Traditional knowledge on poisonous plants of Udhampur districtof Jammu and Kashmir, India

Harpreet Bhatia a, R.K. Manhas b,n, Kewal Kumar c, Rani Magotra a

a Department of Botany, University of Jammu, Jammu 180001, J&K, Indiab Department of Botany, Government Degree College, Kathua 184104, J&K, Indiac Department of Botany, Government Degree College for Women, Udhampur 182101, J&K, India

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 25 August 2013Received in revised form6 December 2013Accepted 31 December 2013Available online 8 January 2014

Keywords:DeathDermatologicalFabaceaeGastrointestinalToxicityWhole plant

a b s t r a c t

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Poisonous plants comprise the third largest category of poisons knownaround the world. Other than affecting the humans directly, they are the major cause of economic lossesin the livestock industry since the advent of civilisation. Aim of the present study was to collect andsystematically document the traditional knowledge of poisonous plants of Udhampur District for thebenefit of humanity before it is entombed forever.Material and methods: Direct interviews of the informants were conducted and the plants identified aspoisonous by them were collected, identified and herbarium sheets were prepared. The data collectedthrough interviews was analysed with two quantitative tools viz. the factor informant consensus andfidelity level.Results: A total of 90 toxic plants were listed from the study site. Most dominant toxic families wereFabaceae, Asteraceae, Solanaceae, Apocynaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Most of the poisonous plants wereherbs (57.1%) and the whole plant toxicity was reported to be the highest (32.4%) followed by leaves(23.1%). According to the factor informant consensus, gastrointestinal category had the greatestagreement closely followed by the death category. The most important species on the basis of fidelitylevel for gastrointestinal category were Cannabis sativa, Cassia occidentalis, Cuscuta reflexa, Euphorbiahelioscopia and Euphorbia hirta, for death category were Anagalis arvensis, Embelia robusta and Prunuspersica, for dermatological category Euphorbia royleana, Leucaena leucocephala, Parthenium hysterophorusand Urtica dioica, and for sexual illness category were Calotropis procera and Carica papaya.Conclusion: Further phytochemical and pharmacological studies are required to ascertain the toxiccomponents of the poisonous plants, so that they may be utilised for the betterment of futuregenerations.

& 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Poisonous plants have always been part of our daily life and someof them are so common that we do not even suspect their toxicnature (Secmen and Leblebici, 1987). On the one hand, they are aserious menace to life and bodily functions of man and animalscausing death or illness through accident, ignorance or bad intentionresulting in huge economic loss, yet, on the other, several of themin regulated doses constitute very potent and effective remedies forcuring diseases (Chopra et al., 1984). Indigenous people all overworld use poisonous plants for different purposes such as hunting,fishing, wars and treating diseases (Al-Qura’n, 2005). Toxins fromplants are closely related to health aspects of humans and animals(Habermehl, 2004) and toxic constituents from them are often

applied as effective treatments of some refractory symptoms ofhuman diseases (Harvey et al., 1998).

The significance of the study and awareness of poisonousplants increase manifold in the Indian subcontinent as it possessesthe largest livestock population in the world, which accounts for7% of its income (Chamnah et al., 2010). The Indian livestock sectortoday has 185 million cattle, 98 million buffaloes, 124.5 milliongoats, 6 million sheep and 6.3 million camels. This represents 16%of the world0s cattle, 57% of world0s buffaloes, 18% of world0s goats,and 6% of the world0s sheep. Animals, particularly the grazinglivestock are indiscriminate eaters. When hungry, they ingestfood as well as non-food plants, particularly during the periodsof scarcity. Absence of specific grazing areas or pastures in ourcountry aggravates the menace of plant toxicity due to the widedistribution of non-food toxic plants in the waste lands, theso-called grazing areas of our livestock (Bhatia, 2011 unpublished).

Udhampur has a total of 3.78 million cattle, 2.26 million buffaloes,1.59 million goats and 2.52 million sheep (as per livestock census

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology

0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.12.058

n Corresponding author.E-mail address: manhasrk@rediffmail.com (R.K. Manhas).

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 152 (2014) 207–216

held in the year 2008). About 80% of the population of the districtdepends on agriculture and rearing of livestock is the main source ofincome. So, the knowledge and understanding of the poisonousplants and their adverse effects is crucial for the development andimplementation of effective management practices in future.The knowledge of these poisonous plants is passed on from onegeneration to another through local and elderly people. Indigenousknowledge is a very important and inexhaustible information bankproviding useful leads for general awareness and toxicologicalresearch (Huai and Xu, 2000). But, much of the knowledge amassedover millennia by tribals and passed on verbally over many genera-tions, in many localities in India and elsewhere, is in danger of beinglost forever (Schultes, 1991). It is facing the threat of rapid erosionbecause much of the knowledge resides with local healers (Hakimsand Vaidyas) and elderly community members and disappears asthey die. So, it is the paramount need of the hour to collect andsystematically document this precious traditional knowledge for thebenefit of humanity before it is entombed forever with the culturesthat gave birth to it (Schultes, 1991; Sharma et al., 2012). Keeping thisthing in mind, the present study was conducted in the Udhampurdistrict of Jammu and Kashmir, to tap the ethnotoxic knowledge ofthe locals.

2. Material and methods

2.1. Study site

District Udhampur of Jammu and Kashmir State lies between321 340 and 391 300 North latitude and 741 160 and 751 380 Eastlongitude and has a total area of 2380 km2. The district hasan altitudinal range of 600–2900 m above mean sea level dueto which the district has subtropical to temperate climate. Theannual temperature of the study site varies between 42 1C insummers and 1.0 1C in winters, and average rainfall slightly over1551 mm (Bhatia, 2011 unpublished).

