UNIT-1 Topic 1 (The Concept of Word Formation) Word formation In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. The boundary between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to define as a new use of an old word can be seen as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form. See 'conversion'. Types of Word formation processes Compounding Compounding forms a word out of two or more root morphemes. The words are called compounds or compound words. One word is added to another word to form compound words. For example: dog house, fireplace, cupcake Blending Blending is one of the most beloved of word formation processes in English. Blending is when parts of two separate words are combined to form a new word , it is Blending. For example: Motel – motor+hotel, Globlish – global+English Conversion The function of a word is changed without adding a prefix or a suffix. For example: Empty (as an adjective) I threw the papers in the empty bin. Empty (as a verb) please empty the bin once it is full. Question- Answers (2 marks) Q.1. Use the words in brackets to form a new word that fits into the gap. a) How long is the flight from Rome to Paris? (fly) b) I have a very good relationship with both my parents (Relation) Q.2 Create new words using the following words given: a) Shop + alcoholic = Shopaholic b) Emotion + icon = Emoticon Q.3 Add another word to the existing word to form compound words.
Transcript
UNIT-1
Topic 1 (The Concept of Word Formation)
Word formation
In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes
contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. The boundary
between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to define as a new use of an old
word can be seen as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form. See
'conversion'.
Types of Word formation processes
Compounding
Compounding forms a word out of two or more root morphemes. The words are called compounds or
compound words. One word is added to another word to form compound words.
For example: dog house, fireplace, cupcake
Blending
Blending is one of the most beloved of word formation processes in English. Blending is when parts of
two separate words are combined to form a new word , it is Blending.
For example: Motel – motor+hotel, Globlish – global+English
Conversion
The function of a word is changed without adding a prefix or a suffix.
For example: Empty (as an adjective) I threw the papers in the empty bin.
Empty (as a verb) please empty the bin once it is full.
Question- Answers
(2 marks)
Q.1. Use the words in brackets to form a new word that fits into the gap.
a) How long is the flight from Rome to Paris? (fly)
b) I have a very good relationship with both my parents (Relation)
Q.2 Create new words using the following words given:
a) Shop + alcoholic = Shopaholic
b) Emotion + icon = Emoticon
Q.3 Add another word to the existing word to form compound words.
a) Atom bomb
b) Home work
(4 marks)
Q.1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words derived from the ones given in brackets.
a) It is certainly colder today that it was yesterday (certain).
b) What nationality is he? Spanish or Portuguese? (nation)
c) You have the choice – You can either go by bus or walk (choose).
d) My best friend has a great personality. (Person).
Q.2. Construct new words using the separate words given:
a) television+broadcast = Telecast
b) breakfast+lunch = Brunch
c) smoke+fog = Smog
d) information+entertainment = Infotainment
Q.3. Construct sentences using conversions:
a) Swim (as a noun) They have a swim in the lake everyday in the evening.
Swim (as a verb) He swims in the lake every morning.
b) Walk (as a noun) I go for a walk in the nearby park every evening.
Walk (as a verb) They walk to school together.
Topic 2 (Root words from foreign languages)
A root (or root word) is a word that does not have a prefix in front of the word or a suffix at the
end of the word. The root word is the primary lexical unit of a word, and of a word family (this
root is then called the base word), which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content
and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents. Content words in nearly all languages contain,
and may consist only of, root morphemes. However, sometimes the term "root" is also used to
describe the word minus its inflectional endings, but with its lexical endings in place. For
example, chatters has the inflectional root or lemma chatter, but the lexical root chat. Inflectional
roots are often called stems, and a root in the stricter sense may be thought of as a
monomorphemic stem.
Greek Root Words
Root Meaning Example
1. Anti against antibacterial, antidote
2. Aqua water aquarium, aquatic
3. Auto self automatic, autobiography
4. Bio life biography, biology
Latin Root Words
Root Meaning Example
1. Ab to move away abstain, abstract
2. Audi hear audible, audience
3. Bene good benefit, benign
4. Circ round circus, circulate
5. Dict say dictate, dictionary
Question- Answers
(2marks)
Q.1 Construct new words using the following Greek root words:
Tele - telescope, television
Hydro - hydropower, dehydrate
Q.2 Make use of the following Latin root words to form new words:
Omni - omnipotent, omniscient
Dict - dictate, dictiona
Topic 3 (Acquaintance with prefixes and suffixes from foreign languages in English to form derivatives)
PREFIX
A prefix is a letter or a group of letters that attaches to the beginning of a word and helps to indicate or modify its meaning. Eg.
Topic 4 (Synonyms, Antonyms, Use of Standard Abbreviations, Punctuation) Antonyms Antonyms can be used to demonstrate contrast between two things or provide clues as to what is meant. Here are some examples of antonyms:
For Example: Achieve – Fail, Giant – Dwarf, Random - Specific , Afraid -- Confident Synonym A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language. For Example: Amazing: astounding, surprising, stunning
Annihilation: destruction, carnage, extinction
Benefit: profit, revenue, yield
Brave: courageous, valiant, heroic
Cohesive: united, connected, close-knit
Use of Standard Abbreviations
An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase, by any method. It may consist of a group of letters, lower case letters do count or words taken from the full version of the word or phrase, for example, the word abbreviation can itself be represented by the abbreviation abbr., abbrv., or abbrev. It may also consist of initials only, a mixture of initials and words, or words or letters representing words in another language
(for example, e.g., i.e. or RSVP, COL, SAARC
Punctuation
Punctuation (formerly sometimes called pointing) is the use of spacing, conventional signs, and certain typographical devices as aids to the understanding and correct reading of written text, whether read silently or aloud. There are 14 punctuation marks that are commonly used in English grammar. They are the period, question mark, exclamation point, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, hyphen, parentheses, brackets, braces, apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis.
