Topic 4 Cognitive Learning Theories 2

� INTRODUCTION

We will continue exploring cognitive learning theories in this topic. Can you remember what these theories are? Yes, cognitive learning theories focus on the mental processes of learning. The cognitive theorists focus on the workings of the human brain. They view people as active processors of information and study how learners acquire and reorganise mental structures as they process and store information. The cognitive learning theories that will be discussed in this topic are AusubelÊs Deductive Learning theory, GagneÊs theory of Mastery Learning and the Multiple Intelligences theory. We will look at the main elements of each theory and study how they can be applied in the teaching of science.

TTooppiicc

44 � Cognitive

Learning Theories 2

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain the main principles of AusubelÊs learning theory;

2. Apply AusubelÊs deductive thinking in teaching science;

3. Explain the main principles of GagneÊs Mastery Learning;

4. Apply GagneÊs Mastery Learning in teaching science;

5. Discuss the main principles of the Multiple Intelligences theory; and

6. Apply Multiple Intelligences theory in teaching science.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

� TOPIC 4 COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES 2 70

AUSUBEL’S DEDUCTIVE LEARNING

The first theory that we will be looking at is AusubelÊs Theory, which uses the deductive approach. A deductive approach is different from an inductive approach as used by Bruner in Topic 3. Look at Figure 4.1 to see the steps in deductive science teaching.

Figure 4.1: Deductive science teaching

Now, study the three sentences given in the box below. Close this module and try to remember the three sentences. Which one do you find the easiest to remember?

Adapted from Slavin, R.E. (1994)

4.1

(a) Enso flrs hmen matn snoi teha erso iakt siae otin tnes esna rae .

(b) Easier that nonsense information to makes then sense is learn.

(c) Information that makes sense is easier to learn than nonsense.

TOPIC 4 COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES 2 � 71

You would have found sentence (c) easiest to remember. Why is this so? It is because sentence (c) is the one that would have made sense to you. You could remember (c) because it was meaningful to you. It is the same with AusubelÊs deductive learning which stresses the importance of meaningful learning. Let us read further to learn more.

4.1.1 Meaningful Learning

David Ausubel stressed on the importance of mmeaningful learning in his learning theory. Any material that needs to be learned such as concepts, principles and ideas should be presented in an organised way so that the learners can make connections to existing knowledge and understand it better. To remember sentences (a) and (b) you would be required to memorise them because the sentences would have had no meaning to you. Ausubel calls this type of learning rote memorisation. Rote memorisation is not considered meaningful learning because the material is not connected to existing knowledge. Ausubel suggests an EExpository Teaching Model to encourage meaningful rather than rote learning. „Expository‰ means „explanation‰ or the presentation of ideas and concepts. Expository teaching methods present information in an organised form rather than having students discovering it for themselves. So, what do you think would be the difference between BrunerÊs theory and AusubelÊs theory? According to Ausubel, students acquire knowledge mainly through rreception rather than discovery. He calls his approach rreception learning. Here, the teacher needs to organise all the required information logically, systematically and meaningfully so that the students can rreceive it in the most efficient way. Can you see now that AusubelÊs teaching approach is ddeductive in nature? The teacher plays the role of an organiser of subject matter and presents information through lectures and tasks. Materials are presented from general to specific or from a rule or principle to specific examples.

Study Figure 4.1. What is the difference between the inductive and deductive approaches in teaching science? Explain your answer using a specific science example.

ACTIVITY 4.1


4.1.2 Advance Organiser

According to Ausubel, for meaningful learning to occur, students must relate new knowledge to what they already know. Ausubel suggests the idea of an advance organiser as a way to help students link their ideas with the new material that will be presented. An advance organiser is a general statement or analogy given in the beginning of the lesson to relate new information to prior knowledge of students. What is the purpose of an advance organiser? It provides the structure for a new topic by relating it to what students already know. It helps the learner place the material to be learned in context. Read the introduction for Topic 4 again. Is there an advance organiser for this topic?