2.2. Data collection

A total of 131 local inhabitants were interviewed. The diagnosisof plant poisoning of livestock by the informants was primary onbasis of history, clinical syndrome observed and remains of toxicplants in the gastrointestinal tracts of the affected animals. Theplant reported as poisonous by the informants was collected, driedand then pasted on the herbarium sheet. The identification of theplant specimen was done by the herbaria of Department of Botany,University of Jammu, Jammu and Indian Institute of IntegrativeMedicine, Jammu, and with the help of various regional floras(Sharma and Kachroo, 1983; Swami and Gupta, 1998) and Chopraet al. (1984). A voucher specimen of each plant was finallydeposited in the herbarium of University of Jammu vide sheetnumbers JUH 13978 to 14067. The International Plant Names Index(http://www.ipni.org) was followed for the botanical nomencla-ture of species.

2.3. Data analysis

For the analysis of the general use of plants the factor infor-mant consensus (Fic) (Heinrich et al., 1998; Gazzaneo et al., 2005)were used. The factor was originally used to highlight plants ofparticular intercultural relevance and the agreement in the use ofplants. The various ailments caused by the poisonous plants wereclassified into broad ailment categories on the basis of Heinrichet al. (1998). An agreement in the use of plants in the illnesscategories between the populations can be studied throughthis method. Fic values will be low (near 0) if plants are chosen

randomly, or if informants do not exchange information abouttheir use. Values will be high (near 1) if there is a well-definedselection criterion in the community and/or if information isexchanged between informants (Gazzaneo et al., 2005; Srithiet al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2012). The Fic was calculated as thenumber of use citations in each category (nur) minus the numberof species used (nt), divided by the number of use citations in eachcategory minus one (Heinrich et al., 1998):

F ic ¼nur�nt

nur�1

The fidelity level (Fl), which is the ratio between the number ofinformants who independently suggested the use of a speciesfor the same major purpose and the total number of informantswho mentioned the plant for any use (Andrade-Cetto, 2009), wascalculated for the most frequently reported diseases or ailmentsfor the categories with the highest Fic:

Flð%Þ ¼Np

N� 100

where Np is the number of informants that claimed a use of a plantspecies to treat a particular disease, and N is the number ofinformants that used the plants as a medicine to treat any givendisease (Friedman et al., 1986; Andrade-Cetto, 2009). Simple use-mentions (Um) refer to the mentions for one plant given by all theinformants for a specific disease (Andrade-Cetto, 2009).

With the help of these tools one can determine the illnesscategory which had the maximum “consensus” in a population(using the Fic) and the plant with major fidelity (using the Fl)(Andrade-Cetto, 2009).

3. Results

3.1. Demographic characteristics of informants

A total of 131 local inhabitants, including 84 men and 47women were interviewed to tap the traditional knowledge onpoisonous plants of the study area. They included hakims andvaidyas (local healers), gujjars and bakkarwals (nomads), veterin-ary personnel, livestock rearers, dairy owners, ponywallas andmilkmen. All the informants were related to animals, while localhealers and veterinary personnel cure these animals, other infor-mants own them (animals). The traditional healers were all men.Most of the informants were of the age group between 46 and75 years (59.5%). Only 26.7% of the informants were illiterate(Table 1).

Table 1Demographic characteristics of the informants.

GenderMale 84 (64.1%)Female 47 (35.9%)

Age-group24–35 18 (13.7%)36–45 21 (16.0%)46–55 22 (16.8%)56–65 27 (20.6%)66–75 29 (22.1%)76–85 10 (7.6%)86–95 4 (3.1%)

Educational qualificationIlliterate 35 (26.7%)1–5 class 30 (22.9%)6–10 class 25 (19.1%)Intermediate 15 (11.5%)Undergraduate 16 (12.2%)Postgraduate 10 (7.6%)

H. Bhatia et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 152 (2014) 207–216208

Table 2Poisonous plants of Udhampur district, J&K, India.

Species Family Local name Habit Poisonouspart

Ailment

Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae Ratti Shrub Seed Chewing of seeds is fatal to both humans and animals. In humans, it causesnausea, vomiting, pain in throat, difficulty in swallowing, inflammation in eyes,high fever, weakness, inability to stand, trembling of hands, profuse cold sweat,severe diarrhoea and finally death. In animals, it causes salivation, nasaldischarge, acute diarrhoea, shivering, abortion in pregnant animals and evendeath

Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Puth-kanda Herb Wholeplant

Although animals avoid browsing on it but accidental intake results in anorexiaand acute purgation.

Acorus calamus L. Araceae Barian Herb Rhizome Rhizome is insecticidal. In dried form, it is used as such to keep away bed bugs,moths, houseflies and fleas. It is dried, powdered, made into a paste with waterand then applied on hair to kill hair lice

Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae Neeli jari Herb Wholeplant

Contact with the plant results in severe itching in susceptible individuals.Animals usually do not browse upon it except under scarcity or when theanimal is too young and does not have fully developed taste buds causingshivering, very high fever, production of bitter milk, anorexia, intense diarrhoeaand death within few hours

Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae Kokoon Herb Wholeplant

Intake of plant causes intense headache, nausea, difficult breathing, anorexia,excessive thirst followed by body pains, trembling of limbs, general weakness,inability to stand with head hanging down and ears drooping, rapid drop inbody temperature, bloody diarrhoea, unconsciousness and ultimately death

Anthemis cotula L. Asteraceae Babuna Herb Wholeplant

It is usually not browsed upon by animals owing to its disagreeable taste andunpleasant foetid odour. But contact with bruised leaves and stem causesinflammation of skin and in acute cases even blisters

Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae Peeli kandiari,Satyanashi

Herb Seed Seeds are narcotic causing headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea. Besides this,it also causes oedema of legs and feet and intense pain all over the body.Mustard oil adulterated with its oil resulted in outbreaks of epidemic dropsycausing deaths of several humans

Artemisia nilagirica(C.B. Clarke) Pamp.

