthened by the additional linguistic scaffold of a precise word bank. Providing students with a manageable list of everyday words paired with precise words encourages students to make mindful word choices and utilize a consistent academic register.
Sentence Starter vs. Academic Response Frames
Sentence starter: A partner shows active listening when _____.
Common casual and grammatically flawed outcome: A partner shows active listening when they nod. Response Frame:
A partner demonstrates active listening when she/he and . (verb + s) (verb + s)
Word Bank Casual Verbs Precise Verbs says replies, responds likes appreciates, compliments lets permits, ____________ helps ________, __________
Model Response: A partner demonstrates active listening when she restates my idea and asks clarifying questions.
A response frame includes the following essential features: R a syntactic scaffold (a rigorous and relevant sentence structure in an academic register requiring completion with
clearly specified grammatical and vocabulary targets) R a clearly specified grammatical target R embedded topical and high-utility vocabulary in an academic register R a focused word bank prompting use of precise word choices R an engaging opportunity for students to apply and demonstrate understanding and include their own ideas
Sample Lesson Scenario Using Response Frames 1. Introduce frame
(visibly displayed, with a model response)
To share your idea in today’s lesson, we will use an academic response frame. I have written my own idea in the frame to model how you will add an idea about our topic: the ways that a lesson partner demonstrates active listening.
2. Students repeat frame and model (silently tracking, phrase-cued, then chorally)
Follow along silently tracking with your guide card as I read aloud my model response. To get comfortable using the response frame, read my response with me in phrases, imitating my emphasis. Now let’s warm up our public voices by reading aloud my entire response with expression.
3. Direct attention to the grammatical and/or vocabulary target (underline, circle, highlight)
Underline the word ”demonstrates” in the frame. This verb ends in –s and is written in the simple present tense because the action describes what a lesson partner does usually or always. To complete this sentence correctly, you need to add a singular subject pronoun after the conjunction “when”. Circle either “he” or “she”. Now you must complete the response with a verb phrase, a group of words beginning with a verb or action word in the present tense. Think about what a partner does most of the time to show that he or she is actively listening to you.
4. Prompt students to select a precise verb
Review our precise present tense verb bank and take a moment to think about the strong verb choice you will add to complete the verb phrase.
5. Direct students to write their ideas in the frame
Quietly write your idea using the response frame. If you need assistance with spelling, grammar, or word choice, raise your pen and I will help you. Please don’t bother your partner.
Your perspective is that a partner demonstrates active listening when she asks questions. What question might she ask? Excellent, develop your sentence by adding that specific showing detail.
Setti
ng U
p
7. If students finish quickly, cue a fast-finisher task
Quietly reread your sentence and prepare to share it in front of the class using the document camera. Jot down another idea in the space provided at the bottom of the page in your portfolio.
Transition to partner interaction Now we’ll share perspectives with partners. (or groups)
8. Direct students to silently reread responses in preparation to share
Reread your sentence silently a few times in preparation for sharing with your partner.
9. Cue partner (A/B) to read their sentence to their partner (twice)
Read your sentence to your partner twice: first, read it fluently; second, make eye contact and say it with expression. Let’s begin with partner 2 this time. Be sure to listen to your partner attentively because you will need to restate their response. If you both finish sharing your selected response, share another idea until I call time (1, 2, 3, eyes on me). If you don’t have a second idea, share my model response on the board.
10. Circulate listening, providing feedback, and to identify strong responses for reporting phase
I didn’t catch your ideas. Will you please share again making eye contact and using more expression? Thank you. Pa
rtne
r D
iscu
ssio
ns
11. Cue partners to restate each other’s responses
Now I’d like you to restate your partner’s idea. Partner 1 will go first. Restate your partner’s response using this expression … (“So what you’re saying is.. If I understand you correctly,…”) After your partner confirms that this is what s/he intended to say, switch roles.
Transition to reporting “Now let’s hear some of your responses.”
8. Elicit reporting with entire frame, (visibly displayed)
Please remember to use your public voice and the entire response frame if you are called upon to report.
9. Assign active listening task(s): take notes, compare, point out similarities, agree/disagree
I have three active listening tasks for the discussion: 1) look at the speaker; 2) record one idea that is different than your own; 3) listen for similarities.
10. Record student contributions: list on white board, chart I will record all of your contributions in phrases on the board to use during other lessons.
11. Cue identified students to report I have asked Isabel to start our discussion. Please use a public voice to report your point of view.
Who
le-c
lass
Rep
ortin
g
12. Elicit additional responses using inclusive strategies (nominations, name cards, popcorn, volunteers)
Let’s hear some other perspectives. I’ve pulled Jose’s name card. Please contribute your perspective. Now I’d like a partner nomination from this side of the room. Karla, let’s hear your response. We have time for two contributions. I’d like one from the front and the back of the room.
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Dr. Kinsella’s Academic Discussion Routine ~ Step by Step
THINK: Briefly record your personal responses to this question:
How does a productive partner demonstrate active listening? 1.
2.
3.
WRITE: Rewrite one idea using the sentence frame. Include a precise academic verb. If time permits, write a second sentence on the back.
Frame: In my opinion, a productive partner demonstrates active listening when she/he (third person singular, simple present tense +s: looks interested, nods in agreement).
Ways Teachers Can Encourage Contributions During Class Discussions
THINK: Briefly record your personal responses to this question:
How can teachers encourage more students to contribute during class discussions? 1.
2.
3.
WRITE: Rewrite two ideas using the academic sentence frames. Include precise verbs. Prepare to elaborate upon your idea verbally if you are asked to report.
Frame 1: From my perspective, teachers can more encourage students to contribute by (verb + ing: providing relevant examples; allowing them to first brainstorm with a partner)
Frame 2: Based on experience, more students contribute ideas during class discussions when the teacher (verb + s: allows adequate time to think; discourages blurting)
Academic Discussion: Idea Tracker Lesson Topic: Instructional practices that promote or discourage democratic lesson participation Question: How can teachers encourage more students to contribute during class discussions?
(1) In recent years researchers have concluded that the average ADOLESCENT in America does not get sufficient sleep during the week. Many factors can influence an adolescent’s ability to get a good night’s sleep before tackling a challenging school day. However, no matter what the specific reasons are, it is clear that insufficient sleep can lead to a variety of physical, emotional and academic problems. (2) People need different amounts of sleep in different stages of life. Babies and children require many hours of deep sleep. Until age ten most children wake up fresh and energetic. At PUBERTY, however, the body’s clock which regulates sleeping and waking hours changes. This delay in the body’s “CIRCADIAN CLOCK” causes teens to be wide awake at 9 or 10 p.m. when people of other ages are typically getting tired. As a result, adolescents tend to fall asleep later. If they get up early for school, they are losing critical hours of sleep night after night. (3) For many years scientists have assumed that after people are awake for a long time, they naturally get sleepy and fall asleep. Now they acknowledge that circadian clocks set our sleeping patterns. Many teens experience something similar to the jet lag of long distance travelers. Even though teens may have experienced a physically active and intellectually demanding day, falling asleep can be challenging. The circadian clock keeps them alert just when other people start feeling sleepy. (4) The National Sleep Foundation contends that American teenagers actually require more than nine hours of sleep every night, not just on weekends. However, surveys indicate that only 15% of teens sleep 8.5 hours or more on a regular basis.
Moreover, more than 25% of adolescents routinely sleep 6.5 hours or fewer on school nights.
(5) Going to bed earlier does not necessarily assure that a teenager will get additional sleep. The circadian clock creates "FORBIDDEN ZONES" when falling asleep is almost impossible. For many teens the forbidden zone is in the evening hours. Therefore, even if teens go to their rooms relatively early, they do not usually go to sleep promptly. Instead, they tend to read, play games, listen to music or send text messages to friends until they start to get tired at 11 p.m. or later. (6) Surprisingly, sleeping for a long time on weekends does not remedy the problem. Researchers refer to that as "binge sleeping." Teens catch up on sleep, but they do not establish a healthy sleeping pattern. If a teen sleeps until noon or 2:00 p.m., the brain recognizes that as a time for sleep. When Monday morning comes again, the brain is still on the wrong schedule. Thus, schools may begin bright and early, but teenage brains do not wake up until considerably later in the day. (7) When people get too little sleep on a routine basis, negative things are bound to happen. Chronic sleep loss has numerous impacts on a teen’s health. A youth who averages only 5 to 7 hours of sleep will definitely feel tired and irritable. Being tired produces MOOD SWINGS, so it causes many teens not to get along well with others at school or at home, and to have arguments over fairly unimportant things. Furthermore, SLEEP DEPRIVATION often contributes to a feeling of helplessness and DEPRESSION. Finally, being tired slows down teens’ mental reactions. Sleep deprived teens don’t react quickly and struggle to follow directions, pay attention and learn, especially in their earliest classes.
THINK: Consider reasons adolescents fail to get sufficient sleep on a regular basis during the school week. Draw from background knowledge and unit reading.
1. 4.
2. 5.
3. 6.
WRITE: Rewrite two ideas using the sentence frames. Include precise word choices. Prepare to elaborate upon your idea verbally if you are asked to report.
Frame 1: Based on my experience, many/some adolescents don’t get sufficient sleep during the school week because they __ (present tense: spend, work, have)
Response:
Frame 2: According to the National Sleep Foundation, many/some adolescents fail to get sufficient sleep on school nights due to __ (noun phrase: hormonal changes)
Response:
Word Bank: Everyday Precise
long (ADJ) extensive, non-stop (ADJ) incessant, continuous work (NOUN) responsibilities, worries (NOUN) issues,
DISCUSS: Listen attentively to and record notes on your classmates’ ideas. Start by listening attentively, restating, and recording your partner’s idea.
•So your (experience/observation/perspective) is that __ •Yes, that’s correct. No, not exactly. What I (meant/stated) was __
Classmates’ names
Ideas
1.
2.
3.
REPORT: Prepare to report your idea during the whole group discussion. Listen attentively, and utilize the sentence frames to point out similarities.
•My idea is similar to __’s. •My idea builds upon __’s.
