Topic 2

Development and Multiple Perspectives on Change

Assoc Prof Dr Sharifah Norazizan Syed Abd Rashid APPM

Department of Social and Development Science

Faculty of Human Ecology, UPM

sharifah@putra.upm.edu.my

Content

• Concept of Development

- Definitions

- Theories

- Changing and Contemporary Perspectives

- Changing Trends

- A Summary

- Discussion

- References

Conceptual Surroundings of Development

• Synonym for change- usually considered as a positive change, beneficial alteration, achievement of a better (material) life

Other Parallel Concepts

Progress, Advancement, Growth

• Progress derives from the idea of moving on, advancing.

• Progress has a connotation of structural changes which are based on superindividual factors.

• Development is more consciously accomplished change.

The Conceptual Schema

goal

path

source

Structure of the Concept

a) Source- progress: (unintentional), 'natural'- development: human, 'cultural’

b) Path- directionality: linear/cyclic, progression/regression- cumulativity: knowledge of previous generations as a basis of development/ alienation as a basis of decline- irreversebility

c) Goal- certain social system (homogenisation/pluralisation)- growth of virtues (happiness, freedom, equality, responsibility)- perfection

Definitions of Development

• For almost every writer a different definition of development exists.

• Important to first distinguish between:– a. Development as a state or condition-static– b. Development as a process or course of

change- dynamic

Meaning of Development-Todaro

• Development is not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a multi-dimensional process involving reorganization and reorientation of entire economic AND social system

• Development is process of improving the quality of all human lives with three equally important aspects. These are:

Todaro’s Three Objectives of Development

1. Raising peoples’ living levels, i.e. incomes and consumption, levels of food, medical services, education through relevant growth processes

2. Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples’ self-esteem through the establishment of social, political and economic systems and institutions which promote human dignity and respect.

2. Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their choice variables, e.g. varieties of goods and services

Alternative Interpretations of Development (Mabogunje)

Development as Economic Growth

Too often commodity output as opposed to people is emphasized-measures of growth in GNP. Note here the persistence of a dual economy where the export sector contains small number of workers but draws technology as opposed to traditional sector where most people work and is dominated by inefficient technology

Alternative Interpretations of Development

• Development as Modernization- emphasizes process of social change which is required to produce economic advancement; examines changes in social, psychological and political processes;

• How to develop wealth oriented behavior and values in individuals; profit seeking rather than subsistence and self sufficiency

• Shift from commodity to human approach with investment in education and skill training

Alternative Interpretations of Development

• Development as Distributive Justice - view development as improving basic needs

• Interest in social justice which has raised three issues:

i. Nature of goods and services provided by governments

ii. Matter of access of these public goods to different social classes

iii. How burden of development can be shared among these classes

Target groups include small farmers, landless, urban under-employed and unemployed

Marxist View of Development

• Emphasizes Mode of Production - elements and activities necessary to produce and reproduce real, material life

• Capitalist (market economy) mode depends on wage labor whose labor power produces a surplus which is accumulated and appropriated by the employer-result is often class conflict in capitalist societies

Sustainable Development

• Defined as development that is likely to achieve lasting satisfaction of human needs and improvement of the quality of life and encompasses:

Help for the very poorest who are left with no option but to destroy their environment to survive

Idea of self-reliant development with natural resource constraints Cost effective development using different economic criteria to

the traditional –i.e. development should not degrade environment Important issues of health control, appropriate technologies, food

self-reliance, clean water and shelter for all People centered activities are necessary- human beings are

the resources in the concept

Development Philosophy

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Physical needs.• Physical and emotional security.• Social needs.• Status, respect, power.• Self-actualization.

Basic Needs

Sturcturing the core values of development with the hierarchy of needs → - basic goods and services necessary for a minimum

standard of living- primacy, sufficient conditions: satisfaction of basic

individual needs for everybody- secondary aim, necessary conditions: global economic

equality, rising per capita incomes

WB 1972: ’redistribution of growth’ and ’meeting basic needs’

- development cooperation and money distribution to small projects

International Labor Organisation (1976): Employment, Growth and Basic Needs

History of Development Thought

Modernization Theory

• Western nations as “the example.”• Development = physical and economic growth.• The global society: physically and culturally.• Centralized planning coming from Western

nations.• Capital intensive technology.• Individual blame approach to lack of

modernization.

History of Development Thought

Dependency Theory

• Economic leakage.• Perpetual status.• Environmental degradation.• Social disruption.• Loss of economic, political, cultural autonomy.• Technological imperative.• Pessimism about the opportunities for growth.

History of Development Thought

Post-Modernism/Post Industrialism

• Rejection of the philosophy that people can have rational control over their natural and social surroundings.