Question – Answers
(2marks)
Q.1. Write full forms of the given abbreviations:
LAN – Local Area Network
CV – Curriculum Vitae
Q.2. Write the synonyms of : (remember)
Enormous: huge, gigantic, massive
Young: budding, fledgling,tenderfoot
Q.3. Write the antonyms of : (remember)
Crooked: Straight
Triumph: Defeat
(4 marks)
Q.1. Punctuate the following sentences: a) When I was a child I could watch TV whenever I wanted to b) I dont like this one bit said Julia c) Looking straight at her he said I cant help you d) We were believe it or not in love with each other
Answers: a) When I was a child, I could watch TV whenever I wanted to. b) ‘I don’t like this one bit,’ said Julia. c) Looking straight at her, he said, ‘I can’t help you.’ d) We were, believe it or not, in love with each other.
Q.2. Fill in the blanks with the words opposite in meaning to those given in brackets. (understand)
1. He (often)visits me but I rarely go to his house. 2. He is (brave) but his brother is fearful. 3. An airplane consumes more fuel while (ascending) than while descending 4. Tigers are very (common) in Kerala but lions are rare
Topic 5 (Sentence Structure, Phrases& Clauses and their use in sentences)
Sentence Structure
A sentence is a group of words that makes sense on its own.
For example: Naz went to the shops.
A sentence always has a subject (‘Naz’) and a verb (‘went’).
Various types of sentences
Simple sentences: A simple sentence is an independent clause with no conjunction or dependent
clause.
Compound sentences: A compound sentence is two independent clauses joined by a
conjunction (e.g., and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so).
Complex sentences: A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. The clauses in a complex sentence are combined with conjunctions and
subordinators, terms that help the dependent clauses relate to the independent clause.
Subordinators can refer to the subject (who, which), the sequence/time (since, while), or the
causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.
Compound-complex sentences: A compound-complex sentence contains multiple independent
clauses and at least one dependent clause. These sentences will contain both conjunctions and
subordinators.
Phrases& Clauses and their use in sentences
Clause
A clause is a group of words in a sentence which contains a subject and a verb.
Example: The boy is playing.
In the above simple sentence, boy is the subject and playing is the verb so the part boy is
playing is a clause because it has both subject and verb.
Phrase
A phrase is a group of words in a sentence that does NOT contain a subject and a verb.
In other words, in a sentence, one part with subject and verb is a clause while the rest of
it without those two parts of speeches is a phrase.
Example:
On the wall, in the water, over the horizon.
All of the above examples are parts of different sentences which are void of a subject and verb
Subject-Verb Agreement Just like personal pronouns, verbs also have three persons – the first, the second and the third. The verb should be of the same person as the subject. 1. If the subject is singular/Plural, the verb must be singular/plural. Eg. The child is crying. The children are crying. 2. Two or more singular subjects joined by ‘and’ usually take a plural verb. Eg. The old lady and
her son have nothing to eat. 3. But if two subjects joined by ‘and’ and refer to the same person, idea or thing, we must use
the singular verb Eg. My friend and guide has died. Slow and steady wins the race. 4. When two subjects joined by ‘and’ are preceded by each or every, the verb must be in the
singular. Eg. Every boy and every girl was punished. Each night and each day reminds me of my friend. 5. When two or more singular nouns are joined by, or, nor, either or neither, the verb will be in the singular. Eg. Either Nirmal and Raghu has done it. Neither Rahul nor Rohit is going for a picnic.
Noun- Pronoun Agreement 1. Pronoun ‘one’ must be followed by ‘one’s. One must do one’s duty to one’s country. 2. When ‘one’ means number – pronoun will be 3rd person singular. (he, she, it) a. One of them has given up his/her studies. 3. ‘Everyone’ or ‘everybody’ must be followed by his’. a. Everyone should love his country. 4. Each, every, anyone, anybody must be followed by ‘singular pronoun’. a. Anyone can do this
if he tries. 5. Verbs like enjoy, avail, pride, resign, apply, absent, acquit, assert, are followed by reflexive pronouns. a. We enjoy ourselves at the party. He resigned himself to the fate. 6. When 1st, 2nd, 3rd person singular pronouns are used together (I, you, he)they are placed in the order ‘You, he and I’. You, he and I are neighbours. 7. When 1st, 2nd and 3rd person are plural pronouns (we, you, they) they are placed in the order we, you, they. We, you and they must work together. 8. If there are only 2 persons including 1st, then first person is written first. I and Neha have done this job. 9. ‘Who’ denotes subject and ‘whom’ denotes objects. a. Who do you think did the job? Whom
did you abuse?
Question - Answers
(2marks)
Q.1 Fill in the blanks using correct form of the verb in brackets.
1. Each of the children was given a prize.(was/were)
2. What they want to do is to start a new business. (is/are)
Q.2. Fill in the blanks with the pronoun that corresponds to the noun in the sentence.
1. One must do one’s duty to one’s country
2. Anyone can do this if he tries.
(4marks)
Q.1. Choose the correct form of the verb in brackets.
1. Most of the furniture is very old. (Is/are) 2. Writing essays requires a lot of skill. (Require/requires) 3. The people who have invited me to inaugurate the exhibition want me to write an article
about it. (Want/wants) 4. Neither of the stores I visited today is open. (Is/are)
UNIT-2
Topic 1 (Articles)
An article is a word that modifies or describes the Noun. It is used before the noun to show
whether it refers to something specific or not. So, in a way, articles can also be described as a
type of adjectives as they also tell us something about the nouns, like adjectives.
Points to remember
1. a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a bag; apen, etc.
2. an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an egg; an orphan, etc.
3. a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound:user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e., gives a 'y'
sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a European, etc.
4. an + nouns starting with silent "h": an hour; an honest man, etc.
