Topic: Topic: Theoretical Bases for Theoretical Bases for Task-Task-Based Language TeachingBased Language Teaching

ObjectivesTrainees will be able to give reasons for the

design and procedures of task-based language teaching.

Lesson OneLesson OneGiving Reasons for Task-based Language TeachingGiving Reasons for Task-based Language Teaching

Pre-task activities Step One: discussing the language theories underlying t

he method. Step Two: discussing the language learning theories un

derlying the method. While-task activities Step Three: group work to give reasons for the method. Post-task activities Step Seven: group speaker reporting to the class.

The Communicative ApproachThe Communicative Approach((1970s1970s ) )

Theory of language Functional linguisticsTo sum up, a communicative view of language has the following four

characteristics: 1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning. 2.The primary function of language is fo4r interaction and communication. 3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative users. 4. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural

features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse. (Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 71)

Hymes’s viewHymes’s view

A person who acquires communicative competence acquires both knowledge and ability for language use with respect to

1. Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;(correct)

2. Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available;(clear)

3. Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate ( adequate, happy, successful ) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated;(acceptable)

4. Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done.(authentic)

Theory of language learningTheory of language learning

The acculturation theory The discourse theory The monitor theory The educational theory

The educational theoryThe educational theory

Progressivism

Reconstructionism

ProgressivismProgressivism

“Childhood becomes important in its own right and is no longer regarded as preparation for adulthood; freedom is more important than social order.”

(Lawton, 1989, p.5)

ReconstructionismReconstructionism

Society-centred individuals and the society are seen as

harmoniously integrated rather than in opposition. Edu.:improve the society and at the same time

developing individual members of the society.

Main principlesMain principles

Communication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning.

Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.

Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.

Activities-based ApproachActivities-based Approach

Theory of EducationThe Reconstructionist concern for broad social needs

and interests. Predetermined common objectives .The progressivist concern for the personal needs and

interests of the individual. learner-controlled objectives .

Predetermined common objectives in the earlier stages and learner-controlled objectives in the later stage of a course

Eight PrinciplesEight Principles

Learners learn a language best when 1. They are treated as individuals with their own needs and interests. 2. They are provided with opportunities to participate in communicative use of

the target language in a wide range of activities. 3. They are exposed to communicative data which is comprehensible and relev

ant to their own needs and interests. 4. They focus deliberately on various language forms, skills, and strategies in

order to support the process of language acquisition. 5. They are exposed to sociocultural data and direct experience of the culture

(s) embedded within the target language. 6. They become aware of the role and nature of language and of culture. 7. They are provided with appropriate feedback about their progress. 8. They are provided with opportunities to manage their own learning.

八条教学原则八条教学原则 1 、学生为中心原则 当学生被认为具有个人需求和兴趣时，语言学习效率最高。 2 、积极参与原则 当学生被提供参与大量活动进行语言交际时，语言学习效率最高。 3 、沉浸原则 当学生大量接触与他们自己的需求和兴趣密切相关并可理解的交际材料时，语

言学习的效率最高。 4 、重点突出原则 当学生为促进语言习得过程而有重点地突出某些语言形式，技能和策略时，语

言学习效率最高。 5 、社会文化原则 当学生大量接触目的语传递的社会文化信息时，语言学习效率最高。 6 、语言文化意识原则 当学生充分意识语言的性质和作用以及语言的文化内涵时，语言学习效率最高。 7 、及时反馈原则 当学生的进步得到应得的反馈时，语言学习效率最高。 8 、责任原则 当学生有机会自己管理自己的学习时，语言学习效率最高。

Task-Based Language TeachingTask-Based Language Teaching

What is Task-Based Language Teaching ?

Focuses on the construction, sequencing, and evaluation of particular goal-related action complexes that learners carry out either by themselves (see Prabhu’s model 1987) or jointly (see Kumaravadivelu 1993)

(Candlin & Murphy 1987; Nunan 1989)

The task-based approach aims at proving opportunities for the learners to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learning activities which are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and functional use of language for meaningful purposes. （香港中小学英语大纲）

What are tasks? A task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or

for others, freely or for some reward.