Asteraceae Chhamber Shrub Wholeplant

Intake of whole plant by animals in large doses causes nausea, vomiting,headache, profuse foetid sweating, violent contractions of uterus resulting inabortion in case of pregnant animals

Asclepias curassavica L. Asclepiadaceae Rattphul Herb orundershrub

Wholeplant

Animals usually do not browse on it except during periods of fodder scarcity.Intake of milky juice along with other plant parts is a severe irritant to livestockcausing inflammation and painful swellings in mouth and alimentary tract,abdominal pain, emaciation and foetid diarrhoea.

Bidens bipinnata L. Asteraceae Kandili jari Herb Fruit Although the plant is high value forage relished by the livestock but barbspresent in the fruit cause irritation of throat and alimentary canal

Bombax ceiba L. Bombacaceae Simbal Tree Leaves Intake of young leaves by livestock causes abdominal cramps, painful urinationwith deep yellow urine or no urine at all, production of bitter milk

Buddleja asiatica Lour. Loganiaceae Tood bana Shrub orundershrub

Leaves Consumption of leaves by animals results in salivation and bloat

Calotropis procera(Aiton) W.T. Aiton

Asclepiadaceae Nikka aak,Desi aak

Shrub Latex Both humans and animals are affected by the milky latex which is a strongirritant to skin and mucous membrane causing blisters. Accidental contact witheyes causes severe inflammation along with redness. Leaves as well as latexcause drastic purgation, diarrhoea and abortion in pregnant animals

Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae Bhang Herb Wholeplant

The plant is narcotic and sedative whose intake (either in fresh or dry state)causes nausea, vomiting, mydriasis, excitement, hallucination, anorexia,drowsiness, delirium and stupefaction

Carica papaya L. Caricaceae Papita Tree Seed Intake of seeds or unripe fruits has abortifacient action on both man andanimals

Cassia occidentalis L. Caesalpiniaceae Baddi haedma Herb orundershrub

Leaves Leaf and pod intake by animals results in gastroenteritis. Accidentalconsumption of pods by humans causes vomiting, nausea, uneasiness, fever,purgation and ataxia

Cassia tora L. Caesalpiniaceae Loki haedma,Aayroun

Herb Leaves andseeds

Animals feeding upon its leaves and seeds develop violent purgation resultingin weakness

Celtis australis L. Ulmaceae Kharak Tree Leaves If fed only on its leaves for a prolonged period, animal stops cuddling, becomesweak and body temperature rises

Clematis grata Wall. Ranunculaceae Total Shrub Leaves Bruised leaves and stem produce slight vesicationColchicum luteum Baker Liliaceae Surunjan Herb Whole

plantAnimals feeding on it for a prolonged duration develop salivation along withfrothing in mouth, polydipsia, colic, giddiness, foetid diarrhoea and even deathin extreme cases

Colebrookea oppositifoliaSm.

Lamiaceae Chitti Suhali Shrub Leaves Contact with leaves causes itching in susceptible individuals. The plant isextremely hot and animals fed solely on it show decreased milk yield

Commelina benghalensisL.

Commelinaceae Chura Herb Wholeplant

Plant is bitter and animals feeding solely on it develop gastroenteritis

Convolvulus arvensis L. Convolvulaceae Hiran padi,Hiran khuri

Herb Wholeplant

It is a drastic purgative causing gastrointestinal irritation and watery stools

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Cuscutaceae Aandal-Kaandal

Herb Wholeplant

It causes uneasiness, vomiting, anorexia, 4rrWCSshooting abdominal pain andpurgation in livestock. Its intake by pregnant animals results in abortion

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Fabaceae Tali Tree Leaves Although leaves are used as fodder but excessive consumption resultsin abortion in pregnant animals.

Daphne oleoides Schreb. Thymelaeaceae Kaag Sadi Shrub Leaves andberries

Intake of leaves and berries causes nausea, vomiting, burning sensationin mouth, restlessness, stupor, severe diarrhoea, loss of consciousness,convulsions

H. Bhatia et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 152 (2014) 207–216 209

Table 2 (continued )

Species Family Local name Habit Poisonouspart

Ailment

Datura innoxia Mill. Solanaceae Tatoora Shrub Leaves Strong foetid odour of leaves causes headache and nausea in humans. Contactwith leaves produces dermatitis in susceptible individuals. Accidental intake ofseeds by humans and livestock results in dryness of mouth and throat,polydipsia, mydriasis, anorexia, abdominal pain, stupefaction, restlessness,insensible wandering

Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae Tatoora Herb Leaves,seeds andfruit

Fruits are sedative. Accidental intake of seeds or leaves by humans or livestockcauses drowsiness, dryness of mouth and throat, blurred vision, mydriasis,bulging of eye-balls, staggering gait, hallucination, loss of self control,convulsions and even death

Diplocyclos palmatus (L.)Jeffery

Cucurbitaceae Shivlingi Herb Fruit Intake of fruits by animals results in abdominal spasms and gastroenteritis

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Sapindaceae Santha Shrub Leaves Animals usually do not eat it except when they are very hungry, especiallymigrating animals developing symptoms like nausea, vomiting, shivering,eruptions full of pus on entire body, ultimately death

Embelia robusta Roxb. Myrsinaceae Mairan Shrub ortreelet

Newlysproutedleaves

Accidental consumption of newly sprouted leaves in large quantity particularlyby migratory sheep and goats results in shivering followed by death within2 days.