Establish purpose 1. Pronounce the word 2. Students repeat 3. Provide part of speech 4. Syllabify 5. Students repeat 6. Provide a student-friendly definition 7. Model example #1 visibly displayed 8. Students point to, repeat and fill in blank(s) 9. Model example #2 visibly displayed Ph
ase
1: In
trod
ucin
g W
ord
10. Students point to, repeat and fill in blank(s)
Transition to Verbal Practice 1. Introduce frame for verbal practice visibly displayed, include model response 2. Students repeat model response 3. Direct attention to grammatical target(s) (underline, highlight) 4. Prompt students to consider a response 5. Cue partner (A/B, 1/2) to share response with partner 6. Circulate listening, providing feedback, and preselect reporting
Transition to reporting 7. Elicit reporting with frame, visibly displayed 8. Cue preselected students to report Ph
ase
2: V
erba
l Pra
ctic
e
9. Direct students to write the word and selected response in the frame (own, partner’s or strong response)
Transition to Writing Practice 1. Introduce frame for Writing Practice visibly displayed, include model response 2. Students repeat model response (silently, phrase-cued, chorally) 3. Direct attention to grammatical target(s) (underline, highlight) 4. Prompt students to consider a response, allowing adequate think time 5. Direct students to write the word and their response in the frame 6. Cue partner (A/B, 1/2) to read their sentence to their partner (twice) 7. Circulate listening, providing feedback 8. Cue partners to switch and read each other’s sentence (continue circulating)
Transition to reporting 9. Elicit reporting with frame, visibly displayed
Students can check to see if their spelling is accurate with a
Writing Practice (Think-Write-Pair-Share):
In my opinion, the television program presents
an view of the life of American children like me.
2
Word Meaning Example(s) Image
factor fac•tor noun
one of many things
that __________ or
affect a situation
The weather is often a factor in
the Superbowl. If it ________,
the athletes don’t perform well.
A good night’s sleep and a
nutritious breakfast are factors
in a student’s performance on
________________________.
Verbal Practice (Think-Pair-Share-Write):
One of the most important factors when I purchase a gift for a friend is
Writing Practice (Think-Write-Pair-Share):
Several influence my interest in a book, in particular
and
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134
SMART START
COGNATE p.R7
135
perspectivenoun
Writing Practice
Work with your partner to complete the sentence using the correct form of perspective and appropriate content.
My activity partner and I have different on the issue of
.
Work independently to complete the sentence using the correct form of perspective and appropriate content.
From my , students at this school should have one free hour every day
to .
Work independently to write two sentences. In your first sentence, use perspective in the singular form and include a word partner. In your second sentence, use perspective in the plural form.
1
2
Complete the paragraph using the correct form of perspective and original content.
Parents and teenagers often have trouble seeing things from each other’s
1 Toolkit word: plural . For example, many teenagers complain that their parents
are too 2 adjective
about issues like curfews or homework. From a
teenager’s 3 Toolkit word: singular
, parents should trust their children and give
them more freedom. However, from a parent’s perspective, teenagers need lots of
4 non-count noun/plural noun so that they will grow up to be responsible adults. Although
each of these 5 Toolkit word: plural
is valid, parents and teenagers often end up
6 gerund with each other. What can parents and teenagers do to gain
a better understanding of each other’s 7 Toolkit word: plural
?
Collaborate
Your Turn
Be an Academic
Author
Write an Academic
Paragraph
grammar tipCount nouns name things that can be counted. Count nouns have two forms, singular and plural. To make most count nouns plural, add –s.
We have different perspectives on life.
She has some questions.
perspectives
animal rights/politics
perspective
do their homework/use the computers in the library
From my perspective, I should not have a curfew because I am responsible.
My brothers are twins but they have different perspectives on life.
perspectives
strict/mean
perspective
discipline/rules
perspectives
fighting/arguing
perspectives
Toolkit word: plural
noun phrase/non-count noun
Toolkit word: singular
infinitive phrase
134
Say it: per • spec • tive Write it:
Meaning Examplethe way someone sees or thinks about something
Synonym: point of view
When you have an
with a friend,
you should try to see the
from his or
her perspective.
Word Partners
• different
• from (my/your/his/her/our/ their)
• unique
Jamal and I have different perspectives on the issue of global warming.
The governor is considering reducing schools’ budgets, but from my perspective, we should give schools more funding.
Artists have a unique perspective on street graffiti.
Verbal Practice
Read each sentence and think about how you would complete it.
Discuss your idea with your partner using the sentence frame.
Listen carefully to your partner’s and classmates’ ideas.
Write your favorite idea in the blank.
1 People often write letters and e-mails to newspapers and magazines to give their
perspectives on .
2 A person with international travel experience has a unique perspective on
.
Talk about It
perspectivenoun
Aca
dem
ic V
oca
bu
lary
To
olk
it
Forms
• Singular: perspective• Plural: perspectives
argument
issue
current events/celebrities
other cultures/foreign languages
plural noun
noun phrase/plural noun
1. No one agreed on the because everyone had a different
.
2. She has one on what is happening in and
I have another.
election/issue
perspective
perspective Iran/Los Angeles
singular noun
Toolkit word: singular
Toolkit word: singular proper noun
27830_03_p102-151.indd 134 09/07/12 12:55 PM
42
135
Grammar Tip Pointers
135
perspectivenoun
Writing Practice
Work with your partner to complete the sentence using the correct form of perspective and appropriate content.
My activity partner and I have different on the issue of
.
Work independently to complete the sentence using the correct form of perspective and appropriate content.
From my , students at this school should have one free hour every day
to .
Work independently to write two sentences. In your first sentence, use perspective in the singular form and include a word partner. In your second sentence, use perspective in the plural form.
1
2
Complete the paragraph using the correct form of perspective and original content.
Parents and teenagers often have trouble seeing things from each other’s
1 Toolkit word: plural . For example, many teenagers complain that their parents
are too 2 adjective
about issues like curfews or homework. From a
teenager’s 3 Toolkit word: singular
, parents should trust their children and give
them more freedom. However, from a parent’s perspective, teenagers need lots of
4 non-count noun/plural noun so that they will grow up to be responsible adults. Although
each of these 5 Toolkit word: plural
is valid, parents and teenagers often end up
6 gerund with each other. What can parents and teenagers do to gain
a better understanding of each other’s 7 Toolkit word: plural
?
Collaborate
Your Turn
Be an Academic
Author
Write an Academic
Paragraph
grammar tipCount nouns name things that can be counted. Count nouns have two forms, singular and plural. To make most count nouns plural, add –s.
We have different perspectives on life.
She has some questions.
perspectives
animal rights/politics
perspective
do their homework/use the computers in the library
From my perspective, I should not have a curfew because I am responsible.
My brothers are twins but they have different perspectives on life.
perspectives
strict/mean
perspective
discipline/rules
perspectives
fighting/arguing
perspectives
Toolkit word: plural
noun phrase/non-count noun
Toolkit word: singular
infinitive phrase
134
Say it: per • spec • tive Write it:
Meaning Examplethe way someone sees or thinks about something
Synonym: point of view
When you have an
with a friend,
you should try to see the
from his or
her perspective.
Word Partners
• different
• from (my/your/his/her/our/ their)
• unique
Jamal and I have different perspectives on the issue of global warming.
The governor is considering reducing schools’ budgets, but from my perspective, we should give schools more funding.
Artists have a unique perspective on street graffiti.
Verbal Practice
Read each sentence and think about how you would complete it.
Discuss your idea with your partner using the sentence frame.
Listen carefully to your partner’s and classmates’ ideas.
Write your favorite idea in the blank.
1 People often write letters and e-mails to newspapers and magazines to give their
perspectives on .
2 A person with international travel experience has a unique perspective on
.
Talk about It
perspectivenoun
Aca
dem
ic V
oca
bu
lary
To
olk
it
Forms
• Singular: perspective• Plural: perspectives
argument
issue
current events/celebrities
other cultures/foreign languages
plural noun
noun phrase/plural noun
Ask a student to read his or her Collaborate sentence.
My activity partner and I have different perspectives on the issue of .
Ask: What kind of word is perspective? (noun) Did you complete this sentence with the singular or plural form of perspective? (plural) How do we make most nouns plural? (Add –s to the singular form.)
Say: To form the plural of most count nouns, add –s to the singular form.
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43
(Kinsella, San Francisco State University, 811)
The Academic Word List (Averil Coxhead, 2000): a list of 570 high-incidence and high-utility academic word families
for Secondary School, Higher Education, Career
There is a very important specialized vocabulary for learners intending to pursue academic studies in English at the secondary and post-secondary levels. The Academic Word List, compiled by Coxhead (2000), consists of 570 word families that are not in the most frequent 2,000 words of English but which occur reasonably frequently over a very wide range of academic texts. These 570 words are grouped into ten sublists that reflect word frequency and range. A word like analyze falls into Sublist 1, which contains the most frequent words, while the word adjacent falls into Sublist 10 which includes the least frequent (amongst this list of high incidence and high utility words). The following ten sublists contain the headwords of the families in the Academic Word List. In other words, the ten sublists contain the most frequent form of the word, more often a noun or verb form, although there may be one or more important related word forms. For example, the headword analyze would also include analyst, analytic, analytical and analytically in the word family.
The Academic Word List is not restricted to a specific field of study. That means that the words are useful for learners studying in disciplines as varied as literature, science, health, business, and law. This high utility academic word list does not contain technical words likely to appear in only one, specialized field of study such as amortization, lexicon, onomatopoeia, or cartilage. Two-thirds of all academic English words come from Latin, French (through Latin), or Greek. Understandably, knowledge of the most high incidence and high utility academic words in English can significantly boost a student’s comprehension level of school-based reading material. Secondary students who are taught these high-utility academic words and routinely placed in contexts requiring their usage are likely to be able to master academic material with more confidence and efficiency, wasting less time and energy in guessing words or consulting dictionaries than those who are only equipped with the most basic 2000-3000 words that characterize ordinary conversation.