Yes No If Yes, which one?

An advance organiser is a set of ideas or concepts presented before the material is learned. It is meant to provide a stable cognitive structure to which new learning can be anchored. This means that an advance organiser acts like an intellectual scaffolding. Advance organisers provide an overview that shows students what to expect and summarises all aspects of the unit or lesson in advance. Advance organisers can be charts, concept maps, definitions or generalisations and need not be very long. For example, you can list, pronounce and discuss science terms like „producers‰ and „consumers‰ before starting the lesson on „Food Chain‰. Concept maps can be used as advance organisers. Figure 4.2 shows a concept map for the topic on „The Five Senses‰. You can start the lesson by using this organiser which shows students what they will be learning for the lesson.

1. Explain in your own words what you understand by ‰meaningful learning‰Ê.

2. What is the role of the teacher in meaningful learning?

ACTIVITY 4.2


Figure 4.2: Concept map for a topic on „The Five Senses‰

Source: http://nikilavoie.blogspot.com/2007/10/exploring-concept-mapping-with.html

Another example of an advance organiser is shown below:

As you can see, even if this advance organiser is short it is effectively linked to the prior knowledge of the students.

The teacher says:

„Do you remember that during the last lesson we measured the temperature of a glass of water? Well, today we are going to add ice to the water and see what happens to the temperature.‰


APPLICATION OF AUSUBEL’S DEDUCTIVE THINKING IN SCIENCE TEACHING

You have studied the main elements of AusubelÊs Theory. Let us now look in detail how you can use this theory in the teaching of science. Joyce and Weil (1986) explain that a lesson using AusubelÊs model of teaching, or an expository approach, consists of three principal phases:

(a) The presentation of an advance organiser;

(b) The presentation of a learning task or material; and

(c) The strengthening of cognitive organisation. The three phases are shown in Table 4.1 with explanations on what happens at every phase.

4.2

1. What are the main elements of AusubelÊs theory? 2. Discuss when it is appropriate to apply AusubelÊs theory in

your science classroom.

SELF-CHECK 4.1

Choose a learning area from the primary science curriculum.

1. Prepare an appropriate advance organiser.

2. Discuss the effectiveness of your advance organiser with your coursemates during the tutorial session.

ACTIVITY 4.3


Table 4.1: AusubelÊs Model of Teaching

Phase 1 Phase II Phase III

Presentation of the Advance Organiser

Presentation of Learning Task or Material

Strengthening Cognitive Organisation

� Clarify the aim of the lesson. The learners should be presented with a set of learning objectives.

� Present the advance organiser which will prepare learners for the new information.

� The advance organiser must relate the ideas to be presented in the lesson to information already in studentsÊ minds.

� Present new material by means of lectures, demonstrations, discussions or student tasks.

� The material is presented clearly, sequentially and logically.

� Engage and maintain studentsÊ attention in meaningful learning.

� The teaching should be accompanied with good examples following every explanation.

� Relate new information to the advance organiser.

� Promote active reception learning by questioning students or giving them opportunities to ask questions.

� Review or sum up at the end of the lesson in order to check the students' understanding of the new information.

Source: Joyce et. al (1986)

As you can see in AusubelÊs theory, the teacher presents the lesson, sequentially, logically and systematically. An advance organiser is presented at the beginning of the lesson. Student interest is maintained with interactive questioning and lots of examples. Finally, the teacher closes the lesson by reviewing the concepts presented and checking for studentsÊ understanding. A summary of how you can use AusubelÊs ideas in your classroom is shown in the following Figure 4.3.


Figure 4.3: AusubelÊs ideas for your science classroom

AusubelÊs approach is often thought to be a traditional way of teaching. However, this approach can be effective for the teaching of science especially if you want to present a broad range of subject matter and if information is not easily accessible. You can also use this approach if you want to present difficult concepts your students might have difficulty understanding.