Euphorbia geniculataOrtega

Euphorbiaceae Dudli booty Herb Wholeplant

Livestock fed entirely on this plant for a prolonged period becomes weakfollowed by a reduction in its milk yield

Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbiaceae Dudhal-patal Herb Latex Contact with milky sap induces skin irritation or acute inflammation in bothhumans and livestock. In severe cases, blisters may also result. Intake of plant asa whole or milky latex causes burning sensation and frothing in mouth andthroat, purgation and weakness

Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae Lal Dudhli Herb Wholeplant

Intake of plant in large quantity causes uneasiness, salivation, nausea, vomitingand gastrointestinal irritation in livestock

Euphorbia royleanaBoiss.

Euphorbiaceae Sula, Thor Shrub Latex Accidental contact of milky juice with eyes causes severe inflammation, rednessand swelling. In contact with skin, it causes dermatitis and boils in bothhumans and animals.

Gloriosa superba L. Colchicaceae Saandhra,Kadia Naag

Herb Tuber Tuber consumption in large doses by humans and livestock causes acutepoisoning resulting in foaming in mouth, numbness of lips and tongue, burningsensation in stomach, bloody diarrhoea, weakness, inability to stand, extremerestlessness, mydriasis, convulsions, unconsciousness followed by death. Inpregnant animals, it also results in abortion. Consumption in small doses causeshair loss

Hedera nepalensisK. Koch

Araliaceae Karera Shrub Wholeplant

Contact with leaves results in dermatitis with severe inflammation insusceptible individuals. Intake of berries causes acute purgation. Leaves poisonlivestock causing paralysis and eventually death

Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericaceae Basantalu Herb orundershrub

Flower Intake of plant in the flowering stage results in photosensitization along withsevere itching and inflammation of affected portions of the skin. Othersymptoms of poisoning include delirium, dry cough, extreme body pains,trembling of limbs, intense fatigue, cold sweat

Ichnocarpus frutescens(L.) R.Br.

Apocynaceae Keempan Shrub Leaves Ingestion of leaves causes vomiting, indigestion and gastrointestinal irritationin animals

Ipomoea cairica (L.)Sweet

Convolvulaceae Ishqpaicha Herb Seed Consumption of seeds causes abdominal pain and dysentery

Ipomoea carnea ssp.fistulosa (Mart. exChoisy) D. Aus.

Convolvulaceae Bilaiti aak Shrub Leaves Animals usually do not browse upon it except during periods of fodder scarcity.Milky exudates from plant cause blisters in the mouth of animals. Ingestion ofleaves causes excessive salivation, acute diarrhoea, shivering, inability to stand,staggering gait, impaired weight gain, and even death in severe cases

Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. Convolvulaceae Kharpoay Herb Root andseeds

Intake of root or seeds by animals results in abdominal cramps, indigestion andbloat

Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. Convolvulaceae Panja bel Herb Root andseeds

Consumption of root and seeds results in vomiting, nausea followedby dysentery

Ipomoea purpurea (L.)Roth

Convolvulaceae Kharpoay Herb Seed Unripe seeds are purgative causing gastrointestinal irritation, diarrhoeaand acute loss of body fluids resulting in weakness

Ipomoea turbinata Lag. Convolvulaceae Kharpoay Herb Seed Intake of seeds by animals results in a sudden attack of abdominal painfollowed by gastritis

Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae Ratanjyot Large shrubor smalltree

Seed Accidental consumption of seeds by livestock results in salivation, vomiting,nausea, body pains, anorexia, emaciation, acute diarrhoea followed by bloodydiarrhoea. Overconsumption of seeds by pregnant animals results in abortion.Leaf intake produces nauseating effect in livestock

Lantana camara L. var.aculeata (L.) Mold.

Verbenaceae Panjphulli Shrub Leaves Animals browse on it only in case of fodder scarcity particularly migratoryanimals and develop symptoms like intense salivation, copious lachrymation,severe itching, restlessness, anorexia, emaciation, constipation, jaundice,peeling of skin in the form of flakes resulting in fissures and bald patches,photosensitization

Lathyrus aphaca L. Fabaceae Mithu Herb Seed Fully ripe seeds cause chills, fever, weakening of musculature, inability to stand,jamming of joints, stiffness of legs, reduction of sensation leading to lathyrism

Lathyrus odoratus L. Fabaceae Mattari Herb Wholeplant

Accidental intake of plant by hungry animals results in vomiting, nausea,debility, weakening of bones, excessive sweat, body pains leading to lathyrism

Leucaena leucocephala(Lam.) de Wit

Mimosaceae Lassini Shrub orsmall tree

Leaves Although, it is an easily digestible fodder for cattle, at the same time, animalsfed solely on it for prolonged duration develop skin allergy (Pruritus) leading toloss of body hair resulting in bare patches. There is also decline in feed intake,poor weight gain and weakening of bones.