Sources: Coxhead, Averil. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 213-238. Averil Coxhead’s website: http://language.massey.ac.nz/staff/awl/index.shtml
1. analyze approach area assess assume authority available benefit concept consist context constitute contract data define derive distribute economy environment establish estimate evident factor finance formula function income indicate individual interpret involve issue labor legal legislate major method occur percent period principle proceed process policy require research respond role section sector significant similar source specific structure theory vary 2. achieve acquire administrate affect appropriate aspect assist category chapter commission community complex compute conclude conduct consequent construct consume credit culture design distinct equate element evaluate feature final focus impact injure institute invest item journal maintain normal obtain participate perceive positive potential previous primary purchase range region regulate relevant reside resource restrict secure seek select site strategy survey text tradition transfer
Words By Subject AreaThese groups break down the first one hundred words of AVT by their frequency in certain subject or content areas. These lists are particularly useful for subject area teachers who use the AVT program as a supplement in their regular classes.
Key Vocabulary for Main Idea and Details in a Nonfiction Text: Key Vocabulary for Referring to a Nonfiction Text:
Q & A for Main Idea and Supporting Details Q: What is the topic of this article/report/paragraph/section? A: The topic of this __________________ is ___________________.
Q: What is this paragraph/section/selection/article/report mainly about?
A: It is mainly about __________________.
A: This _________________ focuses on ___________________.
A: This ______________ is primarily about ________________.
A: This ______________ addresses the topic of/reasons for _________.
Q: What is the author’s main idea/point?
A: The author’s main idea/point is that __________________.
Q: What is/are the most important detail(s) in this paragraph/section?
A: One important detail in this paragraph/section is _______________.
A: An essential detail in this paragraph/section is .
A: Another significant detail in this paragraph/section is ____________.
A: The most critical/vital detail in this paragraph/section is __________.
A: An interesting but nonessential detail in this paragraph/section is ___.
Academic Language for Summarizing Use the following academic phrases, verbs and terms to effectively write your summary of an article. Citation Verbs Summary
discusses examines explores investigates focuses on addresses
(the specific topic/issue)
points out states emphasizes reports describes explains
that/how (important detail)
1st: author’s full name: first/last (Michelle Gomez) 2nd, etc.: author’s last name (Gomez) or the author the writer the reporter the researcher the journalist
concludes that (conclusion)
Formal Written Summary For An Exam/Assignment In the article entitled “LAUSD Goes ‘Sweatfree’,” Lawrence Gable investigates Los Angeles Unified School District’s decision to not purchase products from vendors that were manufactured in sweatshops. First, Gable reports that LAUSD, the second-largest school district in the country, spends millions annually on furniture, uniforms, and equipment. The powerful district is placing pressure upon vendors to only obtain merchandise from factories that offer safe and legal working conditions. The article also describes the working conditions LAUSD requires. No children may be employed, and all laborers must earn a “non-poverty” wage and have the right to form a union. In addition, Gable explains LAUSD’s main reason for taking this action. The large urban district serves thousands of immigrant families, with many parents and relatives employed by sweatshops in Southern California. Finally, Gable concludes that the district plans to enforce its “sweatfree” policy by charging a $1,000 penalty for any violation, and by working with unions and community members who will inform the district about any manufacturers who ignore labor laws.
Teacher: Observer: Date: Period: Subject: _________ Observation Duration: minutes Directions: Record a tally mark after planning a lesson or observing instruction utilizing structured student engagement strategies. Record notes during the observation to expand upon on using the Observation Feedback Frames provided on page 2.
The students . . . Tally Notes
direct attention as cued (looking, turning, focusing, etc.)
mark text (underline, circle, highlight)
point/track with finger/object (text, directions, image)
hand signal (thumbs up, raised hand, finger rubric, etc.)
clap/tap (syllables, intonation, etc.)
Phys
ical
stand/sit (partner 2s stand; sit down if your idea is similar)
Whole class (chorally, phrase-cued, oral cloze)
Partner/group to brainstorm, respond using frame
Partner/group to read text passages
Individually respond as preselected reporter Individually respond as random reporter (name cards, popcorn, partner 1s stand, white board selector)
Verb
al
Individually respond as volunteer reporter (teacher pre-invited, raised-hand, partner nomination)
record information (mini white board, notebook, text)
complete provided response frame
incorporate precise words (word bank, frame, paragraph)
respond to a framed prompt (justification, summary, etc.) Writ
arranges seating and pairs students appropriately consistently uses an academic register refers to visible display of expectations and procedures for partnering and/or group tasks (4Ls, fast-finisher options, collaborative language)
sets up tasks with visible displays, clear explanations, and modeling visibly displays an academic response frame and a model response identifies and explains vocabulary and grammatical target(s) in frame leads verbal rehearsal with model response(s): (phrase-cued, choral) cues partner 1/2 to speak 1st (read 2x fluently, say it with expression) monitors interactions & writing, offers feedback, preselects reporters uses varied strategies to elicit additional reporters for discussion (partner nomination, name cards, all partner As stand, voluntary, etc.)
requires active listening during all lesson phases and assigns tasks requires, models, and coaches use of an audible public voice
50
ENGLISH LEARNER ENGAGEMENT ~ PLANNING & OBSERVATION TOOL
Teacher: Mr. O Observer: Dr. Kinsella Date: 1.27.12 Period: 1st Subject: _World History___ Observation Duration: 30 minutes Directions: Record a tally mark after planning a lesson or observing instruction utilizing structured student engagement strategies. Record notes during the observation to expand upon on using the Observation Feedback Frames provided on page 2.
The students . . . Tally Notes
direct attention as cued (looking, turning, focusing, etc.) /
mark text (underline, circle, highlight)
point/track with finger/object (text, directions, image)
hand signal (thumbs up, raised hand, finger rubric, etc.)
clap/tap (syllables, intonation, etc.)
Phys
ical
stand/sit (partner 2s stand; sit down if your idea is similar)
Whole class (chorally, phrase-cued, oral cloze)
Partner/group to brainstorm, respond using frame /
Partner/group to read text passages
Individually respond as preselected reporter Individually respond as random reporter (name cards, popcorn, partner 1s stand, white board selector) //
Verb
al
Individually respond as volunteer reporter (pre-invited by teacher, raised-hand, partner nomination)
record information (mini white board, notebook, text)
complete provided response frame /
incorporate precise words (word bank, frame, paragraph)
respond to a framed prompt (justification, summary, etc.) Writ
*directs attention toward screen and cues to put down pens
• cues partner 1 to share first
• doesn’t monitor responses or provide assistance, stays at document camera
• calls on two students somewhat randomly “I think I saw you had a good response”; doesn’t open up discussion to volunteers
•cues to write favorite response
The teacher . . . Tally Notes
arranges seating and pairs students appropriately / consistently uses an academic register / refers to visible display of expectations and procedures for partnering and/or group tasks (4Ls, fast-finisher options, collaborative language)
sets up tasks with visible displays, clear explanations, and modeling visibly displays response frame and a model response / identifies and explains vocabulary and grammatical target(s) / leads verbal rehearsal with model response(s): (phrase-cued, choral) cues partner 1/2 to speak 1st (read 2x fluently, say it with expression) monitors interactions & writing, offers feedback, preselects reporters uses varied strategies to elicit additional reporters for discussion (partner nomination, name cards, all partner As stand, voluntary, etc.)
requires active listening during all lesson phases and assigns tasks requires, models, and coaches use of an audible public voice
• students seem to have assigned partners
• delivery is lively, articulate, but too fast
• reads aloud directions for verbal tasks
• reads aloud both verbal task frames at once (doesn’t assign one at a time)
• points out grammatical targets for both frames at once, potentially confusing
• doesn’t provide model responses with frames for verbal tasks
• doesn’t direct to listen actively and prepare to write a strong response
• doesn’t prompt public voice
52
ENGLISH LEARNER ENGAGEMENT ~ PLANNING & OBSERVATION TOOL
The teacher facilitated physical, verbal, and/or written responses by . . .
• Directing attention to the screen and your visual display of the sentence frame
• Pre-assigning appropriate partners and partner numbers
• Cueing students to actively listen and fill in their favorite response contributed by a classmate or the teacher
• Affirming students’ contributions
Instructional goal(s) for physical, verbal, and/or written responses include: • Assigning and debriefing verbal tasks separately, rather than assigning both at the same time
• Assigning a clear active listening task: e.g., as you listen to classmates’ contributions, record a strong example
• Modeling an appropriate response for each of the sentence frames, verbally and in writing
The teacher set up the lesson/tasks, used response frame(s), and monitored tasks by. . .
• Reviewing expectations for completing the verbal task
• Visibly displaying the sentence frames
• Clarifying the grammar target in the sentence frames
• Pre-selecting two strong responses to launch the class discussion (but you didn’t tell them you would call on them so it appeared quite random and they weren’t prepared to respond)
Instructional goal(s) for setting up lesson/tasks, using response frames, and/or monitoring include: • Modeling an appropriate response with a sentence frame, then clarifying the grammar target(s)
• Guiding verbal rehearsal of your model response with the frame: 1st phrase cued; 2nd chorally
• Cueing partners to read their response fluently, then make eye contact and restate it with expression
• Actively monitoring as students are interacting and writing; Carefully listen to and read responses to assist students, preselect potential contributors, and identify linguistic or conceptual challenges
• Varying your strategies for calling on reporters; Balance preselected, randomly selected, and voluntary responses
• Assigning an active listening task: e.g., 1) “As your classmates contribute examples, listen carefully for what you consider to be the strongest or most relevant example and write it in the blank/under your own response”; 2) “Be prepared to share with your partner what example from the class discussion caught your attention”
53
Using a Sentence Frame ~ Observation and Planning Tool
The teacher . . . 1 2 3 4 1 arranges seating and pairs students appropriately
A/B sign; desks in foursome; 6 rows of 6 2 consistently uses an academic register
avoid saying “You Guys” 3 refers to visible display of expectations and procedures for partnering and/or
group tasks (4Ls, fast-finisher options, collaborative language)
provide each student with a Collaborative Language page 4 sets up tasks with visible displays, clear explanations, and modeling
refer to directions posters 5 visibly displays frame and provides rehearsal (as needed)
lead choral rehearsal, say “blank” 6 visibly displays a model response for the frame
use colors to signify “can use” (green) or “don’t use” (red) 7 identifies and explains vocabulary and grammatical target(s) in frame
cue students to underline vocab and write everyday synonym above; circle cue words for grammar target(s) 8 leads verbal rehearsal with model response(s) (phrase-cued, choral)
explain phrase-cued to students as “echo read” 9 checks for understanding of tasks
finger rubric (3=understand, 2=clarify, 1=asleep) 10 cues partner 1/2 to begin interaction (read 2-3x: fluently; make eye contact and
say it with expression)
read 1x to prepare for partner discussion, then refer to poster with 2x 11 reads and listens to responses
having students read sentences 2x allows time for monitoring! 12 offers feedback that elicits accurate verbal and written adjustments
require partners or whole class to restate sentences with error corrected 13 preselects reporters to initiate whole-class discussion
ask reserved or reluctant students to be go-to volunteers 14 uses varied strategies to elicit additional reporters for discussion
(partner nomination, name cards, all partner As stand, voluntary, etc.)
create a cool reporting location (red carpet) 15 requires active listening tasks during all phases (partner/ whole class)
explain purpose of listening tasks: to be able to restate; plan a specific task during class discussion (i.e. “my idea is similar to . . .) 16 requires, models, and coaches use of an audible public voice model and rehearse public speaking voice to get students used to volume and eye contact; “Professional voice”
55
DR. KINSELLA’S OBSERVATION FEEDBACK ~ VERBAL ENGAGEMENT
• Monitor students’ written work and verbal interactions to preselect a student to
initiate whole-class reporting and assess students’ grasp of the lesson content.