1. A science teacher wants to teach the topic „Magnets‰ deductively using AusubelÊs Theory. The steps the teacher is using are given in the box but they are not in order. Arrange them in order according to the three phases below:

Steps used by the teacher to teach „Magnets‰

1. Teacher asks students for other examples of materials that are attracted to magnets

2. Teacher demonstrates how magnets attract materials made of iron and steel

3. Teacher tells students that the lesson is about materials that are attracted to magnets

4. Teacher writes on the board „Magnets are attracted to metals, mostly those that are made of iron and steel‰

5. Teacher explains all words and ensures all students understand them

6. Teacher gives students materials and magnets and asks students to predict which materials will be attracted to magnets

Phase 1: Presentation

of the Advance Organiser

Phase II: Presentation of Learning Task or

Material

Phase III: Strengthening

Cognitive Organisation

2. Choose a topic from the primary science curriculum. Plan the steps you will use to teach the topic using AusubelÊs

Model of Teaching as shown in Table 4.1. Present your answer in the tutorial session.

ACTIVITY 4.4


GAGNE’S MASTERY LEARNING

Have you heard of the term „„mastery learning‰? What do you understand by this term? You might be thinking of someone who has mastered what he or she is supposed to learn. That is in essence what mastery learning is all about. Mastery learning is based on the assumption that all students, if given appropriate instruction and time, can master any learning outcome (Bloom, 1968). That should be the goal of all teachers. Robert Gagne (1916-2002) was a psychologist who was concerned with learning and instruction. He believed that learning must proceed from the simple to the more complex in well-defined stages. According to him, mastery learning can be designed into the instructional process. Let us now study GagneÊs theory to see how this can be done. GagneÊs learning theory incorporates three distinct components: ccategories of learning, hierarchy of intellectual skills and the nnine events of instruction. This is summarised in Figure 4.4.

4.3

1. Explain briefly how you can use AusubelÊs Learning theory in your classroom.

2. The purpose of an advance organiser is to

(a) map out new information.

(b) make new information meaningful.

(c) provide an overview of new lesson content.

(d) present new information in the form of analogies.

SELF-CHECK 4.2


Figure 4.4: Components of GagneÊs learning theory

4.3.1 Gagne’s Categories of Learning

Gagne identified five major categories or domains of learning, which are:

(a) Intellectual skills

(b) Cognitive strategies

(c) Verbal information

(d) Attitudes

(e) Motor skills Each category has different abilities and performances and is learned in different ways. The significance of this is that different categories of learning require different types of instruction. For example, if you want to teach your students an intellectual skill like the „properties of light‰, you will instruct them in a different


way as compared to teaching them an aattitude like „honesty‰. Figure 4.5 shows GagneÊs categories of learning.

Figure 4.5: GagneÊs categories of learning

Gagne identified five categories of learning as shown in Figure 4.4. For each of these categories, provide examples using the primary science curriculum. Think about how you will teach these categories in your science classroom. Discuss your answers during the tutorial class.

ACTIVITY 4.5


4.3.2 Gagne’s Hierarchy of Intellectual Skills

Gagne focused on one category, that is, „intellectual skills‰. He suggested that these skills be arranged in a hierarchy from the simple to the more complex. For learning to occur, the student would need to learn the more simple tasks before the more complex tasks. This means the simpler tasks become prerequisites or building blocks that should be completed before higher level learning can occur. Study Figure 4.6 which shows how the different learning types are arranged in a hierarchy.

Figure 4.6: GagneÊs Hierarchy of Learning

Learning hierarchies can help teachers plan their teaching or instruction. So the first question you should ask is, „What are the intellectual skills that are needed in order to master the learning outcomes?‰ Once you know the final objective, you can plan backwards and make sure the simpler skills are mastered first before teaching a new skill. Table 4.2 shows examples of GagneÊs Hierarchy of Learning Skills.