H. Bhatia et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 152 (2014) 207–216210

Table 2 (continued )

Species Family Local name Habit Poisonouspart

Ailment

Martynia annua L. Martyniaceae Phidoo Herb Wholeplant

Animals usually do not browse upon it except in times of scarcity. Excessconsumption results in salivation, bloat and abdominal spasms

Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae Daraink Tree Fruit andseeds

Fruit and seed intake is toxic to both humans and animals. In humans, it causesnausea, vomiting, abdominal spasms, severe colic followed by gastroenteritis. Inanimals, it causes anxiety, restlessness, trembling of limbs, severegastroenteritis, liver degeneration, paralysis. Leaves, fruits and seeds alsopossess insect repellent properties

Melilotus indica (L.) All. Fabaceae Peeli sinji Herb Wholeplant

Although it is a valuable fodder for livestock both in green state or when madeinto hay, but animals fed solely on it develop nausea, vomiting, drowsiness,weakness, cold extremities, paralysis of body musculature and even death

Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae Galwasi Herb Tuber Although, tubers are eaten in pickled form, but intake of tubers as such ispoisonous causing severe irritation in mouth, chocking and paralysis ofrespiratory system

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Fabaceae Jajooli Shrub Fruit andseeds

Bristly hairs on fruit (fresh or dry pods) when in contact with skin cause acuteitching, inflammation and dermatitis in both humans and animals. Seeds causepurgation in animals. Rats are driven away from houses by keeping pods full ofstrong irritant, bristly hairs at the opening of the rat hole

Nerium indicum Mill. Apocynaceae Lal gandeela Shrub Leaves Leaves (in both green and dry state) poison livestock producing weakness,abdominal pain, excessive frothy salivation, anorexia, vomiting, bloodydiarrhoea, lockjaw, drowsiness and even death within 2–3 days. Stem and rootare misused for criminal abortion. Flowers are nauseating to humans

Opuntia vulgaris Mill. Cactaceae Trappar sula Shrub Wholeplant

Although animals avoid it due to the presence of spines but accidental contactresults in acute inflammation as barbed hairs get into the skin. Fruit intake byanimals results in diarrhoea

Papaver rhoeas L. Papaveraceae Lal post,Rattinham

Herb Latex Milky juice from capsules is narcotic and sedative causing abdominal pain,constipation, tympanitis and raging fits of fury in animals

Partheniumhysterophorus L.

Asteraceae Congress kaa,gajar kaa

Herb Wholeplant

Contact with the plant causes severe allergy, itching, inflammation, rashes,peeling of skin, resulting in bald patches in both humans and animals

Paspalum commersoniiLam.

Poaceae Balal Herb Wholeplant

Its intake adversely affects the brain of the animal resulting in loss of mentalbalance making it to collide with anything coming in its way

Physalis minima L. Solanaceae Pataka Herb Unripeberries

Intake of unripe berries causes severe purgation in animals. It also causesabortion in pregnant animals

Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Chitta chitra Herb orundershrub

Root Fresh or dried root, powdered and then made into a paste with water is givenfor criminal abortion

Polygonum hydropiper L.ssp. microcarpumDanser

Polygonaceae Pipla Herb Wholeplant

Animals usually do not browse upon it but accidental intake causes acutegastrointestinal irritation and photosensitization in animals. Contact of bruisedleaves with eyes or nostrils causes severe inflammation and burning sensationfollowed by redness. It is also insecticidal

Polygonum persicaria L. Polygonaceae Pipla Herb Acrid juice Contact with acrid juice produces severe dermatitis in livestock. Intake resultsin gastroenteritis and photosensitization. It is also insecticidal

Prunus persica (L.)Batsch

Rosaceae Aarn, Aaru Shrub orsmall tree

Leaves Intake of newly sprouted leaves by animals affects the brain causing fits,convulsions, chocking of throat, sudden attack of abdominal pain, loss ofconsciousness and death within few hours

Punica granatum L. Punicaceae Darooni Shrub orsmall tree

Leaves Intake of young leaves by livestock causes nausea, vomiting, ulcers of mouthand throat, dysphagia, diarrhoea, immense weakness, extremely high fever,blurred vision, death within one or two days

Pupalia lappacea (L.) A.Juss.

Amaranthaceae Jojra Herb Wholeplant

Consumption of plant by animals causes salivation, pain in throat anddysphagia

Ranunculus arvensis L. Ranunculaceae Churmula Herb Leaves Juice of fresh leaves causes itching, sores and cracking of skin in both humansand animals

Ranunculus laetus Wall. Ranunculaceae Darrili Herb Leaves Ingestion of leaves causes vesication in mouth including tongue. Leaf juicecauses dermatitis

Ranunculus sceleratus L. Ranunculaceae Kaud,Jaldhania

Herb Leaves Intake of fresh leaves causes poisoning in livestock chiefly cattle, resulting inblisters and acute inflammation of the throat and alimentary tract; reduction orcomplete stoppage of milk flow along with degradation of its taste (bitter),colour (reddish) and odour (disagreeable); juice of leaves and stem is a strongirritant causing allergic reactions including boils and peeling of skin in bothhumans and animals

Rhamnus triquetra Wall. Rhamnaceae Guldara Shrub orsmall tree

Leaves andfruit

Excessive consumption of fruits and leaves by livestock affects the brainresulting in loss of mental balance, hence, animal collides with whatsoevercomes in its way

Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Areni, Arind Shrub orsmall tree

Seed Intake of seeds by livestock results in acute purgation along with frothing inmouth, vomiting, swelling of eyes, rise in body temperature, abdominal cramps.Consumption of seeds in excess results in reduction of fertility and causesabortion in pregnant cows and sheep. Accidental consumption of seeds bychildren causes headache, vomiting, diarrhoea, weakness and finally death.Intake of leaves causes gastrointestinal irritation