• Assign an active-listening task during whole-class reporting: hold students
accountable for verbalizing to a partner/group something concrete: e.g., the
strongest example I recorded was _; one reason I agree/disagree with is _.
Building Reading Fluency • Build fluency with text before posing comprehension tasks: 1st guide reading
using the oral cloze strategy; 2nd have partners read using the oral cloze strategy.
56
Resources for Explicit Vocabulary Development Dictionaries Elementary (Grades 3-5). Longman elementary dictionary and thesaurus. (2010). Pearson Longman. Beg. – Intermediate (grades 4-9). Oxford picture dictionary for the Content Areas, 2e. (2010). Oxford. Beg./Primary (grades 1-4). Oxford picture dictionary for the Content Areas for Kids, 2e. (2012). Oxford. Beginning – Intermediate (grades 4-12). Longman study dictionary, 2e. (2010). Pearson Longman. High Intermediate (grades 5-12): Longman dictionary of American English. (2004). Pearson Longman. Advanced (grades 8-12): Longman advanced American dictionary, 2e. (2010). Pearson Longman. Dr. Kinsella’s Vocabulary Development Program for Teaching High-Utility Academic Words: The Academic Vocabulary Toolkit (January 2012). National Geographic Learning. (Grades 6-12) Dr. Kinsella’s Program for Accelerating Academic English Proficiency and Writing: English 3D: Describe, Discuss, Debate (September 2011). Scholastic, Inc. (Grades 6-10) Expository Reading Selections - Curricula with High-Utility Academic Words Gable, L. (2001). What’s happening in the USA/world/California (fax: 831-426-6532) (www.whpubs.com). Keeler, B., & Svetcov, D. (2000). My Turn Essays: Student reflections. Newsweek Education Program. The New York Times Upfront Magazine. Scholastic, Inc. [email protected] National Geographic Magazine for Kids. Time Magazine for Kids. Scholastic News. Instructional References on Academic Vocabulary and Academic Literacy Development Beck, I.L. & McKeown, M.G. (2002). Bringing words to life: robust vocabulary instruction.. Guilford Press, Blachowicz, C., & Fisher, P. (2002). Teaching vocabulary in all classrooms. Merrill/Prentice Hall. Coxhead, A. (2006). Essentials of teaching academic vocabulary. Houghton Mifflin. Diamond, L. & Gutlohn, L. (2006). Teaching vocabulary handbook. CORE (Consortium on Reading Excellence). Graves, M.F. (2006). The vocabulary book: Learning and instruction. International Reading Ass. Stahl, S.A. (1999). Vocabulary development. Brookline Books.
Articles: Bromley, K. (2007). Nine things every teacher should know about words and vocabulary instruction. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 50(7), 528-537. Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 2, 213-238. Cunningham, A. & Stanovich, K. (Summer 1998). What reading does for the mind. American Educator. Dutro, S., & Kinsella, K. (2010). English language development: Issues and implementation in grades 6-12. In Improving education for English learners: Research-based approaches. CA Department of Education. Feldman, K. & Kinsella, K. (2005). Narrowing the language gap: The case for explicit vocabulary instruction. Research Monograph. Scholastic, Inc. Gersten, R., & Baker, S. (2000). What we know about effective instructional practices for English-language learners. Exceptional Children, 66(4), 454-470. Juel, C. & Deffes, R. (2004). Making words stick. Educational Leadership, 63(6), 30-34, Alexandria, VA. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Kinsella, K. (Fall 2000). Reading and the need for strategic lexical development for secondary ESL students. California Social Studies Review. PREL (Pacific Resources for Education and Learning). (2005). A focus on vocabulary. Research based practices in early reading series. Available at: www.prel.org Schleppegrell, M. (2002). Linguistic features of the language of schooling, Linguistics and Education 12, 431–459. Schmitt, N., & Carter, R. (Spring 2000). The lexical advantages of narrow reading for second language learners. TESOL Journal. Websites: Download Dr. Kinsella’s MS Word files for observation tools, vocabulary development, writing support, and structured discussion at this website: www.corelearn.com (Consortium on Reading Excellence) Check out this link on Coxhead’s website: The Web Vocabulary Profiler – Tom Cobb (lextutor.ca)
57
References on Academic Language Development August, D., & Shanahan, T. (Eds.). (2006). Developing literacy in second language learners: Report of the national literacy panel on language-minority children and youth. Center for Applied Linguistics. Bailey, A. (Ed.) (2007). The language demands of school: Putting academic English to the test. Yale University Press. California Department of Education. (2010). Improving education for English Learners: Research-based approaches. Dutro, S., & Kinsella, K. (2010). English language development: Issues and implementation in grades 6-12. In Improving education for English learners: Research-based approaches. California Department of Education. Feldman, K., & Kinsella, K. (2005). Narrowing the language gap: The case for explicit vocabulary instruction. Research Monograph - Scholastic. Fisher, D., Rothenberg, C., & Frey, N. (2007). Language learners in the English classroom. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English. Gold, N. (2006). The high schools English Learners need. University of California Language Minority Research Institute. Retrieved April 28, 2008, (http://www.lmri.ucsb.edu/publications/06_gold.pdf) Gersten, R., & Baker, S. (2000). What we know about effective instructional practices for English- language learners. Exceptional Children, 66(4), 454-470. Hirsch, E.D., & Moats, L.C. (2001). Overcoming the language gap. American Federation of Teachers. Kinsella, K. (December 2012). Cutting to the Common Core: Communicating on the same wavelength. Language Magazine, 18-25 Kinsella, K. (October 2012). Cutting to the Common Core: Disrupting discourse. Language Magazine, 18-23. Kinsella, K. (2011). Research to inform English language development in secondary schools. In the
STARlight: Research and Resources for English Learner Achievement (http://www.elresearch.org). Kinsella, K. (2011). English 3D. Scholastic, Inc. Kinsella, K., & Singer, T. (2008). The LBook (EL Companion Curriculum for Read 180). Scholastic, Inc. Kinsella, K. (1996). Designing group work that supports and enables diverse classroom work styles. TESOL Journal, 6(1), 24-30.
Olsen, L. (2012). Secondary school courses designed to address the language needs and academic gaps of long term English learners. Californians Together (http://www.californianstogether.org).
Olsen, L. (2011). A closer look at long term English learners: A focus on new directions. In the STARlight:
Research and Resources for English Learner Achievement (http://www.elresearch.org). Short, D., & Fitzsimmons, S. (2007). Double the work: Challenges and solutions to acquiring language and
academic literacy for adolescent English language learners. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Spada, N. & Lightbown, P. (2008). Form-focused instruction: Isolated or integrated? TESOL Quarterly 42(2)
181–207.
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CurriculumCurriculum
18 http://www.languagemagazine.com December 2012
The Common Core State Standards for English LanguageArts (CCSS, 2010) articulate detailed grade-level expectations in theareas of reading, writing, speaking, and listening to prepare all stu-dents to be college and career ready, including English Learners(ELs). Major shifts include a focus on rigorous analysis of information-al text, and evidence-based argumentation in formal presentation andwriting. Equally emphasized is participation in academic discourseand collaboration with partners, as well as small and large groups.The prominent role of social interactional skills coincides with the ini-tiative’s aim to equip secondary school graduates for a more globallynetworked higher education arena, workplace, and marketplace.
To meet the communication demands of the CCSS 6-12 discipli-nary speaking and listening standards, students from all socio-eco-nomic and linguistic backgrounds will benefit from age-appropriateinstruction in the pragmatics and language of academic and profes-sional interaction. Every school-age youth is essentially an AcademicEnglish Language Learner (AELL), including those from professionalhomes in which language usage maps more readily onto classroomcontexts. However, adolescent ELs and under-resourced secondaryclassmates will undoubtedly approach collaboration on rigorous con-tent-based tasks with more pronounced academic oral language needs.
Limited Guidance to Support ClassroomsThe CCSS introduction includes a disclaimer that delineating theinstructional supports imperative for an English Learner or less profi-cient reader is “beyond the scope of the Standards” (CCSS, p.6).Ancillary guidelines for applying the standards in linguistically diverseand mixed-ability classrooms are available at www.corestandards.org.A few general provisions are outlined to assist limited English speak-ers in meeting the 6-12 English Language Arts Listening andSpeaking Anchor Standard for engaging effectively “in a range of col-laborative discussions with diverse partners...building on others’ideas, and expressing their own clearly and persuasively”:
■ Appropriate instructional supports to make grade-level coursework comprehensible
■ Additional time to complete tasks and assessments■ Opportunities for classroom interactions that develop concepts
and academic language in the disciplines■ Opportunities to interact with proficient English speakers
Unfortunately, these appropriate but arguably vague instructionalaccommodations will be largely left to the interpretation of state, dis-trict, or school leadership. Implementation of these broad provisionsfor ELs will be further impacted each school site’s level of professionalpreparation, vision and initiative. An instructional missive to a second-ary school staff serving ELs and striving readers to provide “opportu-nities for classroom interactions that develop concepts and academiclanguage” is apt to be received with well-justified confusion or trepi-dation. Without considerable guidance in lesson design featuringcomplementary content and language objectives, few discipline spe-cialists will be inspired to energize their syllabus with guided opportu-nities to learn with and from peers.