Table 4.2: Example of GagneÊs Hierarchy of Learning Skills

GagneÊs hierarchy of learning What is it? Examples

Problem Solving Applying rules to the solution of a problem and learning something new.

Experimenting on the effect of heat on solubility.

Rule Learning Chain of two or more concepts that make up knowledge.

Water when heated will boil.

Concept Learning Grouping and categorising. Characteristics of animals and plants or metals and non- metals.

Discrimination Learning

Learning to make different responses to different stimuli.

Using our five senses to identify substances.

Verbal Association Verbalisation e.g. naming, reciting.

Mg � magnesium, Fe � iron.

Chaining Learning of chains or connection. Requires stimulus response learning sequences.

How to reduce and increase the bunsen burner flame to suit experiment.

Stimulus-Response Learning

Ability to perform a particular behaviour when a certain stimulus is present.

When the bunsen burner heat is too high, reduce it.

Signal Learning Learning how to make a response to a signal.

When a bunsen burner is lighted, ask students to give a response.

GagneÊs theory states that learning hierarchies can be constructed by working backwards from the final learning objective. Choose a concept, rule or principle from the primary science curriculum. What are the intellectual skills your students need to master first in order to learn the concept that you have chosen?

ACTIVITY 4.6


4.3.3 Gagne’s Nine Instructional Events

Gagne introduced nine instructional events that need to be part of the learning situation. The nine instructional events are shown in Table 4.3 and Figure 4.7.

Table 4.3: GagneÊs Nine Instructional Events

INSTRUCTIONAL EVENT LESSON ACTIVITY

Gain attention � Use multimedia technology to grab attention.

� Tell a story.

Inform learner of objectives � Make learners aware of what to expect so they are aware and prepared to receive instruction.

Recall prior learning � Ask questions or do activities that help students recall prior knowledge.

Present stimulus material � The learning content is meaningfully organised and explained and then demonstrated.

� A variety of strategies should be used.

Provide learning guidance � Teacher facilitates the learning process by giving hints and cues when needed.

Elicit performance � Teacher asks students to demonstrate new knowledge using questions, worksheets or activities

Provide feedback � Teacher gives feedback to students.

Assess performance � Provide exercises to assess students.

� Provide test to check if learning outcomes were achieved.

Enhance retention and transfer � Provide activities where students can transfer their learning and review lesson.

� Applying learning in real-life situations is a step towards mastery learning.


Figure 4.7: GagneÊs Nine Instructional Events

Source: http://eet.sdsu.edu/eetwiki/index.php/Gagne's_Nine_Events_of_Instruction

Choose a topic from the primary science curriculum.

1. Plan how you will teach the topic you have chosen using GagneÊs Nine Instructional Events.

2. Specify clearly the activities you will carry out for each event. Prepare your answer in the form of a table.

ACTIVITY 4.7


APPLICATION OF GAGNE’S MASTERY LEARNING IN SCIENCE TEACHING

You have just studied the three main components of GagneÊs theory namely categories of learning, hierarchy of intellectual skills and the nnine events of instruction. As a teacher, you need to first determine the category of learning as the type of instruction you will use will depend on this. Then, plan your instruction based on the nine events of instruction. If you want to teach intellectual skills, then determine the prerequisite skills needed and make sure students have mastered them before teaching the new skill. As a summary, keep the following principles in mind on how you can apply GagneÊs Mastery Learning in science teaching (see Figure 4.8).

Figure 4.8: Application of GagneÊs mastery learning in science teaching

4.4


MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY

Howard Gardner suggests a new way of thinking about intelligence. According to him, there are eight different intelligences that he believes everyone has in different degrees (Figure 4.9). These intelligences make people perceive and understand the world differently. One or more of these intelligences may be more dominant for different individuals.

4.5

Answer the following questions. 1. „Students are able to solve problems using the formula for

speed‰. According to Gagne, what type of learning category is shown

in the learning outcome above?