Senecio vulgaris L. Asteraceae Peeli jari Herb Wholeplant

Animals usually do not browse upon it, but accidental intake of haycontaminated with Senecio leaves is toxic to liver causing jaundice, dullness,weakness, even death within a few days. In Cattle, milk yield also stops

Solanum incanum L. Solanaceae Jangali pattha Shrub Leaves andunripeberries

Intake of unripe berries in large doses by animals causes salivation, difficultyin swallowing, abdominal pain, bloat, uneasiness

H. Bhatia et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 152 (2014) 207–216 211

Table 2 (continued )

Species Family Local name Habit Poisonouspart

Ailment

Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae Kayan kothi,Makoy

Herb Leaves andunripeberries

Unripe berries and leaves are toxic to both humans and livestock causingdryness of throat, intense thirst, headache, nausea, vomiting, giddiness,stomach-ache, trembling of limbs, convulsions and finally death

Solanum surattenseBurm.f.

Solanaceae Neeli kandiari,Kandiari

Herb Berries Berries are toxic to livestock causing vomiting, swelling of face, abdominal pain,and drowsiness. Contact with the plant results in severe itching in susceptibleindividuals

Solanum torvum Sw. Solanaceae Jangali pattha Undershrub Berries Berries are toxic to both humans and animals causing dryness of throat,excessive thirst, difficulty in swallowing, drowsiness, abdominal pain,restlessness

Solanum tuberosum L. Solanaceae Aalu Herb Tuber Green tubers are toxic to both man and animals causing burning sensation inmouth, congestion of face, stupor and watery diarrhoea

Sorghum halepense (L.)Pers.

Poaceae Barun Herb Wholeplant

Although it is a good forage crop for livestock, but is extremely poisonous whentoo young (either fresh or dry) particularly during monsoons. It affects the brainof the animal resulting in fits and convulsions and collides with everythingcoming in its way and ultimately dies. Sole intake for a prolonged periodadversely affects the fertility of the animal. Intake causes nausea, vomiting andshivering

Sporobolus indicus (L.)R.Br.

Poaceae Girm Herb Wholeplant

Intake results in garmi, loss of appetite and reduction of fertility

Tephrosia purpurea (L.)Pers.

Fabaceae Sarpankh Herb orundershrub

Leaves Animals usually do not browse upon it. Accidental intake of leaves and seedscauses abdominal cramps, purgation and weakness

Thevetia peruviana Merr. Apocynaceae Peela ganeera Shrub orsmall tree

Leaves,seeds andlatex

Milky juice of all parts of the plant is highly poisonous causing skin irritationand inflammation; leaves and seeds are purgative; seeds misusedas abortifacient; accidental ingestion of fruits and seeds by children resultsin vomiting, purging, dryness of throat and dilated pupils

Trifolium pratense L. Fabaceae Triptra Herb Stem Although it is a valuable fodder, but some stems contain gas and animalsfeeding on such uncut stems develop bloat and abdominal cramps.Consumption of this plant after flowering and fruiting is dangerous resultingin reduced milk yield along with chocking and finally death

Trifolium repens L. Fabaceae Chaptal Herb Wholeplant

Although, it is one of the most important fodder plants, yet overconsumptionfor a prolonged period causes bloat and excessive salivation to livestockparticularly horses

Tulipa stellata Hook. Liliaceae Kukad boona,Maghey

Herb Wholeplant

Its intake affects the head resulting in high fever, shooting pain in stomach,abdominal cramps, vertigo, delirium

Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae Saddar Herb Wholeplant

Contact with stiff, brittle hairs on the plant produces intense itching andinflammation followed by rashes

Vallaris solanacea K.Schum.

Apocynaceae Kanak bel ordud bel

Shrub Stem andlatex

Milky juice from stem is an irritant causing dermatitis in humans. Intakeof stem causes abortion in animals

Verbascum thapsus L. Scrophulariaceae Soottamakoo,Giddartamakoo

Herb Wholeplant

Although animals usually do not browse upon it but its intake causesgastrointestinal irritation

Vicia sativa L. Fabaceae Akta Herb Seed Excessive intake of seeds (both immature as well as ripe) cause chills, coldperspiration, body pains, abdominal cramps, high fever, bloat, foamingin mouth leading to lathyrism

Xanthium indicum Koen.ex Roxb.

Asteraceae Jojra Herb Wholeplant

In susceptible individuals, contact with plant results in dermatitis.Consumption of young leaves in pre-fruiting stage causes nausea, vomiting, lowbody temperature, unconsciousness, convulsions and even death. Seeds areseldom eaten by animals as they cause mechanical irritation to alimentary canal

Fig. 1. Number of genera and species present in the main families.

H. Bhatia et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 152 (2014) 207–216212

3.2. Floristic characteristics of poisonous plants

A total of 90 species (82 dicotyledons and 8 monocotyledons)of flowering plants belonging to 42 families (38 dicotyledons and4 monocotyledons) and 71 genera (63 dicotyledons and 8 mono-cotyledons) were found in the study site (Table 2). Family Fabaceae(8 genera and 10 species) was the most represented family,followed by Asteraceae (7 genera and 7 species), Apocynaceae(4 genera and 4 species), Solanaceae (3 genera and 8 species) andEuphorbiaceae (3 genera and 6 species) (see Fig. 1). Twenty eightfamilies are represented by only 1 genus and 1 species each.