It is meant what people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between. (Long 1985:89)

任务是人们在日常生活中所从事的 有目的的活动。

What people do in everyday What people do in everyday life:life:

painting a fence,dressing a child,filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes,borrowing a library booktaking a driving testmaking an airline reservationwriting a checkfinding a street destination,

A task is an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language ( i.e.as a response).

(Richards, Platt and Weber 1986:289)

任务= 人们在学习、理解、体会语言之后所开展的活动。

The communicative task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending ， manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form.

交际型任务是一种涉及到学习者理解，运用所学语言进行交流的课堂活动。学生的注意力主要集中在语言的意义上，而不是语言的形式上。

Listening to a weather forecast and deciding what to wear

Look at a set of pictures and decide what should be done

Responding to a party invitation Completing a banking application Describing a photograph of one’s family

Tasks can have variety of starting point. They may draw on learners’ own input, eg personal experience, general/world knowledge, or intellectual challenge; they may be based on written text, recordings of spoken data, or visual data; they could be activities like games, demonstrations or interviews; they could be a combination of several of these.

什么不是任务什么不是任务Tasks do not include activities which

involve language used for practice or display, such as ‘ Describe the picture using the words and phrases from the list below’ or ‘ Ask your partner if he likes the food listed here using the forms Do you like…? Yes, I do/ No, I don’t. where there is no outcome or purpose other than practice of pre-specified language.

Task-based Language Task-based Language TeachingTeaching

“Practice makes perfect” does not always apply to learning grammar.

They( students) often fail to use it correctly when expressing themselves freely. This temporary mastery seems to happen when they are paying conscious attention to form, but not when they are trying to communicate and paying attention to meaning.

Jane Willis

Knowledge of grammatical rules was no guarantee of being able to use those rules for communication. Learners who were able to identify instances of rule violation, and who could even state the rule, frequently violated the rules when using language for communication.

语法知识的记忆不能保证语言使用的正确

David Nunan (1999

语言知识加交际的机会比仅仅讲语法更能语言知识加交际的机会比仅仅讲语法更能提高学生使用语言的流利程度与语法的准提高学生使用语言的流利程度与语法的准

确度确度Grammar + opportunities to commu

nicate lead to greater improvements in fluency and grammatical accuracy than grammar only. Montgomery & Eisenstein (1985)

(1985 年作了一个实验，实验组教语法，但课外有实践的机会。另一组只讲语法。结果实验组交际能力强。而语法测试的成绩也比单讲语法的班好，虽然他们学的语法少。）

学习者的参与与语言熟练程度的提高关系学习者的参与与语言熟练程度的提高关系极大极大

Learner participation in class is related significantly to improvements in language proficiency.

Lim (1992)

基本上以“交际”为导向的课堂教学，但基本上以“交际”为导向的课堂教学，但同时也有明确的语法讲解，要比只注重语同时也有明确的语法讲解，要比只注重语法教学或回避语法讲解的沉浸式教学都更法教学或回避语法讲解的沉浸式教学都更

好好Classrooms that were basically

“communicative”for explicit grammatical instruction, were superior to both traditional classrooms that focused heavily on grammar, and to immersion programs that eschewed explicit grammatical instruction.

当学习者积极地参与用目的语进行交际的当学习者积极地参与用目的语进行交际的尝试时，语言也被掌握了。当学习者所进尝试时，语言也被掌握了。当学习者所进行的任务使他们当前的语言能力发挥至极行的任务使他们当前的语言能力发挥至极

点时，习得也扩展到最佳程度点时，习得也扩展到最佳程度

Language is acquired as learners actively engaged in attempting to communicate in the target language. Acquisition will be maximized when learners engage in tasks that “push” them to the limits of their current competence.