(A) Verbal information (B) Intellectual skills (C) Cognitive strategies (D) Attitude

2. Which of the following is NNOT one of GagneÊs instructional

events ?

(A) Present material (B) Enhance retention and transfer (C) Promote discrimination learning (D) Stimulate recall of prior knowledge

3. According to GagneÊs theory, what is the first event of

instruction teachers should use?

(A) Stimulate prior learning (B) Enhance retention (C) Present the stimulus

SELF-CHECK 4.3


Figure 4.9: Gardner's eight intelligences

Study Table 4.4 to understand the main characteristics and skills for each intelligence.

Table 4.4: Multiple Intelligences � the Characteristics and Associated Skills

Intelligence Characteristics Skills

Logical / Mathematical

Ability to use reason, logic and numbers. These learners think conceptually in logical and numerical patterns making connections between pieces of information.

Problem solving, classifying and categorising information, working with abstract concepts, performing complex mathematical calculations, working with geometric shapes.

Verbal / Linguistic

Ability to use words and languages. These learners have highly developed auditory skills and are generally good speakers. They think in words rather than pictures.

Listening, speaking, writing, storytelling, explaining, teaching, using humour, remembering information, convincing someone of their point of view.


Musical

Ability to produce and appreciate music. These musically inclined learners think in sounds, rhythms and patterns.

Singing, whistling, playing musical instruments, recognising tonal patterns, composing music, remembering melodies.

Visual / Spatial

This intelligence is the ability to pperceive the visual. These learners tend to think in pictures and need to create vivid mental images to retain information.

Puzzle building, reading, writing, understanding charts and graphs, a good sense of direction, sketching, painting, manipulating images, constructing, fixing, designing practical objects, interpreting visual images.

Bodily / kinesthetic

Ability to control body movements and handle objects skilfully. These learners express themselves through movement. They have a good sense of balance and eye-hand co-ordination.

Dancing, physical co-ordination, sports, hands-on experimentation, using body language, crafts, acting, miming, using their hands to create or build, expressing emotions through the body.

Interpersonal

Ability to relate and understand others. These learners try to see things from other people's point of view in order to understand how they think and feel.

Listening, using empathy, understanding other people's moods and feelings, counselling, co-operating with groups, noticing people's moods, motivations and intentions.

Intrapersonal

Ability to reflect and analyse oneself. These learners try to understand their inner feelings, dreams, relationships with others, strengths and weaknesses.

Recognising their own strengths and weaknesses, reflecting and analysing themselves, awareness of their inner feelings, desires and dreams, evaluating their thinking patterns.

Naturalist Ability to identify and classify patterns in nature. These learners have a sensitivity and appreciation for nature.

Good at nurturing and growing things, ability to care for and interact with animals, enjoys gardening and keeping pets, likes to camp and hike, conscious of environmental issues.

Source: http://www.ldpride.net/learningstyles.MI.htm#Multiple%20Intelligences%20Explained


Are you interested to find out what intelligences you have? Visit the website below and try doing the test to find out how your mind works: http://www.bgfl.org/bgfl/custom/resources_ftp/client_ftp/ks3/ict/multiple_int/questions/choose_lang.cfm. If you have difficulty accessing the Internet, try the test given in Appendix 1 at the end of this topic. Have you discovered how your mind works? The intelligence that you scored the highest will generally be the best way that you study or do things. Look at the intelligences where your score was low and think of how you can increase that particular intelligence.

APPLICATION OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY IN SCIENCE TEACHING

According to GardnerÊs theory, each child can be viewed as having these eight intelligences in different degrees. What does this mean to you as a science teacher? It means your teaching should have experiences for as many of the multiple intelligences as possible so every student has an opportunity to learn. First, you need to find out the multiple intelligences your students have. You can do this by observing students when they are studying, observing activities students like to do during their free time, looking at studentsÊ achievement records and reports, or using the above link to test your students. How can you incorporate multiple intelligences in the teaching and learning process? Look at each of the intelligences and think of what activities will help each of these intelligences. A few ways you can incorporate multiple intelligences in your science classroom are given below: Ways to Incorporate Multiple Intelligences in The Science Classroom

(a) MMultiple Intelligence Stations You can set up different multiple intelligence stations in your classroom.