Question-- Answers
(2marks)
Q.1.Fill in the blanks using the appropriate articles:
1. The Bible is a holy book.
2. Gold is the most Precious metal
(4 marks)
Q.1. Identify the error in the use of articles / insert the suitable articles if required
a) Almighty will guide us
Ans. The Amighty will guide us.
b) He worships the God and the nature.
Ans. He worships God and nature.
c) the Union is Strength
Ans. Union is strength
d) Taj Mahal is a beautiful building
Ans. The Taj Mahal is a beautiful building.
Topic 2 (Prepositions)
A preposition is a word that explains the time, space or logical relationship between the other
parts of the sentence. In other words, it links all the other words together, so the reader can
understand how the pieces of the sentence fit. There are hundreds of prepositions in the English
language. One easy way to remember prepositions is that they are words that tell you
everywhere. For example: Up, down, near, far, by, at, and around, close, always etc.
Here are some examples of commonly-used prepositions:
About, above, across, after, against, along ,behind,below,beneath,beside, besides, between,
down, during, except, for, from, in, off, on, onto, opposite, out, outside, till, to, toward, under,
underneath, until, with, within, without etc.
Prepositions don't stand alone. They work in groups of words that we call prepositional phrases.
Aprepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun. That noun is called the
object of the preposition
Question-- Answers
(2marks)
Q.1 Identify the error in the use of prepositions / insert the suitable prepositions
if required:
1. Renu resembles with her mother
Ans. Renu resembles her mother
2. He reached at the station late.
Ans. He reached the station late
(4 marks)
Q.1 Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions
1. He is very fond of music
2. He objected to his remarks.
3. Is she satisfied with my work
4. I want to get rid of him
Topic 6 (Creating Coherence and Cohesive Devices)
CREATING COHERENCE
Coherence in writing is the logical bridge between words, sentences, and paragraphs. Coherent
writing uses devices to connect ideas within each sentence and paragraph. Main ideas and
meaning can be difficult for the reader to follow if the writing lacks coherence.
Some tips for making our writing coherent between words, sentences, and paragraphs.
Coherence between Words
Between each word, coherence can be created by parallelism. Parallel structure means using
similar grammatical constructions between words in sentences. Parallelism is particularly
important for words in lists. If you're writing a list of things someone likes to do, then each
activity in the list should take the same grammatical form. For instance, if one verb in the list
takes on the '-ing' gerund form, like 'running,' then the other verbs in the list should also be in the
gerund form. An incoherent structure would be to say:
Sarah likes to jump, running, and skate.
Instead, the list should be parallel like this:
Sarah likes jumping, running, and skating.
Question-- Answers
(2marks)
Q.1. What is coherence? What is its use in writing?
Ans. Ans. Coherence in writing means the smooth flow of ideas and sentences in a piece of
writing. It is achieved when ideas and sentences are connected and allow the reader to move
easily throughout the essay from one idea to the next, from one sentence to the next and from
one paragraph to the next.
Coherence makes a text easy to read and understand. A good writer has a sense of, what
questions readers may have in mind. Good writers also know how to link sentences together in a
logical and orderly way.
Q.2. What are Cohesive devices?
Ans. Cohesive devices are linking words or connectors which tell us the relationship between
sentences and also help joining sentences together.Cohesive devices, sometimes called linking
words, linkers, connectors, discourse markers or transitional words.
Cohesive Devices are words or phrases that show the relationship between paragraphs or
sections of a text or speech.
Cohesive devices are words like ‘For example‘, ‘In conclusion‘, ‘however‘ and ‘moreover‘.
Q.3. Select a suitable linking word to complete the following sentences. 1. Many students in rural areas do not get access to quality education. Consequently they
struggle to find well-paid jobs after graduating from university.
2. Because of the impacts of global warming, Vietnam has witnessed an increasing number
of hurricanes over the past few years.
Topic 5 (Clichés and Redundancies)
Redundancy Sometimes people tend to clutter up their writing with unnecessary words of phrases. Good writing is concise and informative. When something is redundant, it means that it is excessive, unnecessary, or superfluous. Redundancy usually involves repeating something or adding in information that is completely unnecessary. Not all usages of redundancy are bad. In fact, there are many instances where redundancy is considered to be okay, such as when a person is using it for emphasis. In most occasions though, especially when a person is being redundant without realizing it, it’s bad.
Common Examples of Redundancy
There are dozens of redundant phrases that people use constantly without realizing. Below you will see some redundant phrases and why they are repetitive. Actual Fact: A fact is by definition something that has already been confirmed to have
happened.
Forever and Ever: forever is completely unnecessary as it just serves as a duplicate of
forever.
Major breakthrough: breakthrough is already major and significant. There is no reason to say
that it is major.
Past history: By definition, history is someone’s past. Saying that a person “checked your past
history” or “Look into his past record” is redundant since these things have already happened
and are by definition an occurrence in the past.
Question Answers
(2 marks)
Q.1 What do you understand by Clichés? (remember)
Ans. Cliché refers to an expression that has been overused to the extent that it loses its original meaning or novelty. A cliché may also refer to actions and events that are predictable because of some previous events.
All examples of cliché are expressions that were once new and fresh. They won popularity in the public and hence have been used so extensively that such expressions now sound boring and at times irritating, due to the fact that they have lost their original colour.
Q.2. What are some common clichés?
Ans. Actions speak louder than words. ... The grass is always greener on the other side. ... The apple doesn't fall far from the tree. ... You can't judge a book by its cover. ... You can't please everyone. ... What doesn't kill you makes you stronger. ... Q.3. How can we stop using clichés?
Ans. A person can think about what the cliché actually means. The key words that come to the mind can be the synonyms or ingredients of the overall meaning. These keywords or synonyms can be used to replace the cliché. Since the clichés are sometimes used just to maintain the flow of speech, one should check if the expression is required at all. If the cliché is not required, It should be removed altogether. The sentence can be rewritten after removing the cliché.