Four conditions of language Four conditions of language learninglearning

Exposure ( rich, comprehensible input, language in use)

Use ( of the language to do things, exchange meanings)

Motivation ( to process and use the exposure: listen & read the language; speak and write it)

Instruction ( chances to focus on form )

Task-based Language Task-based Language Teaching (China)Teaching (China)

1 、面向全体学生，为学生全面发展和终身发展奠定基础。2 、关注学生的情感，营造宽松、民主、和谐的教学氛围。3 、倡导“任务型”的教学途径，培养学生综合语言运用能力。4 、加强对学生学习策略的指导， 为他们终身学习奠定基础。5 、拓展学生的文化视野，发展他们跨文化交际的意识和能力。6 、利用现代教育技术，拓宽学生学习和运用英语的渠道。7 、组织生动活泼的课外活动， 促进学生的英语学习。8 、不断更新知识结构， 适应现代社会发展对英语课程的要求。9 、遵循课时安排的高频率原则，保证教学质量和效果。

1 、全体学生全面、终身发展2 、情感，营造宽松、民主、和

谐的教学氛围。3 、“任务型”，综合语言运用

能力。4 、学习策略， 终身学习。5 、文化视野，跨文化交际6 、利用现代教育技术7 、组织生动活泼的课外活动 8 、不断更新知识结构9 、遵循课时安排的高频率原则，

1 、学生为中心原则 2 、积极参与原则 3 、沉浸原则 4 、重点突出原则 5 、社会文化原则 6 、语言文化意识原则 7 、及时反馈原则 8 、责任原则

Functional LinguisticsFunctional Linguistics

Contribution of Bronislaw Malinowski( 马利诺夫斯基）

Contribution of J.R. Firth （弗斯）Contribution of M.A.K.Halliday （韩礼

德）

Contribution of Bronislaw Malinowski(Contribution of Bronislaw Malinowski( 马利诺夫斯基） 马利诺夫斯基） (Born in Krakow, Poland ,(Born in Krakow, Poland ,1884 - 19421884 - 1942 )(P10))(P10)

He did some ethnographic researches among some Melanesian tribes of Eastern New Guines.

He arrived at he conclusion that “the meaning of any single word is to a very high degree dependent on its context” and an utterance has no meaning at all if it is out of the context of situation.

Contribution of J.R. Firth Contribution of J.R. Firth （弗斯（弗斯 )(1890--196)(1890--19600 ））

He approached the context of situation from a linguistic point of view and attempted to establish a descriptive framework for the analysis of language by the application of the context of situation.

He held the position that all branches of linguistics are concerned with meaning, and the meaning of linguistic items depends on the context of situation.

His main approach to developing a linguistic theory was by means of the concept of system. For Firth a system is simply a set of choices within a specific context. Any linguistic item has got two sets of contexts: the context of the other possible choices in a system and the context where the system itself occurs

Contribution of M.A.K.Halliday Contribution of M.A.K.Halliday （韩礼德）（韩礼德）

M.A.K.Halliday （韩礼德） (1925-- ) is the

founder of systemic- functional linguistics. He made the London School of Linguistics one of the most competitive linguistic theories in the world.

Three primary levels of linguistic Three primary levels of linguistic eventsevents

Substance: the material of language which can be phonic or graphic form: the organization of the substance into meaningful events context:. the relation of the form to non-linguistic features of the situations in which language operates , and the relation of form to linguistic feature other than those of the item under attention

Formal meaning and Formal meaning and contextual meaningcontextual meaning

Formal meaning : its operation in the

network of formal relations

Contextual meaning: its relation to

extratextual features, i.e. the context

Three dimensions of contextThree dimensions of context

Field: the ongoing social activity Tenor: the role relationship involved Mode: the symbolic organization of the text,

rhetorical modes (persuasive, expository,

etc); the channel of communication, such

as spoken/written, monologic/dialogic,

computer- mediated communication 

Language functionsLanguage functions

TEXTUALINTERPERSONALIDEATIONAL

Gestalt psychologyGestalt psychology

Origin of Gestalt psychologyTheory of Gestalt psychology

Origin of Gestalt psychologyOrigin of Gestalt psychology

The 1920s saw the emergence of a new psychological school called Gestalt psychology. It was founded by a group of German psychologists such as Max Wertheimer 韦特墨 (1880 - 194

3), Kurt Koffka 考夫卡 (1886-1941 ）

and Kurt Lewin

Theory of Gestalt psychologyTheory of Gestalt psychology

People perceived objects and scenes as organized wholes before they noticed their component parts.