Hazards of Assigning “Scaffold Free” Collaborative Tasks Secondary educators making earnest yet scaffold-free efforts toimplement CCSS-aligned “collaborative conversations” are not likelyto observe immediate exemplars of scholarly comportment and con-ceptual rigor. Pairing or grouping novice academic English speakersfor productive interactions involves far more than a modified seatingarrangement and a challenging depth-of-knowledge question.Classroom research demonstrates that academic talk rarely occurswithout guidance and prompting during lesson discussions, whether
in small group or unified class contexts (Nystrand,1997). Hastily initi-ated small group assignments in linguistically diverse classrooms sansstep-by-step modeling and relevant academic language preparationlead to efficient yet inequitable discussions in casual English (Foster &Ohta, 2005; Gersten & Baker, 2000). Students are typically morefocused on completing the basic assignment requirements in a timelymanner with a modicum of effort than ensuring that every groupmember has competently presented ideas and received constructivefeedback.
Devoid of explicit language targets and clearly communicatedexpectations for application, even viable cooperative structures suchas Think-Pair-Share can devolve into informal neighbor chats lackingcognitive or linguistic dexterity. Similarly, assigning woefully imbal-anced group roles such as the facilitator, scribe, reporter, illustrator,and encourager does little to ensure that every student engages intel-lectually, listens attentively, and contributes competently. With collabo-rative tasks designed to promote content and language attainmentfor ELs, each partner or group member must grapple with the focallesson concepts and skills, ideally involving multiple languagedomains: speaking, listening, reading and writing. Because researchon verbal engagement in the general education context and ESLclassrooms alike highlights the passive observer role adopted bymany ELs (Arreaga-Mayer & Perdoma-Rivera, 1996), any collaborativetask must structure attentive listening and accountable verbal andwritten contributions from each participant.
Instructional Imperatives for Academic InteractionsTo make second-language acquisition gains, adolescent ELs musthave daily opportunities in every subject area to communicate usingincreasingly sophisticated social and academic English. Orchestratingdisciplinary lesson interactions with a tandem focus on English lan-guage acceleration requires explicit instruction in the assignmentgoals, procedures, and relevant language tools for a myriad of com-municative purposes or functions, ranging from articulating perspec-tives to asking for clarification (Dutro & Kinsella, 2010; Kinsella, 1996).Moreover, ELs must be required not simply encouraged to apply thetarget lesson language during interactive assignments, and supportedby a teacher actively monitoring comprehension and language produc-tion (Saunders & Goldenberg, 2010). As an illustration, if lesson part-ners are asked to identify the three most significant details used toadvance an author’s argument in a section of an issue-based article, a
Kate Kinsella offers strategies to prepare adolescent English Learners for thecultural and linguistic demands of academic interactions
conscientious content and language mentor would pre-teach relevantskills and vocabulary for this reading standard, and provide appropri-ate sentence frames to guide students in accomplishing this linguisticfeat: e.g., One significant detail in this section is __; Another essentialdetail the author includes is __. As partners grapple with identifying rel-evant details and voicing their perspectives, the teacher wouldobserve student interactions, gauge both reading comprehension andlanguage accuracy, and offer timely and productive feedback.
Proponents of problem-based or inquiry learning may argue thatminimal guidance allows students to discover some or all of the con-cepts and skills they are expected to master. Students approaching achallenging task with conceptual voids, basic literacy skills, and ananemic command of academic language should not be routinelyexpected to collaboratively discover critical aspects of core curricu-lum they must master. Decades of research have clarified that fornovices in any subject matter, explicit instruction and meticulousmodeling are far more effective and efficient than limited or no guid-ance. Partner and group tasks can be most effective with disciplinaryneophytes — not as vehicles for making conceptual and linguisticdiscoveries, but as a means of applying and refining recently learnedcontent and skills (Clark, Kirschner & Sweller, 2012).
Potential English Learner Apprehensions aboutCollaborationMany English Learners will not immediately embrace classroom col-
laboration with unalloyed enthusiasm. In fact, some are more likely toreact with raised eyebrows and sighs at the prospect of a course ofstudy infused with participation in peer working groups. There arevarious reasons an EL may appear apprehensive about routinelybeing assigned to a seemingly random group of classmates to com-plete critical assignments. Some recent immigrants and internationalstudents come to U.S. secondary schools and colleges with years offormative education in another country. The majority of the newcom-ers I have served in my ESL courses have hailed from traditional edu-cational contexts in which instruction was habitually delivered in ateacher-fronted transmission mode. My culturally and linguisticallydiverse acolytes were accustomed to a highly respectful yet relativelypassive learning role: listening, appreciating, recording, memorizing,and recalling. While they may have conscientiously reviewed for a testafter school in the library with a classmate, they didn’t readily employthese productive collaboration skills in the classroom. Some actuallyvoiced concerns that their American instructors were quite remiss interms of curricular foundations and lesson preparation as they rou-tinely relied upon small-group learning to address lesson objectivesrather than informed, organized, and direct instruction. In essence,they viewed some instructors in their new school system as peda-gogical slackers not cutting edge constructivists.
The scores of U.S.-educated language minority students I haveinteracted with in classes and projects articulate additional reasonsfor their group-work angst. A recurring complaint from reticent collab-
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orators is the lack of procedural modeling, linguistic preparation, andin-process monitoring and support they receive to accomplishassigned tasks across the subject areas. Embarking upon a hastily-defined and preparation-free assignment with three hapless peersinvariably results in a less than laudable outcome. In one predictablescenario, perplexed collaborators remain in a state of inertia afterperusing the assigned exercise. After an uncomfortable silence, themost industrious scholar resorts to completing the task independentlywhile others observe passively. The lone group member who actuallyreflected and penned ideas thus becomes the default scribe andreporter. Convincing culturally and linguistically diverse students witha track record of similar uneventful or negative classroom collabora-tion that four heads are actually better than one requires more than lipservice testimonials about inquiry-based learning.
Gathering Student Input on Classroom Work StylePreferencesObtaining input on students perceived classroom work style strengthsand prior educational experiences with learning groups is a valuablepreliminary step in helping skeptical adolescent collaborators. Withoutsome working knowledge of students’ preferences and biasesregarding assignment completion, it is difficult for secondary educa-tors to anticipate potential pitfalls and offer a compelling pedagogicalrationale. I utilize two efficient tools to gain insights into my second-language students’ classroom collaboration narrative, while simulta-neously engaging them in metacognition, constructed writing, andprovocative academic discussion.
After reviewing my Academic English course objectives, I acknowl-edge that active participation in varied classroom learning formats is apriority. Since my primary responsibility is to advance their spokenand written English proficiency for academic success, I will structureample lesson opportunities for students to interact with a partner or agroup to maximize verbal engagement.
My initial assessment tool (See Table 1) is a brief academic writingand discussion prompt: What are the advantages and disadvantages ofcollaborative assignments? I preface the prompt by acknowledging thatas a student and colleague, I have certainly experienced group assign-ments that were wonderfully memorable and stimulating as well as
regrettable and unproductive. My aim as their second-language mentoris to structure promising and purposeful classroom collaboration thatenhances their content knowledge and English proficiency while equip-ping them with skills that will serve them well in school and work con-texts. To support students in constructing competent verbal and writtenresponses, I provide sentence frames with model responses and clarifythe grammatical target. Once students have completed their writtenobservations, I ask them to pair up with an “elbow partner” to voiceattributes and drawbacks using the sentence frames. This guided aca-demic interaction enables ELs to rehearse and refine ideas before thesubsequent unified-class discussion. Documenting and displaying theircontributions validates students’ experiences while encouraging themto entertain diverse points of view. Moreover, this collective contentserves as a springboard for my avowal to craft group assignments areat once clear, purposeful, interactive, and accountable, allowing themto reap the purported benefits of collaboration.
Another productive vehicle for obtaining input about students’ workstyle preferences is the Classroom Work Style Survey (Kinsella, 2006)downloadable at www.languagemagazine.com. I developed this class-room research instrument to offer my linguistically diverse secondarystudents a nonthreatening opportunity to articulate some of their gen-eral working habits and inclinations. After analyzing the class data, it isquite apparent which students have particularly strong biases in favorof completing lesson tasks independently, with a partner, or with agroup. The survey also sheds light on the students’ preferences withregard to selection and assignment of fellow collaborators.
Administering this survey to numerous classes, I have identified anumber of trends as well as surprises. A consistent finding, whether Iam teaching relative newcomers or long-term U.S. residents, is thatadolescent ELs appreciate having opportunities to work with a singlepartner more frequently than a group, if given the option. I share theirperspective that many collaborative tasks in a language developmentclass are more efficiently accomplished in a productive duo. By initial-ly structuring task-based interactions with single partners, I can buildboth skills and credibility for the process that can be leveraged later insmall groups. Another insight I have gleaned from U.S.-educatedbilinguals is that most actually prefer to have their instructor establishheterogeneous working groups. The common reasons are that theywant to meet students from different backgrounds, practice English,and stay focused on the task, but don’t want to run the risk of alien-ating their historical friends if they opt to work with classmates fromanother community. On the contrary, I have found that students inearly stages of English-language acquisition would generally rathercollaborate initially with familiar classmates from the same culturalbackground so they can rely on their primary language to solicit clari-fication or assistance.
Regardless of their level of English proficiency or cultural back-ground, students appreciate hearing the highlights of the class sur-vey. I display the most salient findings and emphasize that I willtake their feedback into careful consideration when designing inter-active lessons and assigning collaborators. Students appearrelieved and delighted to learn that some, if not a majority of, theirclassmates shared work style preferences, and that their teacher ispoised to strike a reasonable balance between independent, part-ner, and group tasks to help them become more flexible scholarsand valued colleagues.