Q.4. How can the cliché “in this day and age” be avoided in the following sentence? In this day and age, websites are one of the most significant public faces of any organisation. Ans. Today, websites are one of the most significant public faces of any organisation.
(4marks)
Q.1 Rewrite the sentences by eliminating the unnecessary words( redundancy) from the following
sentences. (evaluate)
1. You must first do this before you go You must do this before you go
2. The flight will arrive at 7 p.m. in the afternoon. The flight will arrive at 7 p.m.
3. He carefully examined each and every letter. He carefully examined each letter.
4. Frank was elected as Chairman unanimously by all members. Frank was elected as Chairman unanimously.
Topic 4 (Misplaced Modifiers)
A misplaced modifier is just that—a modifier (a describer) that is misplaced (separated) from the
word it describes. This could mean that the modifier is in the wrong place in the sentence or that
the word the modifier should describe is omitted from the sentence.
In English, modifiers are placed immediately before or after the word(s) they describe. When a
modifier is misplaced, it becomes difficult to tell which word(s) it describes.
Example with correctly placed modifier:
Loud singing annoys you quickly.
Here, it is clear that you are quickly annoyed.
Examples with misplaced modifier:
Loud singing quickly annoys me.
Here, it is unclear if quickly modifies loud singing or if it modifies how fast you are annoyed.
Question-- Answers
(2marks)
Q.1. Define misplaced modifiers.
Ans. A misplaced modifier is just that—a modifier (a describer) that is misplaced (separated)
from the word it describes. This could mean that the modifier is in the wrong place in the
sentence or that the word the modifier should describe is omitted from the sentence.
In English, modifiers are placed immediately before or after the word(s) they describe. When a
modifier is misplaced, it becomes difficult to tell which word(s) it describes.
Q.2. What do you understand by dangling modifiers?
Ans. A dangling modifier does not have anything to modify because the word or words it should
modify have been omitted from the sentence.
These sentences should be restructured to include the words the modifiers describe.
Dangling Modifier Examples:
Incorrect: Reading the hotel’s restrictions, my dog stayed at home.
The dog cannot read the signs; the word(s) “reading the hotel’s restrictions” modifies have been
omitted
Correct: Reading the hotel’s restrictions, we left my dog at home.
“Reading the hotel’s restrictions” now modifies “we”.
Q.3. What are squinting modifiers?
Ans. A squinting modifier is usually an adverb which could easily modify the word that comes
before or after it.
These sentences should be restructured so it is clear which word or words the modifier describes.
Squinting Modifier Examples:
Incorrect: Running through the forest immediately exhausted the dog.
Did the dog run immediately or did running immediately exhaust him?
Correct: Running through the forest exhausted the dog immediately.
Q.4. What are limiting modifiers?
Ans. Limiting modifiers express some sort of “limit.” They should come directly before the word
they modify in a sentence.
The most common limiting modifiers are: almost, hardly, just, merely, nearly, and only.
Limiting Modifier Examples:
Trying to say that the one food Michelle eats is pizza
Incorrect: Only Michelle eats pizza.
Correct: Michelle eats only
Trying to say that George does not know many people
(4marks)
Q.1. Correct any misplaced modifiers in the following sentences.
1. Looking from my bedroom window, the horses frolicked in the meadow.
2. This bank accepts deposits from elementary school children of any size.
3. Oozing across the floor my mother gazed with dismay at the contents of the broken jars.
4. The landlord told all the tenants he was raising their rent yesterday.
Answers:
1. Looking from my bedroom window, I watched the horses frolicking in the meadow.
2. This bank accepts deposits of any size from elementary school children.
3. My mother gazed with dismay at the contents of the broken jars oozing across the floor.
4. Yesterday the landlord told all the tenants he was raising their rent.
Mechanics of writing Mechanics of writing refer to writing precisely. Mechanics in writing includes usage of correct spelling, as well as hyphenation and the use of italics. Thus mechanics refers to a set of rules how to abbreviate and when to capitalize etc. Creation of an effective Introduction An effective introduction is one that includes a “hook” an attention grabbing statement. One
can make introduction effective by a) Stating an interesting fact about the topic b) By Asking a rhetorical question c) Revealing a common misconception about the topic d) By sharing an anecdote or a humorous instance
Defining and Describing Defining and describing are generally taken to be synonymously but there is a difference between the two. Defining means limiting the meaning to something specific. When a concept is defined by creating a boundry of meaning around it. The word „describe” has its roots in the Latin word describere which means "to write down.”
But it doesn‟t have to be written down always. Thus describing something refers going into the details of that concept. It includes discussing the attributes, features or components .There are certain things or situations that can only be described but cannot be defined. For Example
• A cell can be defined as the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms, but to describe it you will have to give its components, structures, processes etc.
• And on the contrary, you can describe the view from your window but you can‟t define that.
Major mechanics of writing Ans. Mechanics of writing plays a very crucial role in make writing effective and decipherable. There are significant factors that should be taken into account to make writing reader oriented and precise.
Paragraph structure: Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that provides an overall understanding of the paragraph. Each paragraph should be woven around a single theme or conclusion, the topic sentence states that theme or conclusion.
Sentence length: Sentences should be kept as short as possible so that their structure is simple and readable. Long sentences require complex construction, provide an abundance of opportunity for grammatical errors. Simple sentences are easy to read and comprehend.
Pronouns: There is no room for any ambiguity between a pronoun and the noun for which it is used. Novice commonly use "it", "this", "that", etc., where it would be better to use one of several nouns. It may be clear to the writer, but it is often ambiguous to the reader. In general, Personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, my, mine, our, us) are not used in technical reports.
Spelling and punctuation: the writing should be free from spelling mistakes. The spellings used should be consistent throughout the writing. Errors in these basic elements of writing in the final draft of the report cannot be ignored. Thus these above discussed factors are really crucial and significant to make written document worth reading and error free.