Solutions to problems came as wholes rather than in bits and pieces.

The mind must be understood in terms of a whole, not individual parts.

The acculturation theory The acculturation theory

Meaning of acculturation

Social distance

Social factors that create good language learning environment

Psychological distance

Psychological factors increasing the psychological distance

Meaning of acculturationMeaning of acculturation

Individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge, and behavior in order to function well in another culture

Social distanceSocial distance

Social distance is created by the relations between the learner and members of the target social group.

Social factors that create good Social factors that create good language learning environmentlanguage learning environment

1. There is social equality between first language and target language group.

2. Both groups desire assimilation.3. First language group is small and not cohesive.4. First language group’s culture is congruent with target

language group.5. Both groups have positive attitudes toward each other.6. Both groups expect first language group to share

facilities.7. The first language group expects to stay in the target

language area for an extended period.

Psychological distancePsychological distance

Psychological distance is the result of various affective factors of the learner.

Psychological factors increasing the Psychological factors increasing the psychological distancepsychological distance

Language shock, culture shock, low motivation and high ego boundaries are negative psychological factors that will increase the psychological distance

The discourse theoryThe discourse theory

Halliday’s view

Main points of the discourse theory

Main points of the discourse theoryMain points of the discourse theory

1. In second language acquisition, the rules of grammar are acquired in a natural order.

2. When communicating with a non-native speaker the native speaker will adjust his discourse.

3. The strategies and means used in discourses and the adjusted language input will influence the speed and order of second language acquisition in the following aspects:

1) The order in which the learner acquire the second language grammar is consistent with the frequency of the grammatical structures appearing in the language input.

2) The learner acquires the usual structure patterns in the language input before he is able to analyse them into component parts.

3) The learner acquires the formation of cohesive discourse before he acquires the formation of single sentences.

4. Therefore, the natural order of second language acquisition is the result of the learner’s learning to make discourse interactions.

The monitor theoryThe monitor theory

The acquisition-learning hypothesis

The monitor hypothesis

Three conditions for the use of monitor

The natural order hypothesis

The input hypothesis

The affective filter hypothesis

The acquisition-learning The acquisition-learning hypothesishypothesis

Acquisition which refers to the subconscious process in which they develop their language proficiency through natural communications in the target language and it id very similar to the process children use acquiring their first language.

Learning refers to the conscious process in which they acquire the explicit knowledge of the rules of the target language.

The monitor hypothesisThe monitor hypothesis

The only function of which is to monitor or edit what has been or is going to be produced according to the norms of the target language

Three conditions for the use of Three conditions for the use of monitormonitor

The first condition is that the speaker must have sufficient time to monitor his productions.

The second condition is that the language performer must have his focus on form.

The third condition is that the language performer must have an explicit knowledge of the rules of the target language , otherwise, the language performer won’t be able to monitor his production.

The natural order hypothesisThe natural order hypothesis This hypothesis claims that there is a predictable, natural order for the acq

uisition of grammatical structures in a second language, irrespective of age differences and language backgrounds of acquirers. foreign language learners acquire the rules of the target language in the same order. Grammatical sequencing is not desirable nor necessary when our goal is language acquisition. But when our goal is conscious learning, sequencing is necessary and unavoidable. Krashen suggests three requirements for presenting rules:

Learnable: Simple rules which can be learned more easily should be presented first;

Portable: Rules that can be carried around in the learner’ head should be presented;

Not yet acquired: Rules that our students have already acquired need not be taught. Only rules that have not been acquired need to be taught.

The input hypothesisThe input hypothesis

Language is acquired by people’s comprehension of input that is slightly beyond their current level.

The affective filter hypothesisThe affective filter hypothesis

Language acquirers with a low affective filter will get more input containing i+1 and they are able to make a better use of the input in their acquisition process.

Learners with a high affective filter which will block the input will get less input and they won’t be able to make the full use of the input in their language acquisition process.