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Topic 7.Behaviourist Models I_Mastery Learning

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    Behaviourist Model I Mastery Learning

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    Models and Strategies ofTeaching

    Topic 7Behaviourist Models I:

    Mastery Learning

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    Behaviourist Model I Mastery Learning

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    STRUCTURE

    Behaviourist Model I Mastery Learning

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    BEHAI!"#IST M!$ELS I: MASTE#% LEA#&I&'7.1 Overview of behaviourist models7.2 Task performance reinforcement7.3 Instructional design under mastery learning7. !lanning lessons under mastery learning7." Implementing lessons and activities using mastery learning

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    TOPIC71

    Behaviourist Models I

    Behaviourist Model I Mastery Learning

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    LEARNING OUTCOMES

    "pon co(pletion of this topic) you should *ea*le to:

    1.es!ri"e Behaviourist Model#.E$%lain a"out tas& %er'or(an!e

    rein'or!e(ent).E$%lain instru!tional design under

    (astery learning4. Su((ari*e ho+ to %lan lessons and

    a!tivities using (astery learning

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    I,TROUCTIO,

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    In the psychology of curriculum design and education, behavioural approach is the most

    dominant part, though it has its evolution from simple fundamental principles. There

    have been many stalwarts like Ivan Pavlov and B.F Skinner, who have deduced theories

    like Simple Classical conditioning and operant conditioning respectively, but they all

    share a common principle that is being used to design the curriculum.

    Normally while studying or even while teaching we move from simpler content to the

    complex one. Behavioural psychologists believe in the sequence of the instructions that a

    teacher should be able to present from simple to complex facts. It is believed that if the

    teacher follows the sequence of instructions and carry out students evaluation, students

    are bound to learn effectively.

    Mastery learning was proposed by Benjamin Bloom in 1968. It states that unless

    student achieves a particular mastery level he would not be able to move on, to the next

    topics. If he does not achieve what is supposed to be achieved (90% in the test), he should

    be given enough support to assist him in learning, after which, he is tested again. This

    cycle would continue until the student achieves mastery of the topic and is able to move

    on to the next stage.

    Mastery learning suggests that every student should be given the period required to

    learn the material and to gain the same level of understanding and mastery. This is a bit

    different than traditional learning as in traditional learning, all the students are given

    the same time to learn the same set of instructions.

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    7.1 Overview of Behaviourist Models

    Specific goals for instructions, sequencing of instruction material and presenting

    sequential material along with the evaluation of students are the three

    important simple pillars of Behavioural model of learning. Here are the three

    important theories that are deduced by the veterans

    o Classical Conditioning By Ivan Pavlov

    o Connectionism Theory by Thorndike

    o Operant Conditioning by Skinner

    Let us take a look at all the three theories:

    Ivan Pavlovs theory of classical conditioning

    Classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov has changed the way scientists and other

    people looked at the psychological research. He found that dog salivated for food

    as natural stimuli. As an experience, he would sound a bell before giving food to

    the dog. He repeated this process of sounding the bell before giving food, so even

    at the sound of the bell, without giving food, the dog used to start salivating. The

    dog actually learnt to respond to an artificial stimulus as it did to the natural

    stimulus, of salivating for food. This is called classical conditioning.

    The bell being conditional stimulus and salivation at the sound of the bell is a

    conditioned response.

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    Connectionism Theory by Thorndike

    John Watson and E.L Thorndike were impressed with the work of Ivan Pavlov

    and applied it to the environment of education. Thorndike worked on applying a

    behavioural approach to education.

    He deduced that learning is a process of connectionism i.e., forming a connection

    between a stimulus and the response to it.

    He performed a simple experiment in his lab where a cat was kept in a cage and

    pressing a lever it could open the cage. Food kept outside the cage was a reward

    for the cat for opening the cage. This process was repeated and after much trial

    and error, the cat could connect the aspect that pressing the lever would help it to

    escape from the cage, and have the food as a reward. Based on this experiment

    Thorndike concluded that learning is habit formation. It is a connection between

    stimulus and the response (S-R Theory).

    He further applied this S-R theory of trial and error to education and developed

    laws for learning that were influenced by reward.

    His laws are

    - Law of effect

    - Law of readiness

    - Law of exercise.

    Law of Effect states that When a modifiable connection is made between a

    situation and a response and is accompanied or followed by a satisfying state of

    affairs, the strength of that connection is increased. When an annoying state of

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    affairs goes with or follows a connection, the strength of that connection is

    decreased.

    The next law is the Law of Exercise. Thorndike says that the strength of the

    stimulus-response connection is directly proportional to the connection between

    stimulus and response. More the practice, stronger the connection, lesser the

    practice, weaker the connection.

    Skinners Operant Conditioning

    As per Skinner there are two different responses in human behaviour, they are

    respondent and operant. The first one occurs to specific stimuli and the other one

    does not have any reason to occur. They occur at random. Skinner says that if

    these operant responses are groomed they can be deeply ingrained in the

    behaviour of a human being. This is what Skinner refers to, in the theory of

    operant conditioning. He also believed that reward was one of the most

    important things in the learning process.