Tense: use the following rules when choosing the tense of the verb when writing o Past tense: Use to describe work done when you building or designing, or in
general to the past events. o Present tense: Use in reference to items and ideas in the report itself o Future tense: Use in making prediction from the data or results that will be
applicable in the future. Significance of Introduction and Conclusion
An introduction is typically the first paragraph of your paper. The goal of your introduction is to let your reader know what he or she can expect from your paper. While there is no one formula for writing a good introduction, in general, an introduction should do the following:
1. Attract the Reader’s Attention The introduction should always have a “hook” or an attention grabbing statement. Hook can
be introduced by :
Stating an interesting fact or statistic about your topic Ask a rhetorical question Revealing a common misconception about your topic Set the scene of your story: who, when, where, what, why, how? Share an anecdote (a humorous short story) that captures your topic
2. State Your Focused Topic After your “hook”, write a sentence or two about the specific focus of your paper. What is
your paper about? Why is this topic important? This part of the introduction can include background information on your topic that helps to establish its context.
3. State the Thesis Finally include the thesis statement. The thesis should be:
Topic specific It should include the main point about that topic It should contain the points of discussion you will include in your paper The thesis should be clear, and easy to find. Most often, it is the last sentence of the
introduction
4. Conclusions
A conclusion works to remind the reader of the significant ideas , points of your paper and summarizes what you want your reader to “take away” from your discussion. These points can be Considered to make conclusion effective:
Begin with your rephrased thesis statement to remind the reader of the point of your paper.
Summarize the points you made in your paper and to show how they support the argument
Make a recommendation of what your reader should "do" with the information you just gave them, or share the importance of the topic.
Paragraph Writing
“A paragraph is a unit of written discourse with one or more than one sentence woven around a central idea. The main idea is usually given in the topic sentence (the sentence that talks about the topic of the paragraph). The basic rule of paragraph writing is that it focuses on one idea only. This idea is further elaborated with supporting details in other sentences in the form of suitable examples, proofs, statistical details, anecdotes etc. The paragraph normally ends with a concluding statement which rephrases the main idea powerfully.”
Basic structure of a paragraph
“The structure of a coherent paragraph includes- Introduction, Body and Conclusion. Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in communicating the meaning you intend to convey to the reader.”
“Introduction: the first section of a paragraph includes - the topic sentence which focuses on the main idea. The first few sentences also provide background information about the topic.
Body: follows the introduction; the topic sentence is followed by supporting sentences that develop the idea using facts, arguments, analysis, examples, and other information.
Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the information discussed in the body of the paragraph and add a concluding sentence to tie up all together.”
Techniques for Writing
“Effective writing allows the reader to understand everything you are saying. Following are the tips for writing precisely:
1. Clarity: Know the purpose of your writing and state it clearly. Your purpose needs to be stated in the communication. Avoid information that is not relevant.
2. Tone: The kind of tone depends on the audience and purpose of writing. Official and Business letters need a formal tone whereas writing to someone you know well; an informal tone can be used.
3. Language: Language needs to be simple. Do not overuse clichés, expressions or try to impress with big words. Keep sentences and paragraphs short and concise.
4. Conciseness: Less is more when it comes to length. Leave out words that do not contribute to the main focus of the communication.
5. Active Voice: Using an Active voice will strengthen your writing. Sentences that are written in the Active voice have a better flow and are easier to understand. Long and complicated sentences will slow the reader down. Eg.”
“An active example is "I caught the ball."
A passive example is " A ball was caught by me."
Active voice will engage the reader and keep his attention.”
6. “Communication: The social purpose of language is communication – to inform, misinform or otherwise influence our fellows.
7. Emphasis: The art of writing depends a good deal on putting the strongest words at the most important places to emphasize your points of view.
8. Honesty: Writing reveals your character. So, adopt an honest style to writing. 9. Reading: One learns to write by reading good books just like one learns to talk by hearing
good talkers. 10. Revision: Revise your work thoroughly before making the final draft.”
Reading Comprehension
Reading Comprehension is to comprehend means ―to understand and grasp. A comprehension
exercise is, therefore, meant to test a candidate‘s ability to understand and retain the contents of a
given passage. Comprehension is an important part of general English paper. The questions on
comprehension lay particular stress on understanding a given passage.
Strategies of reading comprehension:
Scan: quickly scan the document for the overall view.
Question: check the questions thoroughly before reading the comprehension passage.
Read: start reading following the skimmimg stage.
Reread: again read the passage to answer the questions.
Recheck: Throughly check all the questions and their answers once again.
Examples:
Read the following comprehension passage and answer the following questions.
Sportsmanship
Sportsmanship can be conceptualized as an enduring and relatively stable characteristic or
disposition such that individuals differ in the way they are generally expected to behave in sports
situations. In general, sportsmanship refers to virtues such as fairness, self-control, courage, and
persistence, and has been associated with interpersonal concepts of treating others and being
treated fairly, maintaining self-control if dealing with others, and respect for both authority and
opponents. Sportsmanship is also looked at as being the way one reacts to a sport/game/player.
The four elements of sportsmanship are often shown being good form, the will to win, equity and
fairness. All four elements are critical and a balance must be found among all four for true
sportsmanship to be illustrated. These elements may also cause conflict, as a person may desire
to win more than play in equity and fairness and thus resulting in a clash within the aspects of
sportsmanship. This will cause problems as the person believes they are being a good sportsman,
but they are defeating the purpose of this idea as they are ignoring two key components of being
sportsman like. When athletes become too self-centred, the idea of sportsmanship is dismissed.
Today's sporting culture, in particular the base of elite sport, places great importance on the idea
of competition and winning and thus sportsmanship takes a back seat as a result. In most, if not
all sports, sportsmen at the elite level make the standards on sportsmanship and no matter
whether they like it or not, they are seen as leaders and role models in society.