Toxicity was observed either in the whole plant or confined toone or more plant parts. Whole plant toxicity was reported to bethe highest (32.4%). Among the different plant parts, leaf toxicitywas the highest (23.1%), followed by seed toxicity (15.7%), fruittoxicity (11.2%), stem toxicity (4.6%), latex toxicity (4.6%), roottoxicity (3.8%), tuber toxicity (2.8%), rhizome toxicity (0.9%) andseedling toxicity (0.9%). Of all the species collected, herbs wereobserved to be the most dominant, being represented by 57.1%taxa, followed by shrubs (25.6% taxa), trees (9.2% taxa) andundershrubs (8.1% taxa).

3.3. Plant poisoning of livestock and humans

Humans and animals observed to be adversely affected bypoisonous plants in the study area include 35.1% cattle, 28.9%sheep, 14.1% humans, 13.0% goats, 7.0% horses, 1.1% insects, 0.4%pigs and 0.4% mice. Of the 90 poisonous species, majority wereresponsible for causing purgation and dermatitis (7.1% each)followed by abortion, bloat and abdominal cramps and death(5.1% each); salivation (4.7%); vomiting (4.0%); anorexia (3.2%);nausea, burning sensation and frothing in mouth and throat (2.8%each); blisters and diarrhoea (2.4% each); weakness, reduction ofmilk yield or complete stoppage of milk, adverse effect on brainand raging fits of fury, photosensitization, intoxication, insectici-dal, convulsions, shivering, very high fever and mydriasis (2.0%each); paralysis, bitter milk, dysphagia, cracking and peeling ofskin, poor weight gain, jamming of joints and inability to stand(1.5% each); bloody diarrhoea, dryness of throat, polydipsia, hairloss and bald patches, body pains, pain in throat and hallucination(1.2% each); drowsiness, jaundice, profuse sweating, sedation,vesication, garmi, low body temperature, sores in mouth andalimentary canal and reduction of fertility (0.8% each) and ataxia,painful urination or no urine at all or yellow urine, numbness oflips and tongue, odema, lockjaw, reddish milk with bad odour,copious lachrymation, stoppage of cuddling and mouth ulceration(0.4% each).

3.4. Factor informant consensus (Fic)

The results of Fic show that the gastrointestinal disorders hadthe greatest agreement with a Fic of 0.85, followed by death (0.84),dermatological (0.79) and sexual illness category (0.61). Deathcategory had 122 reports, within the gastrointestinal category,vomiting had the highest number of reports (58 reports) anddiarrhoea and purgation had 16 reports. In the sexual ailmentcategory, there were 17 reports of abortion and 11 reports ofreduction in fertility (Table 3).

3.5. Fidelity level (Fl)

The most important plant in each category of illness wasanalysed using fidelity level. For this analysis, the plants men-tioned only once were not considered. For gastrointestinal cate-gory, Cannabis sativa, Cassia occidentalis, Cuscuta reflexa, Euphorbiahelioscopia and Euphorbia hirta were the most important species

with fidelity level of 100 each (Table 3). Other important species ofthis category were Jatropha curcas (Fl¼77.8), Sporobolus indicus(Fl¼69.2), Datura innoxia (Fl¼64.3) and Sorghum halepense(Fl¼62.5). In the dermatological category, the most importantspecies were Euphorbia royleana (Fl¼100), Leucaena leucocephala(Fl¼100), Parthenium hysterophorus (Fl¼100), Urtica dioica(Fl¼100), Solanum surattense (Fl¼66.7) and Xanthium indicum(Fl¼60). The most important species of sexual illness categorywere Calotropis procera (Fl¼100), Carica papaya (Fl¼100) andThevetia peruviana (Fl¼57.1), of death category were Anagalisarvensis (Fl¼100), Embelia robusta (Fl¼100), Prunus persica(Fl¼69.2) and Dodonaea viscosa (Fl¼55.6).

4. Discussion

The present study is unique in itself because for the first time apopulation was interviewed to tap the information regarding thepoisonous plants. A total of 131 persons from various age groupsand professions were interviewed to record the information. The

Table 3Category of illness (Heinrich et al., 1998) and their factor informant consensus (Fic)and fidelity level (Fl%) of important species.

Category ofillness

No. ofSpecies

No. ofreports

Fic Name of species Fl(%)

Gastrointestinal 36 233 0.85 Cannabis sativa 100Cassia occidentalis 100Euphorbia helioscopia 100Euphorbia hirta 100Jatropha curcas 77.8Sporobolus indicus 69.2Datura innoxia 64.3Sorghum halepense 62.5Paspalum commersonii 61.1Solanum nigrum 57.1Cuscuta reflexa 56.4Punica granatum 55.6Ageratum conyzoides 50Argemone mexicana 50

Dermatological 15 67 0.79 Euphorbia royleana 100Leucaena leucocephala 100Partheniumhysterophorus

100

Urtica dioica 100Solanum surattense 66.7Xanthium indicum 60Mucuna pruriens 57.1Lantana camara var.aculeata

55.6

Datura innoxia 35.7

Sexual illness 13 32 0.61 Carica papaya 10Thevetia peruviana 57.1Calotropis procera 53.2Paspalum commersonii 38.9

Death 20 122 0.84 Embelia robusta 100Prunus persica 100Anagallis arvensis 70.4Ipomoea carnea ssp.fistulosa

69.2

Dodonaea viscosa 55.6Nerium indicum 55.6Ageratum conyzoides 50Argemone mexicana 50Hedera nepalensis 50Solanum nigrum 42.9Abrus precatorius 40Sorghum halepense 37.5Ricinus communis 33.3

H. Bhatia et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 152 (2014) 207–216 213

information so collected can be used to perform further physio-chemical and pharmacological studies. The two indices used in thepresent study tell about the main aliments caused as a result of thepoisonous plants (using Fic value) and the most important speciescausing a particular ailment (using Fl value).