    As per Skinner, it was reinforcement that would increase the possibility of getting

    rewarded. He says that

    A reward is compensation or remuneration for services performed and is

    seldom immediately contingent on behavior. We reward people; we reinforce the

    behaviour.

    There are reinforcements and punishments of two types. The reinforcements are

    positive and negative.

    The positive reinforcement occurs when a student does his homework well, and

    the teacher says well done. The student gets positively reinforced with this

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    encouragement. A negative response is that, at the very thought of an exam, the

    student feels sick, and wishes to see the doctor, and the teacher allows him. This

    reinforces negative response.

    Here are the two types of punishments.

    Increase in response Decrease in response

    Positive: Helps strengthen

    responses that are pleasant.

    Type I Punishment:

    Weakens the response and

    decreases bad behaviour

    Negative: Helps strengthen

    responses that are unpleasant

    Type II Punishment:

    reprimand.Weakens

    response.

    Table 7.1 Types of Punishment

    Punishment 1: When teacher says I will not allow you to sit for the exam if you

    come late This decreases the bad behaviour

    Punishment2: When teacher reprimands by saying Will you please stop

    talking? This weakens the bad behaviour.

    Skinner is regarded as the most influential behaviourist. His theories of operant

    conditioning are considered as a base of mastery learning, programmed

    instruction, philosophy, and so on. His major contribution can be observed in

    applied behavioural analysis and developing the schedule for reinforcement.

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    Operant conditioning is the base to behavioural models. Here is a pictorial

    depiction.

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    Fig. 7.1 Operant Conditioning

    7.2 Task Performance Reinforcement

    What is reinforcement?

    It is a consequence that has the capacity to strengthen future behaviour when it

    is preceded by the antecedent stimulus.

    Task performance reinforcementis based on the schedule of reinforcement.

    Let us first understand about the schedule of reinforcement.

    In schedule reinforcement, operant conditioning by Skinner is used as a basic

    fundamentals. The response to a particular stimulus needs to be reinforced insuch a way, that the persons behaviour changes according to the ,results of the

    behaviour, which is suggested by the schedule of reinforcement. It tells how

    often the response needs to be reinforced.

    There are two types of reinforcements

    - Continuous

    - Intermittent

    Continuous reinforcement is provided after each correct response,resulting in

    quick learning, but satiation may take place.

    Intermittent reinforcement is much more effective than continuous .

    Intermittent reinforcement is carried through ratio or an interval. All correct

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    responses are not reinforced,but behaviour are maintained for longer periods of

    time,although it is not suitable to teach new behaviours.

    There are primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers.

    Primary reinforcers:Unconditional reinforcer that do not need pairing to

    anything as a reinforcer. Sleep, air, food ,drink belong to this category.

    Secondary reinforcersare called as Conditioned reinforcers which requires

    pairing with a stimulus as a reinforcer. Money is one such secondary reinforcer.

    Here is a brief understanding of intermittent reinforcement schedule. It says that

    not all the behaviour can be reinforced every time it is exhibited. The patterns of

    reinforcement which happen intermittently has an impact on the speed of

    learning. Also, it has an impact on the time it continues after the reinforcement is

    stopped.

    Here are some schedules of task reinforcement

    - Ratio Schedule:

    o Depends on the number of responses performed

    - Continuous

    o A reinforcement where each occurrence of the response is followed

    diligently by a reinforcer.

    Simple schedules, on the contrary, have only one rule, to understand the

    response delivered by the same. Here are some of the types:

    Fixed Ratio:Delivering reinforcement after each nth response.

    Example: FR10 = Getting bonus after selling ten products out of the lot.

    Variable Ratio Schedule:On an average, reinforcing nearby the nth response.

    Example: Gambling machines. The probability of getting a jackpot is constant but

    which no of lever press will hit it, is a variable.

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    Fixed interval:Reinforced after n time.

    Example: A cycle of washing machine.

    Here are schedules and their effect on responding, in a nutshell.

    Table 7.2 Schedules and their Effect

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    7.3 Instructional design under mastery learning

    Benjamin Bloom in 1968 has devised this theory of mastery learning. In this

    theory of mastery learning, he proposes that every student should secure 90%

    marks in a knowledge test before moving forward for the subsequent topic. If

    the student is unable to achieve mastery in that particular topic, then he is given

    help to achieve it and asked to take the test.

    Mastery learning gives ample time to the student to achieve a level through

    instructions as against the traditional method. Here one can also see that the

    responsibility for the failure of the student is not much about the part which he

    plays but it is because of the instructions.

    So the challenge that exists in mastery learning is about having proper

    instructional strategies so that all the students achieve the same level of mastery

    in different time periods.

    The motivation required for mastery learning ideally comes from an effort to

    reduce the gaps between achievements of students in classrooms. This is called

    Uniform Instruction,which is representedin Fig. 7.3

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    Fig. 7.2 Uniform Instruction

    As per the aptitude of the subject, if students are provided instructions then the

    achievement levels of all students is normally distributed.