Since every sport is rule driven, the most common offence of bad sportsmanship is the act of
cheating or breaking the rules to gain an unfair advantage. A competitor who exhibits poor
sportsmanship after losing a game or contest is often called a "sore loser", while a competitor
who exhibits poor sportsmanship after winning is typically called a "bad winner". Sore loser
behavior includes blaming others for the loss, not accepting responsibility for personal actions
that contributed to the defeat, reacting to the loss in an immature or improper fashion, making
excuses for the defeat, and citing unfavourable conditions or other petty issues as reasons for the
defeat. A bad winner acts in a shallow fashion after his or her victory, such as by gloating about
his or her win, rubbing the win in the face(s) of the opponent(s), and lowering the
opponent(s)'s self-esteem by constantly reminding the opponent(s) of "poor" performance in
comparison (even if the opponent(s) competed well). Not showing respect to the other team is
considered to being a bad sportsman and could lead to demoralizing effects; as Leslie Howe
describes: "If a pitcher in baseball decides to pitch not to his maximum ability suggest that the
batter is not at an adequate level, it could lead to the batter to have low self-confidence or worth.
Answer the following questions after reading the passage:
Q1.What is the idea of sportsmanship according to the author?
Ans Sportsmanship refers to virtues such as fairness, self-control, courage, and persistence, and
has been associated with interpersonal concepts of treating others and being treated fairly,
maintaining self-control if dealing with others, and respect for both authority and opponents
Q2.Which are the four elements of sportsmanship given in the passage?
Ans Being in good form, the will to win, equity and fairness are the four essential elements of
sportsmanship.
Q3.Why has sportsmanship taken a backseat today?
Ans.Today's sporting culture places great importance on the idea of competition and winning and
thus as a result sportsmanship takes a back seat.
Q4.When does the spirit of sportsmanship die?
Ans. Sportsmanship dies when the sportsman becomes too self-centered.
Read the following comprehension passage and answer the following questions
The Indian youth is accused of being impatient, undisciplined, disrespectful to the elders and
irresponsible towards society and authority. It was felt that to curb these tendencies the youth
required to be motivated in nation-building activities and made responsive to the social concerns.
For this purpose, National Service Scheme (NSS) was introduced in 1969. Its main aim was to
involve the students of the colleges and +2 level on voluntary and selective basis in programmes
of social services and developmental activities. Gradually it was adopted by all the states and
union territories. Today it covers more than 5000 colleges all over the country. Under this
scheme, rural and slum reconstruction, repair of roads, school buildings, ponds, tanks, plantation
of trees, environment protection, health and family planning and education of adults and women
are undertaken. The NSS students aid local authorities in implementing various relief and
rehabilitation schemes. In the times of natural calamities like famines, floods, droughts,
epidemics and earthquakes volunteers helped by NSS students play a very positive and
constructive role. It instills in them the spirit of social service and the sense of responsibility.
The tribal youth are given vocational training under a special scheme to enable them to become
self-employed. Then, there are youth hostels set up all over the country to provide cheap
accommodation to the youth to inspire them into undertaking educational tours and excursions to
visit the cultural and historic sites to revisit our glorious past. 446 Nehru Yuvak Kendras strewn
around the country provide vocational training to non-student rural youth and improve their
personality. ‘Bharat Scouts and Guides’ and ‘All India Boy Scouts Association’ are teaching
Indian youth the importance of loyalty and goodwill for others under International scouting and
guiding movement.
Questions
1. What are Indian youth accused of?
Ans.The Indian youth are blamed for impatience, indiscipline, irreverence to seniors and
disrespect to rules and authority.
2. What scheme was introduced to involve students in social service and developmental
activities?
Ans. National Service Scheme which in short is NSS.
3. What works are undertaken under this scheme?
Ans. Reconstruction in rural and slum areas, repair of roads, school buildings, tanks, village
ponds, tree plantation, environment protection, health and family planning, adult education
and rendering help during natural calamities.
4. For what purpose youth hostels with cheap accommodation are set up?
Ans.Youth hostels are set up to encourage students to set out on educational tours and visit
the places of historic or cultural importance.
Topic - Precis Writing
Writing a precis means making an intelligent summary of a long passage. To write a precis one
should have a clear understanding of the passage: only then well one be able to include all the
essential points and tips and tricks of essay examples in the precis.
Some general considerations:
It is generally accepted that a precis should be a third of the passage given. If the original
passage has 300 words, the precis should not be more than 110 words in length.
A precis should be in the language of the precis-writer. The original passage is not to
be reduced in length by just removing unimportant or unnecessary sentences and by
reproducing the rest as the precis. It should be a brief gist or summary of the passage
expressed in the writer’s own words.
A precis should be full i.e. it should contain all the essential thoughts, ideas or fact
inthe original passage. It should not contain repetitions or observations that are not
relevant to the main theme of the original.
A precis is always written in Reported Speech. The passage given may be a speech
made by a person in Direct Speech, but the precis is to be in Reported Speech and in
the Third Person and in the Past tense.
Techniques of Precis Writing
There three kinds of work to be done in producing a clear and successful precis. They are:
1) Reading,
2) Writing and
3) Revision.
Reading
Read the passage carefully. If one reading is not enough to give you a general idea of its
meaning, then read it a second time. As you read, find out the subject or the theme of the passage
and what is said about the subject.
It will be a good thing if you find out the lead or the topic sentence. The lead sentence will help
you to see the subject clearly.
Writing
You should first prepare a draft of the precis, keeping in mind, the need to reduce he original
to one-third its length. The main thoughts expressed in the passage, the ideas it contains, the
opinions presented and the conclusion arrived at should figure in the rough draft.
Unimportant things like the names of people and places and dates should not figure in it.