Prompt: What are the advantages and disadvantages of collab-orative assignments?Frame 1: In my opinion, one potential advantage of workingcollaboratively is being able to __ (base verb: brainstorm, con-sider, divide).Model: In my opinion, one potential advantage of working col-laboratively is being able to ask a classmate for assistance if Iam having trouble with a part of the assignment.Frame 2: In my experience, one serious disadvantage of work-ing in some groups is having to __ (base verb: handle, com-plete, correct).Model: In my experience, one serious disadvantage of workingin some groups is having to encourage a classmate who is fool-ing around to concentrate on the task.
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Providing a Compelling Rationale for ClassroomCollaborationAdolescents approaching partner and group tasks with limited oruninspiring experiences will need a compelling rationale for collabora-tion within and beyond U.S. secondary school coursework. Studentsboasting an impressive academic track record, largely achieved inde-pendently, warrant the most informed and eloquent defense. Simplydisplaying the Common Core State Standards emphasis on “opportu-nities for classroom discourse and interaction” is not apt to makeself-directed academicians do a collaborative 360-degree about face.
First and foremost, educators across the disciplines must pointout the pivotal role academic interaction and productive task-basedlearning will play in their respective courses. Since the national stan-dards for listening and speaking call for cross-curricular initiatives todevelop students’ communicative strengths, it cannot be incumbentupon the ESL teacher or English Language Arts teacher to assumethe lion’s share of responsibility for addressing the pragmatics andlanguage skills for advanced academic discourse. ELs who hear con-sistent messages throughout the school day about the utility of col-laborative skills, coupled with a host of carefully-orchestrated experi-ences, are far more likely to let down their defenses and ultimatelyparticipate on equal footing with native English-speaking classmates.
In recent demonstration lessons for secondary school ELs, I havemade great inroads with skeptics and fragile collaborators alike by
sharing data from the Workforce Profile, an assessment of high priori-ty skills sought by a wide spectrum of U.S. businesses and industriesin new employees (available at www.workforce.com). According tothe survey results, the employees most valued by CEOs and humanresource directors are those who display a variety of “soft skills,”enabling them to grow and learn as the work environment changes.“Soft skills” are personality traits and abilities such as courtesy andflexibility deemed as important, if not more vital, than traditional tech-nical skills such as facility with creating spreadsheets or operating aparticular type of machinery. It is important to point out that at leastten out of the top twenty soft skills are directly related to success inclassroom collaboration, from eye contact to cooperation (See high-lighted skills in Table 2).
Introducing the 4 Ls of Productive PartneringSince my linguistically and culturally diverse classes have consistentlyvoiced a preference for regular partner tasks and occasional groupwork, I design structured partner interactions in every lesson for thefirst quarter. As a means of initiating language minority students to thesoft skills of academic interaction, I recommend enhancing your col-laboration campaign by introducing the “4 Ls of ProductivePartnering.” If students learn the body language and communicationskills of a productive partner, they will be well primed to segue tosmall group tasks.
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1. Begin by prominently displaying a visual highlighting the “4 Ls forProductive Partnering” (See Table 3 for an illustration).
2. Establish a rationale for partnering in your lessons. For example:My goal is to help prepare you for the communication demands ofsecondary school, college, the workplace, and formal contexts likespeaking to a job interviewer, bank manager, or police officer.Knowing how to interact with a classmate, coworker, supervisor orprofessor is essential to academic and professional success. Whenyou are communicating with a work partner at school or on the job, itis important to observe the “4 Ls of productive partnering.”
3. Model how to do each of the “4 Ls” using a student as your part-ner. Accompany your modeling with clear and compelling justification.Use the sample language provided to craft an appropriate rationalefor each “L.”■ Look at your partner’s eyes: In North America, eye contact signi-fies respect and active listening when two people are interacting.Maintaining eye contact indicates “I am paying attention to you.”Looking directly at the other speaker is critical at school, work,church, and other formal social contexts. Looking away or fiddlingwith something can readily signal that you are distracted or disinter-ested. That isn’t universal; in some cultures, eye contact may eitherbe unnecessary or a sign of disrespect if a child looks directly at anadult. In the U.S. workplace, eye contact is viewed by employers inmany different industries and businesses as one of the top ten “softskills” they seek in new employees (Point out the Workplace “SoftSkills”).
■ Lean toward your partner: Like eye contact, leaning toward some-one during a formal interaction indicates you are focused on whatthey are saying and not paying attention to other people or things.Just as you lean forward to focus a camera to take a close-up pictureof a person, leaning toward your partner shows that you are trying topay careful attention to his/her ideas. On the other hand, leaningback communicates that you could be bored, disinterested, or in dis-agreement with what your partner has just stated. ■ Lower your voice: Use a private, professional voice when interact-ing with a partner at school or work. Speak loudly and slowly enoughwith emphasis for your partner to easily hear and comprehend whatyou are saying, but not so loud that you are distracting or interruptinganyone nearby. Never whisper to your partner. Whispering is forsecrets and gossip. If you speak too softly, your partner will not beable to hear and remember what you are communicating. In collegeand the workplace, a soft, inaudible response during a group discus-sion is viewed as a lack of confidence and preparation. (See Table 4for the attributes of a private, professional voice.)■ Listen attentively to your partner: Your responsibility is to not onlyshare your perspective and contribute equally, but also understandand remember your classmate’s idea. (See Table 5, Language forAttentive Listening). If a close friend is showing you how to play anew video game but going too quickly, it is absolutely appropriate tosay “What? Slow down.” In school or the workplace, saying “Huh? Idon’t get it.” would be viewed as very causal and impolite. If youwere not able to catch what your partner said, ask him/her to repeator restate the idea. If you don’t quite understand the idea, askhim/her to explain it in more detail. To make sure you have truly
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Table 4 Attributes of a Professional Voice
Table 5 Language for Attentive Listening
Table 2 Top 20/60 Workplace “Soft Skills” Related to Collaboration
1. Basic math 11. Adaptability2. Safety 12. Follow rules3. Courtesy 13. Self-directed4. Honesty 14. Good attitude5. Grammar 15. Writing skills6. Reliability 16. Driver’s license7. Flexibility 17. Dependability8. Team skills 18. Advanced math9. Eye contact 19. Self-supervising10. Cooperation 20. Good references
Use Your Private, Professional Voice During AcademicCollaboration
A Private, Professional Voice:■ Move your hands away from
your face.■ Make eye contact.■ Speak 2x slower than you do
when you socialize.■ Speak loud enough to be heard over other classmates.■ Pause appropriately.■ Emphasize key words.
Everyday■ Huh?■ What?■ What do you mean?
■ I don’t get it.
Academic English■ Will you please repeat that?■ Will you please restate your idea?■ Can you explain what you mean
grasped the idea, repeat it using your own words. This shows thatyou care enough to get the idea right. You should understand yourpartner’s contribution well enough to be ableto report it confidently to the class.
4. Conclude by reviewing the responsibilitiesof productive partners in lesson collaboration(See Table 6, Productive PartnerResponsibilities).
Addressing the Language ofClassroom CollaborationDespite the complexities of daily classroomcommunication, all too frequently secondarystudents are placed into an interactive learn-ing format without having been prepared forthe linguistic demands of the task. English language developmentscholars (Dutro & Kinsella, 2010) and cooperative learning aficionados(Kagan, 1992) equally emphasize the importance of formally teachingnative English speakers and ELs the language functions they need tosuccessfully achieve an array of classroom communicative purposes.While content area colleagues may take time to pre-teach critical dis-ciplinary concepts before launching an applied collaborative task, thenuts and bolts of facilitating a discussion, synthesizing group ideas, orpolitely disagreeing are left to chance. Like other aspects of complex
curriculum, interactive language tools are best acquired in manageable,timely doses, with explicit guidance and modeling, rather than solely
through self-discovery. Over the course of a
semester, I plan my units ofstudy to include increasinglycomplex partner and grouptasks, often revisiting a vitallanguage function like clarify-ing contributions with moresophisticated phrasing. Onday one, I introduce the 4 Lsof productive partnering intandem with language forattentive listening. This initiallesson helps lay foundational
linguistic groundwork, establishing register distinctions between casu-al or everyday English and academic English. I want them to recog-nize that it is entirely appropriate to tell a close friend or trusted col-league “Huh? I don’t get it,” while emphasizing what a negativeimpact that phrasing is likely to have on a prospective employer,financial aid officer, or college professor. I also want students to grasptheir fundamental responsibility to lesson partners — to strive to trulyunderstand what their fellow collaborators are communicating andprovide constructive feedback. I point out that if you missed impor-tant information or didn’t understand your partner’s contribution, youmust ask for clarification or repetition, but never sit idle and passive,indirectly conveying indifference. When pressed to report a partner’sidea, many unsuspecting and inattentive classmates have sheepishlyconceded “I forgot,” “I’m not sure,” or “He never said anything.” In atechnical training, university seminar, or department meeting, this col-legial disregard would be viewed quite negatively.
Recognizing how linguistically ill-equipped my nascent collabora-tors tend to be, I have prepared a relevant starter package to assistthem with fundamentals of academic and professional team work.Working one-on-one with a lesson partner necessitates language forgathering, confirming, clarifying, rephrasing, and reporting contribu-tions (See Table 7, Language for Classroom Collaboration). To easethem into group work, I initially hold them responsible for productivelyinteracting with just one classmate in an array of structured tasksover the course of a unit of study. As I assign their initial task, Iaddress the importance of showing interest and respect for others’ideas by conscientiously gathering contributions. I model how to pro-ductively solicit input from a lesson partner or colleague by appearinggenuinely interested and asking “What do you think makes sense?”or “Do you have a suggestion?” I subsequently direct partner 1 to askpartner 2 to demonstrate authentic interest in partner 2’s perspectivesand ask a relevant question. In subsequent lessons, I introduce lan-guage for confirming and clarifying contributions so that by week’send, students not only recognize the importance of clearly communi-cating their own observations and perspectives but also soliciting,comprehending, and remembering their partner’s contributions.