Each station can have certain elements for each intelligence. The stations can be created using themes or intelligences in rotation if the space is not enough. E.g.: Naturalist station can have flora and fauna. The Intrapersonal Station should be away from noise and disturbance.

Pupils can be given ear plugs so it is quiet and they can read, write, think and do self-reflection.

4.6


(b) CClassroom Decorations You can decorate the classroom with information that can be appreciated

by each intelligence. Get the students involved in this activity. E.g.: Verbal-linguistic students can prepare posters about science concepts

and definitions. Logical-mathematical students can prepare models of shapes and

formulas. (c) FField Trips You can take students out for trips to different places to observe and

understand nature. E.g.: For naturalist learners, you can ask them to collect and classify leaves. Musical learners can be asked to compose and sing science-themed

songs during the field trip. (d) CClassroom Resources You can incorporate many different types of resources in a lesson to increase studentsÊ interest.

E.g.: For kinesthetic learners, you can use balls, building kits, stop watches, robotic kits.

For interpersonal learners, you can use board games, role play cards and science games.

1. Identify a science topic from the primary science curriculum. Discuss activities you can use to teach the concepts using the

different multiple intelligences. 2. There is now a ninth multiple intelligence, that is, existentialist

intelligence. Research this and discuss the implications for science teaching.

ACTIVITY 4.8

What are the advantages of using multiple intelligences theory in the classroom? What are some of your concerns? Discuss.

SELF-CHECK 4.4


� Cognitive theories view learning as involving the mental processes through which humans acquire, process and store information.

� Ausubel suggests that teachers use a deductive approach. That is, they should introduce a topic with general concepts, and then gradually include specific examples.

� Information that makes sense and has meaning to the student is more meaningful than unrelated information learned by rote memorisation.

� The expository teaching model stresses on a teacher-planned, systematic presentation of meaningful information.

� The purpose of expository teaching is to transmit knowledge and skills from those who know (e.g. teacher and workbook) to those who do not know (e.g. students).

� Reception learning is a teaching method in which the teacher structures the learning situation to select materials that are appropriate for students and then presents them in well-organised lessons that progress from general to specific details.

� An advance organiser is an initial statement or an outline about a subject to be learned that provides a structure for the new information and relates it to information students already possess.

� The purpose of an advance organiser is to activate as much of the studentsÊ existing knowledge to help them understand new information.

� AusubelÊs model of teaching or an expository approach consists of three principal phases: the presentation of an advance organiser, the presentation of a learning task or material and strengthening the cognitive organisation.

� Mastery learning means that all students if given appropriate instruction and time can master any learning objective.

� The three main components of GagneÊs theory are categories of learning, hierarchy of intellectual skills and the nine events of instruction.

� Gagne identified five major categories or domains of learning, which are: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.

� Different categories of learning require different types of instruction.


� Intellectual skills can be arranged in a hierarchy; with the simpler tasks being prerequisites for the more complex tasks.

� Nine instructional events that need to be part of the learning situation are gaining attention, informing learner of objective, recalling of prior information, present stimulus material, provide learning guidance, elicit performance, provide feedback and assess performance.

� Howard GardnerÊs Multiple Intelligences theory consists of eight different intelligences.

� The eight multiple intelligences are logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical and naturalist.

� Each child can be viewed as having these eight intelligences in different degrees.

� The teacher should provide experiences for as many of the multiple intelligences as possible so every student has an opportunity to learn.

� Ways to incorporate multiples intelligences in the classroom include having multiple intelligence stations, classroom decorations, field trips and using a variety of learning resources.