• The emancipation of humanity is not achievable.• There is no single truth of development.• Universal values do not exist.• Development is in the eye of the beholder?

History of Development Thought

Neo-Liberalism

• Rise of globalization in the mid-1970’s.• Increased interest in comparative advantage.• Free-market ideology.• Lack of state interference.• “New modernity,” wherein the state assumes

responsibility for its citizens.

Current Trends of DevelopmentDevelopment from Below

• Bottom up approaches (as opposed to top-down) to peoples’ participation are important in this view

• How are various social groups and classes affected by rural-urban, core-periphery and other spatial interactions?

• Growing importance of “decentralization” of decision-making and authority from center to periphery

Current Trends of DevelopmentDevelopment from Below

• Voluntarism- creativist idea of individuals (contra consumerism of

passive recipients)

• Avoidance of bureaucracy

• Self-reliance as objective (contra as means for modernization)

- aims and values from within - no forerunners to follow

Current Trends of DevelopmentDevelopment from Below

• Empowerment- capacitation- Participation

• Indigenous knowledge- populism- critique of science and theory- Aversion (dislike) of systematization

• Trickle-up- grass-root development agency- distrust of experts

Current Trends in Development

Participatory, People-Centered Development

• Decisions about development goals, objectives, and the means to achieve these goals and objectives are decided by the people.

• Development must be sustainable (i.e., ecologically sound, cost-effective, local control).

• Modest and achievable goals. No utopias.• Feedback on goals, objectives, methods of

development.

Current Trends in Development

Participatory, People-Centered Development

• Appropriate technology.• Sustainable technology.• Informed technology.• Control over technology.• Place-based technology.

• Adaptive technological change.

Current Trends in Development

Participatory, People-Centered Development

• Decentralized decision making.• Participatory decision making.• Iterative decision making.• People as the planned beneficiaries.

• Informed experimentation and action.

Current Trends in Development

Participatory, People-Centered Development

• Interdisciplinary focus.• Integration of economic and social change.• Addresses problems rather than symptoms.• Goal of reduced welfare dependency.• Emphasis on volunteerism.• Emphasis on cultural diversity.

Current Trends in Development

Participatory, People-Centered Development

• Create awareness.• Focus on defined needs, goals, objectives.• Monitoring and evaluation.

Obstacles to Participatory Development

• Customs and traditions.• Lack of skills.• Apathy.• Depression.• Tensions among competing groups.• Macroeconomic and social forces.• Resources for a more labor-intensive approach.

Current Trends in Development

Participatory, People-Centered Development

• Women in development.• Gender in development.

Feminist Approach

Criticism to development theories• gender-blindness in dimensions of development

(‘noiseless intrahousehold’) • Development interventions not only marginalize

women, but also harm them• Women are half of the world's people, who

perform two-thirds of the world's working hours, receive one-tenth of the world's income, and own one-hundredth of the world's property

Some Common Development ‘Theories”

• Old view that absence of development caused by certain physical environments, particular cultural traditions and value systems-environmental and cultural determinism.

• Lack of natural resources certainly impediment to development but not Why has Japan succeeded?

Other Common Explanations of Underdevelopment

• Instability and other adverse internal situations- political factors

• Some truth to this as extended periods of turbulence are not conducive to development- central African nations with tribal rivalries and ethnic cleansing

• Poor physical environment- lack of rainfall, poor soils also may pose barriers to development

• Colonialism As Scapegoat - Indigenous population exploited - Traditional way of life and self sufficient mode of

production have been destroyed

History of Development ThoughtA Summary

• Modernization: The poor should emulate us.• Dependency: The poor cannot emulate us.• Post-modernism: There is nothing to emulate!• Neo-liberalism: Globalization will cure all ills.

Popular Development, Space and Place

• Bottom up approaches (as opposed to top-down) to peoples’ participation are important in this view

• How are various social groups and classes affected by rural-urban, core-periphery and other spatial interactions?

• Growing importance of “decentralization” of decision-making and authority from center to periphery

Popular Development and Power

• How does the power structure affect development?• Examine sources of empowerment, inequality and

discrimination• Need to devise more people centered approaches

which stress empowerment and participation• Empowerment as participatory development seeks to

engender self-help and self-reliance but also effective collective decision-making

Discussion

• Define Development, its aims and objectives?

• Outline the theories of Development?

• What is the current trend of development and how does it differ from the traditional approach?

• How would you describe the current trend of development in your country?

References

• Anne Phillips (1977), The Concept of 'Development‘, Review of African Political Economy, No. 8, Capitalism in Africa (Jan. - Apr., 1977), pp. 7-20 (article consists of 14 pages), Taylor & Francis, Ltd.

• Adam Szirmai (2005), The Dynamics of Socio-Economic Development, An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. 2nd Edition.

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