Concluding RemarksAs we strive to implement new standards with a focus on career andcollege readiness, inter-disciplinary colleagues will have dual responsi-bilities to address complex subject matter standards while integrating
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Table 7 Language for Classroom Collaboration
Table 6 Productive Partner Responsibilities
Productive Partner Responsibilities
■ Contribute thoughtfully and audibly.■ Listen attentively to your partner’s ideas.■ Strive to understand your partner’s ideas.■ Provide constructive feedback.■ Let your partner know if you do not fully understand
his/her ideas.■ Remember you partner’s ideas.
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opportunities for diverse learners to flex their language musclesengaging in productive academic interactions. Imagine the collectiveimpact a school staff can have on under-resourced scholars and ELsif we each entered the classroom daily, conveying the enthusiasm forour field of study and linguistic acumen that originally propelled usinto the teaching profession.
ReferencesClark, R.E., Kirschner, P.A., & Sweller, J. (Spring 2012). “Putting stu-dents on the path to learning.” American Educator, 6-11.Common Core State Standards Initiative (2010). Common Core StateStandards for English language arts and literacy in history/social stud-ies, science, and technical subjects. Retrieved fromwww.corestandards.org/assets/CCSSI_ELA%20Standards.pdfDutro, S., & Kinsella, K. (2010). “English language development:Issues and implementation in grades 6-12” in Improving education forEnglish learners: Research-based approaches. California Departmentof Education.Foster, P., & Ohta, A. 2005. “Negotiation for meaning and peer assis-tance in second language classrooms.” Applied Linguistics, 26(3),402-430.Gersten, R., & Baker, S. (2000). “What we know about effective
instructional practices for English-language learners.” ExceptionalChildren, 66(4), 454-470.Kagan, S. (1992). Cooperative learning. Kagan Cooperative Learning.Kinsella, K. (1996). “Designing group work that supports andenhances diverse classroom work styles.” TESOL Journal, 6(1), 24-30.Nystrand, M. (1997). Opening dialogue: Understanding the dynamicsof language and learning in the English classroom. New York:Teachers College Press. Saunders, B., & Goldenberg, C. (2010). “Research to guide Englishlanguage instruction” in Improving education for English learners:Research-based approaches. California Department of Education.
Kate Kinsella, Ed.D. ([email protected]) is an adjunct faculty memberin San Francisco State University’s Center for Teacher Efficacy. Sheprovides consultancy to state departments of education throughoutthe U.S., school districts, and publishers on evidence-based instruc-tional principles and practices to accelerate academic English acqui-sition for language-minority youths. Her professional developmentinstitutes, publications and instructional programs focus on careerand college readiness for ELs, with an emphasis on academic lan-guage and high-utility vocabulary development, informational textreading, and writing.
The Common Core State Standards (CCSS, 2010) rollingout in 46 states aim to graduate all U.S. high school students with21st century communication and literacy skills, career and collegeready. These new national standards signal a pronounced shift in howacademic language and literacy instruction must be approached.Four particular competencies are emphasized that represent decided-ly new expectations for communication, reading, and writing develop-ment: 1) engaging with complex texts, with increased percentage ofinformational material; 2) conducting research and using evidencefrom diverse sources to construct verbal and written arguments; 3)participating in collaborative academic discussions and presentations;4) and developing the advanced language proficiency to accomplishall of the above tasks. In grades K-5, the standards detail competen-cies for students in the areas of speaking and listening, reading, andwriting that apply to all elementary subject areas. In grades 6-12, thestandards are divided into two major categories: those specificallyaddressing English language arts and those intended for histo-ry/social studies, science, and technical subjects.
The new standards accentuate that career and college readinessentails approaching text with “an appreciation of the norms and con-ventions of each discipline” (CCSS, p. 60) and writing with under-standing of distinct tasks, goals, and audiences (CCSS, p. 63). Thisshared responsibility for communication and literacy mentoring pres-ents novel opportunities and challenges for educators across the K-12 curriculum. Throughout the school day, students will rely on eachand every teacher to adeptly articulate, demonstrate, and coach thefoundational language and literacy skills of their discipline.
All Students are Academic English LearnersTeachers serving students from diverse linguistic, social, and eco-nomic backgrounds will be particularly challenged to help every learn-er meet the language demands of rigorous CCSS performance-
based assessments, including constructed written responses and for-mal presentations. When students are already grappling to demon-strate mastery of 20th century academic communication and founda-tional literacy skills, the prospect of preparing them for 21st centurycareer and college readiness can appear to be a Herculean if notSisyphean task. English learners and community dialect speakers willindeed require a more informed and concerted school-wide initiativeto develop the verbal skills of synthesis, interpretation, explanation,and persuasion they can leverage in academic interaction, reading,and writing. Oral language proficiency underscores advanced aca-demic literacy (August & Shanahan, 2006); Language-minority youthsunderstandably struggle to read and write what they cannot articulateverbally.
With the prospective CCSS assessments 2014 start date looming,school districts across the nation are making initial strides to gear upstaff and students alike. Widespread faculty preparations include con-ducting a standards gap analysis, revisiting Bloom’s Taxonomy, writ-ing depth of knowledge questions, and wedging in informational textsto augment an outdated literature-centric English language arts cur-riculum. While these curricular-focused preoccupations may serve tointroduce more conceptual and textual rigor into conventional les-sons, ramping up the level of text and task complexity alone will notensure positive outcomes for learners lacking academic languageproficiency. The CCSS speaking and listening standards call uponstudents to listen critically and participate in cooperative tasks withinall core content classrooms. They must articulate their text compre-hension, summarize, make inferences, and justify claims using com-plex sentences, precise vocabulary, and grammatical accuracy. Fromkindergarten to high school graduation, English learners and under-resourced classmates will require successful experiences engaging instructured, accountable academic interaction across the school dayto meet these performance expectations.
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CUTTING TO THE COMM
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Kate Kinsella recommends launchingan Academic Language Campaign to
prepare diverse learners for theCommon Core State Standards
DisruptingDiscourse
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They must also be exposed to an articulate command of Englishin every class and benefit from consistent school-wide academic lan-guage instructional principles and practices.
Ensuring that every student is well equipped with the linguisticresources to tackle grade-level curriculum and assessments in theCommon Core era is admittedly daunting. The language of schoolencompasses “words, grammar, and organizational strategies used todescribe complex ideas, higher-order thinking processes, andabstract concepts” (Zwiers, 2008). Academic language proficiency iswidely recognized as a pivotal factor in the school success of Englishlearners, and it has been increasingly cited as a major contributor toachievement gaps between language- minority students and Englishproficient students (Francis, Rivera, Lesaux, Kieffer, & Rivera, 2006).Students who use dialects or regional varieties of the English lan-guage that differ strikingly from the language of school are similarlydisadvantaged from the outset (Craig & Washington, 2004). Everychild is AELL, an academic English language learner, including thosefrom a home in which language usage maps more readily onto class-room contexts. However, youths with limited English proficiency, pri-mary language delays, or nonstandard dialects will arguably havemore acute and compelling academic oral language priorities asschools embark upon career and college readiness coursework.
Teaching Academic English by ExampleOne concrete and manageable way to begin addressing student lan-guage needs is to launch a school-wide academic English registercampaign. Instead of focusing immediately on faculty discussions ofstudents’ linguistic deficits or attributes, we can turn our attention toteachers’ and administrators’ adept and consistent modeling of aca-demic English language. When classes are comprised of studentswith differential exposure to advanced English vocabulary and sen-tence structures, it becomes all the more vital for teachers to serve as
proficient and unswerving academic language models. In manyschools, English learners and less proficient readers are surroundedby classmates equally challenged by academic language norms andconventions. For these students, the only reliable context for rich andvaried exposure to spoken English is the classroom. Teachers canfacilitate advanced English acquisition by serving as eloquent andarticulate users of both academic and social language. Using com-plete sentences, precise vocabulary, and a more formal register dur-ing lessons will model appropriate classroom language and create asupportive climate for second-language production and experimenta-tion.
In my role as a school consultant and instructional coach onEnglish language development in numerous states, I have becomeacutely aware of the countless register shifts students experiencethroughout the course of a school day. Many teachers segue routinelyfrom academic language use to casual vernacular, making it taxing forneophyte academic English speakers to get a handle on school-based language forms. As an illustration of instructional code-switch-ing, consider the linguistic impact when a teacher sets up a collabo-rative task in this manner: “OK, you guys. I need you to get in yourgroups right now and make sure you’ve got all your stuff out so youdon’t need to go back and get things later and bother anyone. Alrightkids, let’s look at your job. I need everyone to read the directions withme: Identify the most convincing evidence provided by the author tosupport his claim that cyberbullying is not adequately controlled onhigh school campuses.” Referencing students informally as “youguys” and “kids” cues informality as does use of imprecise terms like“stuff, “things, “bother” and “job.” Transitioning from processing verbaldirections posed in familiar social register to digesting written direc-tions and texts framed in sophisticated academic register is tanta-mount to a linguistic whiplash.
Chronic instructional code-switching serves as a confounding lin-
MMON CORE
guistic model; It also inadvertently prompts more informal student lan-guage use. When we address students during lessons using a famil-iar register, we tend to relax our physical stance and communicatenonverbally that we are interacting casually, triggering a reciprocalinformal student response. Nonverbal cues often accompany informalinstructional register, such as approaching a single student within alesson and speaking tête-á-tête (one-on-one) or sitting on a tablewith crossed legs while inviting additional contributions from the uni-fied class.
Launching an Academic Register CampaignAs purveyors of the language of school, teachers across the K-12spectrum must assume responsibility for exposing their learners tothe most articulate and imitable variety of English that will advancetheir command of academic register. Serving as a viable academiclanguage mentor begins with comprehending and successfully com-municating the meaning of register. A register is “the constellation oflexical (vocabulary) and grammatical features that characterizes par-ticular uses of language (Schleppegrell, 2001). In layman’s terms, aregister is the word choices, sentence types, and grammar used byspeakers and writers in a particular context or for a particular type ofpresentation or writing. In student-friendly terms, a register is the waywe use words and sentences to speak and write in different situationsor for different reasons.