Revision
When you have made your second (or final) draft, carefully revise it before writing out the
fair copy. Look for many mistakes or slips in grammar or spelling and correct them. Don’t
forget to give your precis a title.
Example:
Write a precise of the following passage and suggest a suitable title.
Home is the young, who known "nothing of the world and who would be forlorn and sad, if
thrown upon it. It is providential, shelter of the weak and inexperienced, who have to learn as yet
to cope with the temptations which lies outside of it. It is the place of training of those who are
not only ignorant, but have no yet learnt how to learn, and who have to be taught by careful
individual trail, how to set about profiting by the lessons of teacher. And it is the school of
elementary studies—not of advances, for such studies alone can make master minds. Moreover,
it is the shrine of our best affections, the bosom of our fondest recollections, at spell upon our
after life, a stay for world weary mind and soul; wherever we are, till the end comes. Such are
attributes or offices of home, and like to these, in one or other sense or measure, are the attributes
and offices of a college in a university.
Ans, Precis
Home
Home shelters the young who are weak and inexperienced and unable to face the temptations in
life. It is a centre of their elementary education and a nursery of sweet affections and pleasant
memories. Its magic lasts forever. A weary mind turns to it for rest. Such is the function of a
home and in some measure of the offices of a college in a university
Essay Writing
“An essay is generally a short piece of writing outlining the writer’s perspective or story. It is
often considered synonymous with a story or a paper or an article. Essays can be both formal as well as informal. Formal essays are generally academic in nature and tackle serious topics. We will be focusing on informal essays which are more personal and often have humorous elements.” “Types of Essays: The type of an essay will depend on what the writer wants to convey to his reader. There are broadly four types of essays. Let us see. 1. Narrative Essays: This is when the writer is narrating an incident or story through the essay. So these are in the first person. The aim when writing narrative essays is to involve the reader in them as if they were right there when it was happening. 2. Descriptive Essays: Here the writer will describe a place, an object, an event or maybe even a memory. But it is not just plainly describing things. The writer must paint a picture through his words. One clever way to do that is to evoke the senses of the reader. Do not only rely on sight but also involve the other senses of smell, touch, sound etc.
3. Expository Essays: In such an essay a writer presents a balanced study of a topic. To write such an essay, the writer must have real and extensive knowledge about the subject. There is no scope for the writer’s feelings or emotions in an expository essay. It is completely based on facts,
statistics, examples etc. There are sub-types here like contrast essays, cause and effect essays etc.
4. Persuasive Essays: Here the purpose of the essay is to get the reader to your side of the argument. A persuasive essay is not just a presentation of facts but an attempt to convince the reader of the writer’s point of view. Both sides of the argument have to presented in these
essays.”
“Format of an Essay
There is a basic structure that is generally followed while writing essays. So let us take a look at the general structure of an essay.
Introduction
This is the first paragraph of your essay. This is where the writer introduces his topic for the very first time. You can give a very brief synopsis of your essay in the introductory paragraph. Generally, it is not very long, about 4-6 lines. There is plenty of scopes to get creative in the introduction of essays. This will ensure that you hook the reader, i.e. draw and keep his attention. So to do so you can start with a quote or a proverb. Sometimes you can even start with a definition. Another interesting strategy to engage with your reader is to start with a question.
Body
This is the main crux of your essays. The body is the meat of your essay sandwiched between the introduction and the conclusion. So the most vital and important content of the essay will be here. This need not be confined to one paragraph. It can extend to two or more paragraphs according to the content. Usually, we have a lot of information to provide in the body. And the mistakes writers generally make is to go about it in a haphazard manner which leaves the reader confused. So it is important to organize your thoughts and content.
Conclusion
This is the last paragraph of the essay. Sometimes a conclusion will just mirror the introductory paragraph but make sure the words and syntax are different. A conclusion is also a great place to sum up a story or an argument. You can round up your essay by providing some moral or wrapping up a story. Make sure you complete your essays with the conclusion, leave no hanging threads.”
Example: Essay on globalization Q. “Differences between countries become less evident each year. Nowadays, all over the world people share the same fashions, advertising, brands, eating habits and TV channels. Do the advantages outweigh the disadvantages of this?” “ It is undoubtedly the case that the world today has become a global village. One of the effects of this is that increasingly people in all corners of the world are exposed to similar services and products and adopt similar habits. My view is that this is largely a beneficial process and in this essay I will explain why.
The first point to make is that there are some downsides to this process of cultural globalization, but these are relatively minor. The most significant of these disadvantages is that it can weaken the national culture and traditions. For example, if people watch films and television programs produced in the United States, sometimes they adopt aspects of the lifestyle of the American characters they see on television. Typically, however, this only affects minor details such as clothing and does not seriously threaten national identity.
When we turn to the other side of the argument, there are two major points to make in favor of this process. The first of these is that the more we share habits, products and services, the better we understand each other and this reduces prejudice against other nations. The other point relates to modernity. It is a sign of progress in a society that people no longer are restricted to brands and advertisements from their own society but are able to access more international goods. If, for example, there were unable to drink Coca Cola or wear Nike, then that would mean their society was not part of the international community.
In conclusion, I understand the point of view of people who worry about cultural globalization because it is a threat to national traditions. However, this is outweighed by its positive impact on international understanding and the fact that it represents progress within a society. “
Business Writing
Report Writing
“A Report is a statement or an account on some happenings, findings, observations or recommendations prepared either by an individual or by a committee. It is an objective and planned presentation of facts to one or more persons for specific business purpose after proper enquiry, investigation and consideration of facts.”
Importance
a) “Contribute to the decision making process at all organizational levels. Decisions are often taken on many controversial and problematic issues based upon some reports.
b) Members of a committee or a department can know many relevant and material facts about the organization.
c) General administration is guided very much by different kinds of internal and external reports.”