Advance organiser

Bodily-kinesthetic

Categories of learning

Deductive learning

Expository Learning

Hierarchy of intellectual skills

Instructional events

Interpersonal

Intrapersonal

Logical-mathematical

Mastery Learning

Meaningful Learning

Multiple intelligences

Musical

Naturalist

Reception Learning

Rote memorisation

Verbal-linguistic

Visual spatial


Abruscato, J. (2000). Teaching children science: A discovery approach. USA.

Allyn & Bacon.

Bloom, B. (1968). Learning for mastery. Evaluation Comment 1(2). Los Angeles: University of California, Center for the Study of Evaluation of Instructional Programs.

Hassard, J. (1992). Minds on science � Middle and secondary school methods. USA. Harper Collins.

Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Showers, B. (1992). Models of teaching (4th ed.). USA. Allyn & Bacon.

Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Showers, B. (1986). Models of teaching (3rd ed.). Allyn and Bacon. USA.)

Retrieved 1/6/11 http://lrc.binus.ac.id/downloads/TE/Gagne.pdf

Retrieved 1/6/11 http://questgarden.com/12/56/4/060120212752/credits.htm

Retrieved 12/5/11.http://surfaquarium.com/MI/

Retrieved 20/5/11 http://my-coach.com/project.php?id=12152&project_step= 28465

Retrieved 20/5/11. Presents http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html

Retrieved 30/5/11 http://www.bgfl.org/bgfl/custom/resources_ftp/client_ ftp/ks3/ict/multiple_int/what.cfm

Retrieved 31/5/11 http://lth3.k12.il.us/rhampton/mi/lessonplanideas.htm# Naturalist

Retrieved 31/5/11 http://www.ldpride.net/learningstyles.MI.htm#Multiple%20 Intelligences%20Explained

Santrock, J. W. (2001). Educational psychology. USA. McGraw-Hill.

Slavin, R. E. (1994). Educational psychology. Theory and Practice. USA. Allyn and Bacon.

Woolfolk, A. ( 2001). Educational psychology. USA. Allyn and Bacon.


APPENDIX 1: EVALUATING MYSELF ON GARDNER’S EIGHT TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE

Read the following items and rate yourself on a 4-point scale. Each rating corresponds to how well a statement describes you: 1 = Not like me at all 2 = Somewhat unlike me 3 = Somewhat like me 4 = A lot like me Verbal Thinking 1 2 3 4

1. I do well on verbal tests

2. I am a skilled reader and read a lot

3. I love the challenge of solving verbal problems

Logical / Mathematical Thinking

4. I am a very logical thinker

5. I like to think like a scientist

6. Maths is one of my favourite subjects

Spatial Skills

7. I am good at visualising objects and layouts from different angles

8. I have the ability to create maps of spaces and locations in my mind

9. If I had wanted to be, I think I could have been an architect

Bodily-Kinesthetic Skills

10. I have great hand-eye coordination

11. I excel at sports

12. I am good at using my body to carry out an expression, as in dance

Musical Skills

13. I play one or more musical instruments well

14. I have a good „ear‰ for music

15. I am good at making up songs


Interpersonal Skills

16. I am very good at „reading „ people

17. I am good at working with other people

18. I am a good listener

Intrapersonal Skills

19. I know myself well and have a positive view of myself

20. I am in tune with my thoughts and feelings

21. I have good coping skills

Naturalist Skills

22. I am good at observing patterns in nature

23. I excel at identifying and classifying objects in the natural environment

24. I understand natural and man-made systems

Scoring and Interpretation Total your scores for each of the eight intelligences and place the totals in the blank that follows the label for each kind of intelligence. Which areas of intelligence are your strengths? In which area are you the least proficient? It is highly unlikely that you will be strong in all eight areas or weak in all eight areas. By being aware of your strengths and weaknesses in different areas of intelligence, you can also identify which areas of teaching will be easiest or hardest for you.

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Topic 4 Cognitive Learning Theories 2

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