Introducing the term register to K-12 students at any age withaccessible examples helps to concretize a potentially alien concept.This digitally-savvy generation of secondary school students fairlyreadily grasps the differences between the language one hastilyscribes to send a text message to a friend or family member (abbrevi-ated quotidian words and phrases, incomplete sentences, emoticons)and the more formal tone, complete sentences, and precise vocabu-lary one deploys in an e-mail message to a strict teacher attemptingto communicate a viable excuse for turning in a late high-stakesassignment. Elementary school students easily comprehend the dis-tinctions in the ways we would ask a grandparent, minister, or princi-pal for assistance as opposed to how we might ask a sibling or closefriend. Young language scholars in every grade tend to immediatelyrelate to analogies with formal and casual clothing choices. They rec-ognize the inappropriateness of appearing at a family wedding,church service, or formal dance attired in clothing more suitable forweekend chores or playing outside after school with neighborhoodfriends.
Discussions of register with students should be at once direct,nonjudgmental, and respectful. At no point should an educator everimply that home use of language is anything less than appropriate. Infact, the term “home language” is best left out of this candid conver-sation altogether. Students need to rest assured that having an agilecommand of “everyday English” is absolutely imperative if they wishto have friends and intimate relationships. It is the rare individual whoprefers to interact regularly with someone who only utilizes formalacademic English. Further, “everyday English” varies from one com-munity to another and moving fluidly within home and school environ-ments warrants being sensitive to language uses in different contexts.Clarifying register distinctions with developmentally-appropriate con-trasting terms helps learners at successive language proficiency andage levels continue to grapple with this essential linguistic concept(See Table 1).
CurriculumCurriculum
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Eliciting Academic Responses from StudentsAfter introducing the notion of register, an academic language mentorshould clarify for students the essentials of constructing an appropri-ate academic response. My experiences teaching first generation col-lege freshmen and adolescent English learners have made me keenlyaware of the fact that most have progressed in their schooling per-plexed by a teacher’s admonition to “respond in a complete sen-tence.” Consider this commonplace scenario. A social studiesteacher poses a discussion question to activate and build back-ground knowledge prior to assigning a chapter on recent U.S. immi-gration: What are common challenges faced by recent U.S. immi-grants? After allowing adequate wait time for individual reflection, theteacher asks a mixed-ability class comprised of native English speak-ers and English learners “Would anyone like to share?” When no oneimmediately steps up to the plate to offer a voluntary contribution, theteacher calls on students randomly. Typical responses include“English,” ”New foods,” and “Finding a job.” Probed to rephrase anexample in a complete sentence, a flummoxed contributor repliesinaudibly “It’s learning English.”
Despite our earnest efforts to elicit detailed and audible responses,few under-prepared students have figured out what we actually meanby “answer in a complete sentence.” What teachers across disci-plines anticipate is a complex statement incorporating precise vocab-ulary from the assigned question, for example, “One common chal-lenge faced by many recent immigrants is learning an entirely differentlanguage.” On the first day of my English language developmentclasses, I demystify this process for students while establishing myexpectations for active, responsible participation in unified-class andcollaborative discussions. I visibly display questions and appropriatecomplete responses as illustrated in Table 2. The inevitable questionarises: “Why didn’t my teachers show me how to do this years ago?”We simply can’t expect language-minority students to be armchairapplied linguists successfully deconstructing the nuances of school-based language.
CurriculumCurriculum
Everyday AcademicCasual/Informal FormalSpoken/Conversational WrittenPlayground ClassroomBasic AdvancedGeneral PreciseSlang/Inappropriate AppropriatePrivate/Familiar Public
Table 1 Terms to Discuss Register
Guiding Lesson QuestionWhat are potential advantages and disadvantages of collaborative assign-ments?
Incomplete Discussion Responses in Casual Conversational RegisterIt’s more interesting.
Having to work with someone who doesn’t do anything.
Complete Discussion Responses in Formal Academic RegisterIn my opinion, one potential advantage of working collaboratively is beingable to complete the assignment more efficiently.
Based on my classroom experiences, one serious disadvantage of workingcollaboratively is having to complete additional work for group memberswho don’t contribute.
Table 2 Demands of an Academic Register
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Using Appropriate Terms to Address Students and TeachersAnother practical way to increase the level of language formality indaily classroom interactions is to monitor the ways in which we referto students throughout a lesson. While coaching English languagedevelopment teachers in upper-elementary and secondary class-rooms, I have observed students immediately sit up and assume aprofessional demeanor when addressed as young “scholars” or “col-laborators,” and revert to a relaxed, disengaged posture when calledto attention as “kids” or “you guys.” I make a concerted effort toaddress my English language apprentices in varied ways dependingon the nature of our task. If I am guiding them in writing a brief con-structed response, I address them as “co-authors”. If we are analyz-ing data or evidence-based text, I refer to them as “investigators” or“scientists.” I also make a point to clarify for students the meanings ofthe terms I am using (See Table 3) and my rationale before encourag-ing them to demonstrate respect to fellow classmates by followingmy model and adopting these precise labels for academic and pro-fessional peers.
Similarly, students from all backgrounds benefit from learning howto properly address teachers, administrators, and other districtemployees throughout the school day. An essential component ofcareer and college readiness is recognizing how to address superiorswith the appropriate level of formality according to cultural norms.Because I regularly coach instructors on academic English instructionand provide demonstration lessons, language-minority students areoften baffled by the proper way to address me. They are apt to hearthe principal saying Professor Kinsella, their teacher calling me Dr.Kinsella, and a videographer getting my attention simply using my firstname Kate. After spending five days recently teaching adolescentEnglish learners for an instructional DVD, the students ended theweek endearingly but inappropriately addressing me as ProfessorDoctor Ms. Kate Kinsella after I had affectionately admonished anaïve devotee on day three for entering the classroom with the schoolsuperintendent present and greeting me with “What’s up, Doc?” I hadadvised them that it is always prudent to err on the side of formalityrather than to address an employer, school administrator, or collegeprofessor by their first name.
Utilizing Precise Academic Vocabulary throughout LessonsAn equally significant way to ramp up the register in daily instructionis to make mindful, meaningful word choices when assigning verbaldirections or eliciting verbal contributions throughout a lesson. As lan-guage role models, we are frequently guilty of employing genericvocabulary with the intent of eliciting precise academic responsesfrom students. We pose vague questions laden with imprecise termssuch as “What’s your idea?” Does anyone else want to share?” or“What answer did your group come up with?” Such generic ques-tions predictably elicit hastily conceptualized and briefly wordedresponses devoid of adept vocabulary use. Instead, we should be
Table 3 Terms to Refer to Students in Academic Register
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framing our questions very deliberately to focus students’ attentionand instill in them a sense of curricular urgency rather than compla-cency. Consider the lexical precision in the following questions: “Whatsignificant observation have you made about the impacts of chronicsleep loss?” or “What is your perspective on this controversial issue?”“Where did you identify the data that led you to draw this conclu-sion?” Focused questions interlaced with precise terminology supportstudents in comprehending our standards-based focus and implicitexpectations. Since the Common Core standards emphasize detaileddescriptions, in-depth analysis, evidence-based claims, and well-justi-fied arguments, we should draw from the 21st century literacy skillslexicon (Table 4) as we craft our pivotal lesson questions to guideinquiry and collaboration.
I train my academic English learners to pay careful attention to thewords I utilize in my lesson questions and demonstrate how torespond incorporating the focus task word. For example, when asked“From what source did you select this citation?,” “I expect moreadvanced students to respond in a complete sentence: “I selectedthis citation from...” Minimally, I coach students with nascent academ-ic English skills to listen attentively as I pose a lesson question, tunein to the target vocabulary (e.g., example, experience, prediction), andrespond beginning with the key term instead of the generic responseMy idea is…: e.g., My prediction is that…My example is…
Moving Toward Accurate FluencyAdvanced, if not native-like proficiency in English, is imperative forlanguage-minority youths whose educational and professional aspira-tions hinge upon communicative competence in the language ofschool and the professional workplace. Being able to converse inEnglish with relative ease is not a bold enough instructional goal. TheCommon Core State Standards, their assessments, and an increas-ingly sophisticated workplace exert tremendous pressures on lan-guage-minority and economically disadvantaged youth to developaccurate fluency, the ability to effortlessly produce error-free, contex-tually-appropriate language (Dutro & Kinsella, 2010). To actualize thegoal of 21st century literacy skills for our increasingly diverse studentpopulation, every K-12 educator will need to simultaneously teach rig-orous content while modeling and coaching adept academic Englishregister with integrity and tenacity.
ReferencesAugust, D., & Shanahan, T. (Eds.). (2006). Developing literacy in sec-ond language learners: Report of the national literacy panel on lan-guage-minority children and youth. Center for Applied Linguistics.Common Core State Standards (2010). “Applications of CommonCore State Standards for English language arts & literacy in histo-ry/social studies, science, and technical subjects.” Retrieved fromwww.corestandards.orgCraig, H.K. & Washington, J.A. (2004). “Grade-related changes in the
production of African American English.” Journal of Speech, Hearing,and Language Research, 47(3): 450-463.Dutro, S., & Kinsella, K. (2010). “English language development:Issues and implementation in grades 6-12.” In Improving educationfor English learners: Research-based approaches. CaliforniaDepartment of Education.Francis, D., Rivera, M., Lesaux, N., Kieffer, M., & Rivera, H. (2006).Practical guidelines for the education of English language learners:Research-based recommendations for instruction and academicinterventions. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Centeron Instruction. Schleppegrell, M.J. (2001). “Linguistic features of the language ofschooling.” Linguistics and education. 12(4): 431-459. Zwier, J. (2008). Building academic language: Essential practices forcontent classrooms, grades 5-12. Jossey-Bass.
Kate Kinsella, Ed.D. ([email protected]) is an adjunct faculty memberin San Francisco State University’s Center for Teacher Efficacy. Sheprovides consultancy to state departments of education throughout theU.S., school districts, and publishers on evidence-based instructionalprinciples and practices to accelerate academic English acquisitionfor language-minority youths. Her professional development institutes,publications, and instructional programs focus on career and collegereadiness for English learners, with an emphasis on high-utility vocab-ulary development, informational text reading, and writing.