“Contents of Report Writing:
a) Writer’s address
b) Date
c) Addressee’s address
d) Subject
e) Salutation (Sir/Ma’am)
f) Introductory paragraph
g) Members of the committee
h) Body of Report (Methods of study, Findings and conclusions, Recommendations)
i) Complimentary close (Yours sincerely/Yours truly)
j) Signature
k) Full name
l) Designation”
Example:
1. “Our company has seen a constant decline in the sales of the bicycles in the last one year. As a manager identify and prepare a report on the declining sales of the bicycles.
Chief Sales Incharge Hero Cycles Panchkula
23rd December 2019
The Managing Director Hero Bicycles Ludhiana
Subject : Report on declining sales of bicycles
Dear Sir
Reference to the office letter No. 5632 dated 15th December 2019 regarding the declining sales of our bicycles. A committee was formed to know the reasons for the same.”
Members of the committee 1. 2. 3. 4. “Methods of study
1. The committee visited the bicycle manufacturing unit located on the Kalka road. 2. The members of the committee also talked to some officials and workers there. 3. The committee reviewed the literature on bicycle sales in magazines and newspapers to know the general trend of the market. 4. It also studied the sales record of last three years. Findings
1. The raw material used in our bicycles is not up to mark. It is substandard. 2. Some of our machines have gone outdated. The bicycle parts that come out of these machines lack finish. 3. The workers are underpaid. No extra time wages are given to them. So naturally , they don’t
take interest in their work. 4. Some unruly elements have joined the work force. They spread discontent among the workers. 5. Some new bicycle companies in the market are offering a tough competition.
Recommendations
1. Better quality of raw material should be used. 2. Outdated machines should be replaced by the new ones. 3. The salary of the workers should be increased Incentives should be offered to them for better work.”
4. “The unruly elements should be weeded out. 5. New models should be launched. 6. Competition should be met with publicity and aggressive sales techniques.
For and behalf of the committee
Yours sincerely
Signature Names: 1. 2. 3. 4.”
Business Letter
“Business letters play a significant role in business transactions. The language in business letters is very formal. We normally maintain a record of our business letters. A business letter is primarily a communication between two authorized persons of an organization or two different organizations or even between an individual and an organization.
Parts of a business letter:
Heading: means the name or address printed or written of our organization.
Date: date on which the letter is being sent
Address: name or address of the person or organization to whom the letter is to be sent
Salutation line: means dear sir/ madam
Subject: the subject of the letter
Body: all the main points or paragraph in a letter
Complimentary close: like yours sincerely or faithfully
Signatures: signatures of the person who writes a letter”
Example:
Q. “As a sales manager of Summit Electric Company, Inc., you are required to prepare and send sales letter to various other companies to promote the sales of our newly manufactured room coolers for different capacities. Summit Electric Company, Inc. 327 Industrial Area
Chandigarh, 0172-555-5412 [email protected] Dated: March 13, 2020 The Sales Manager XYZ Co. Jalandhar City, Sub: Sales Letter for newly manufactured room-coolers.” Dear Sir “With summer approaching, you must be thinking of how to keep your office cool, so that you and your colleagues can continue to work efficiently. Realizing your needs, we have manufactured room-coolers for different capacities. We have given detailed specifications in the enclosed pamphlet. You would be happy to know that we are giving a guarantee for five years against all manufacturing defects and repair, or replace any part that causes trouble, at our own cost. At the end of the pamphlet you will find a card, please fill it and mail it and we shall send our technician to inspect your office, examine your requirements, and suggest you about the appropriate location of coolers so that your entire office may maintained at the proper temperature throughout summer. If you place the order before 30 May, we shall give you a special discount of 5 percent. Our employee will transport the coolers to your office and install them whenever you want. And this extra service is totally free. It is our belief that you would like to avail yourself of this special offer. Yours sincerely” Jean Lee General Manager
Resume
“The sample format for resume has been given below:
2015 10+2 … School CBSE % 2013 Matric … School CBSE %
WORK EXPERIENCE
Gave a workshop on internet controlled devices at IIT Kanpur Gave a workshop on Raspberry Pi at VNIT Nagpur Gave a workshop on Internet controlled devices at TCS Goa Coordinator of Tech Fest Zest-o-Fiesta AWARDS & ACHIEVEMENTS
Awarded Certificate of Excellence & Certificate of Appreciation (2018) Third Prize Android App Development (Digital India Week, Goa) (2018) First Prize Android App Development Competition (IIT Kanpur) (2017) First Prize in Live Project Display (2017) Second Prize in Project Display (2016) Second Prize in Online Programming Competition (2016) State Topper in Computer Skills (awarded by The University of South Wales) (2012) Attained the bronze standard of the International Award for Young People (Duke of Edinburgh) SOFTWARE COMPETENCIES Operating Systems Windows XP, Windows 7
******* Languages known C, C++. Database(s) known SQL Other Interests Android, Windows Phone 8,
Project Details: Data Acquisition System using USB-OSPI
Implemented a software that collects data gathers from various sensors the presents it to the user in the form of graphs and the user can further apply various mathematical transformations over the data.
Worked on the NetPlug device that allows user to control their home appliances from the internet.
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
Adaptability Inquisitiveness to learn Keen learner with ability to learn new knowledge with ease Good team working ability EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Participated & won programming competitions at CEC. Actively participated in programming events in various colleges like CGC, IIT Kanpur, etc. Participated in Projected display competitions at various Tech Fests Co-coordinator of Zest-o-fiesta Tech Fest Participated in various state level and national level Karate competitions HOBBIES/INTERESTS Swimming Running
Socializing with friends PERSONAL INFORMATION
Date of Birth: D/M/Y
Gender / Marital Status: Male / Single
Language Proficiency: English, Hindi, Punjabi
DECLARATION
I do hereby declare that the above information is true to the best of my knowledge.”