    If the learner gets optimal instructions and more learning time as per their need,

    then the majority of students will achieve mastery. This is represented as Optimal

    Instruction in Fig. 7.4

    Fig. 7.3 Optimal Instruction

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    Bloom had stated that, with the following points in place every student can

    achieve high levels of learning capacity:

    - If the instructions are given systematically

    - Supporting and helping the student whenever he has a learning difficulty

    - Giving each student ample time to achieve mastery over the subject

    - Establishing a criterion about what exactly contributes to mastery.

    Here are some of the factors that influence the levels of achievement:

    - Aptitude: Is the amount of time needed to attain mastery.

    - Quality of instruction: For a given learner how optimal the presentation,

    explanation and ordering of the elements in an instruction is, is what decides

    the quality of instruction.

    - Ability to understand instructions: There are two types of abilities which a

    learner need to possess - Reading comprehension and Verbal ability. These

    two things are most related to students achievement.

    Instructional design & mastery learning

    Learning processes have a deep relationship with instructions. Instruction is a set

    of events that are external.

    The following aspects are involved in formalising events of instructions.

    - Empirical observation

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    - Information processing model

    The events are sequentially are arranged as follows:

    - Gaining the required attention

    - Providing the learner with information about the objective

    - Recalling prior learning

    - Presenting the stimuli

    - Providing guidance for learning

    - Performance elicitation

    - Giving feedback

    - Performance Assessment

    - Enhancement of the retention or transfer.

    The above events are closely related to Mastery learning

    Here are some points that elaborate the relationship between instructions and

    mastery learning.

    - Recall of prior learning

    o Assurance about retrieval of existing information/knowledge

    - Presenting the incitement

    o Identifying what needs to be learnt

    - Providing guidance for learning

    o Giving hints and prompts about the learning outcome

    - Performance elicitation

    o This helps to understand the level of understanding of students

    - Feedback.

    o

    Getting feedback on the lessons learnt17

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    DID YOU KNOW

    Here are five myths about mastery learning

    -Mastery-based learning is difficult to

    implement

    -Mastery-based learning is expensive

    -Mastery-based learning makes

    grading more difficult-Too many students fail with mastery-

    based learning

    -In mastery-based learning, smart

    students are not challenged.

    7.4 Planning lessons under mastery learning

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    Mastery learning has some strategies which have discrete topics with which the

    students start learning together. After the beginning, all the students will be

    given an assessment test for the teacher to identify whether the objective of the

    learning has been reached or not. Here the instruction gets bifurcated in two

    different directions.

    The students who have achieved the objectives will go ahead with subsequent

    topics whereas students who have not achieved the same kind of mastery would

    go through corrective measures. The corrective measures would include

    different activities, varied type of instruction, individualised instructions and

    some more time to complete the assignment.

    Preconditions

    Here are some preconditions for the same

    - Students and teachers should clarify the objective and content of instructions.

    - Develope the evaluation criterion and achievement criterion

    Operating Procedure

    - Formative evaluation

    - Alternative learning process

    Outcomes for mastery learning are

    - Cognitive Learning

    - Affective Learning

    7.5 Implementing activities under mastery learning

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    Here is how you can implement activities under mastery learning

    o Process

    Teachers divide the curriculum into some instructional units

    Teachers will teach topic and then evaluate the understanding

    of students for each unit

    Students who have mastered a particular unit will go on

    performing enrichment activities while others who have not

    achieved the same kind of mastery would practice the unit with

    additional support.

    Some of the benefits of mastery learning include

    o It is suitable for students with normal aptitude

    o At the same time, it is challenging for students with higher aptitude.

    o It allows for learning pace of an individual slow learner.

    o It helps all types of students by giving appropriate time and

    environment

    Some strategies you can use for implementing activities using Mastery

    Learning

    o Plan the curriculum in advance and break it into some specific units

    o

    Write the learning objectives that can be compared with the goalsachieved by each student

    o Planning to evaluate the skills.

    o Plan for appropriate enrichment activities.

    o Plan supporting activities for students who do not achieve mastery in

    the first instance.

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    CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

    -Interpret your understanding of mastery

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    learning concept.

    -Construct the strategies to formulate

    lessons using instructional design and

    mastery learning.

    SUMMARY

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    - In this topic we learnt about i!erent behavioural "oelseuce b# Ivan $avlov% B.& '(inner.

    - Ivan $avlov)s theor# o* classical conitionin+- '(inner)s theor# o* operant conitionin+- ,e also saw so"e "ethos *or tas( per*or"ance

    rein*orce"ent- ,e saw i!erent t#pes o* tas( rein*orcers- In later chapters we saw how instructional esi+n "in+les with

    "aster# learnin+

    - lso we too( a brie* loo( at how to plan an i"ple"ent lessonsthrou+h "aster# learnin+.

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    KEY TERMS

    EXERCISES

    SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

    1.Define reinforcement.

    2. Explain the term mastery learning.

    3. Identify the person who designed the theory of mastery learning.

    LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

    1.Write in detail about classical conditioning.

    2.Describe Operant conditioning.

    3.Categorise the events in instructional design that relate to mastery learning.

    - aster# /earnin+%- perant onitionin+%- lassical onitionin+%- Behavioural "oels%- as( rein*orce"ent%- ein*orce"ent "ethos


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