Plant poisoning in animals is usually accidental, and mostfrequently occurs during unfavourable conditions when pasturesare poor due to drought, wild fires and overstocking and tramplingof the grazing land. Accidental poisoning in humans may be due toconfusing poisonous with edible plants and contamination of foodwith poisonous plants (Botha and Penrith, 2008), or by the use oftoxic plants as medicine, with many cases, including fatal cases,presumed to occur without diagnosis or documentation (Gaillardand Paquin, 1999).

The poisonous plants contain powerful toxic ingredients (phy-tochemicals) which if introduced in to the body of any animal, maybe of relatively smaller quantity, will affect deleteriously and maybe fatal at times (Apollo et al., 2006). These toxic ingredients act byinjuring the protoplasm of the cell and the harmful effectsproduced may be immediate or accumulative (Apollo et al.,2006) and their concentration varies from plant to plant andseason to season. The important poisonous plants causing differ-ent ailments have also been recorded in earlier studies (Jones,1978; Frohne and Pfander, 1984; Smith, 1988; Desai, 1999; VanWyk et al., 2002; Agaie et al., 2007; Botha and Penrith, 2008;Ozturk et al., 2008) along with discussing the various chemicalspresent in them resulting in the toxicity.

Family is an important taxonomic classification level for determin-ing the usefulness of plant species to local people (Thomas et al.,2009). This is also true for the toxicity of plants (Huai et al., 2010).Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae and Apocynaceae have beenreported as the main families containing toxic plants in other studies(Levetin and McMahon, 2008; Ozturk et al., 2008; Huai et al.,2010). These families are toxic because of the presence of toxins likealkaloids, dicoumarin, glycosides, photosensitizing compounds,saponin, selenium (Fabaceae), acrid substances, alcohol, alkaloids,glycosides, nitrogenous compounds, photosensitizing compounds,saponins, selenium, volatile oils (Asteraceae), acrid substances, crotonoil, photosensitizing compounds, biterpinoids, triterpenoids, steroids,alkaloids, cyanogenic glucosides and glucosinolates (Euphorbiaceae),resin, glycosides (Apocynaceae) (Abdel-Fattah, 1987; Yamamura et al.,1989; Madureira et al., 2004; Barla et al., 2006; Zhang and Guo, 2006;Allred, 2010). Alkaloids are highly poisonous and can effect nervoussystem and damage liver, and may cause locoism, trembling, abortion,depression, paralysis, vomiting and even death, whereas glycosidesmay cause excitement, gasping, staggering, paralysis, prostration,convulsions, blindness, coma and death; nitrogenous compoundsmay result in to abortion, depression, haemorrhages, coma and death;compounds causing photosensitivity may cause liver damage, inflam-mation of skin, itching, necrosis of skin, restlessness, and death due tokidney failure; resins may cause direct irritation of the nervous andmuscular tissues, depression, weakness, staggering, laboured breath-ing, degeneration of kidney, coma and death (Allred, 2010). Most ofthe poisonous plants are herbs and shrubs as they are more readilyavailable to livestock whereas tree fodder is available to them onlywhen herdsmen climb and cut branches, mainly during scarcity offeeds (Agaie et al., 2007).

In the present study, the four important categories of ailmentscaused by poisonous plants were gastrointestinal, dermatological,sexual and death ailments. Factor informant consensus (Fic) is agood analytical tool to select categories of illness (Andrade-Cetto,2009). Therefore, the gastrointestinal ailments with maximum Ficof 0.85 were the main problem caused by the poisonous plantsfollowed by death (Fic¼0.84). The gastrointestinal disorders werecaused by 36 species, death by 20 species, dermatological ailmentsby 15 species and 13 species caused sexual illness. This further

confirms that animals are affected more by consumption of thepoisonous plant than coming in contact of that.

The gastrointestinal ailments are the first response towards thetoxins of the poisonous plants and if not identified and cured at aright time they result into the death of the animal. A number ofpoisonous plants induce diarrhoea when consumed, although thetoxins and their mode of action, where known, differ. Some of thepoisonous plants with high fidelity level like Cannabis sativa,Cassia occidentalis, Euphorbia helioscopia, Euphorbia hirta, Jatrophacurcas have been reported to affect the gastrointestinal tract insome other studies also. Cannabis sativa has leaves and flowers asthe poisonous parts. Although no fatalities of humans have beenreported, the effects on a young child accidentally ingesting theseplants are bound to be very disturbing to the parents (Jones, 1978;Smith, 1988). The most common acute adverse effects are anxiety,panic reactions, and psychotic symptoms, all of which are mostoften reported by naive users (Hall and Pacula, 2003). Ingestion oflarge amounts of seed pods of Cassia occidentalis by grazinganimals has caused serious illness and death (Suliman andShommein, 1986). Although all parts of the plant are toxic, mostpoisoning occurs when animals eat the pods and beans, or arefed green-chop containing Cassia plants (Rogers et al., 1979).Euphorbia helioscopia contains euphonin, diterpenoid, triterpenoidand steroid (Yamamura et al., 1989; Madureira et al., 2004; Barlaet al., 2006; Zhang and Guo, 2006) that causes inflammation anddiarrhoea (Baytop, 1984) and irritation to livestock that ingestion it(Cooper and Johnson, 1984a,1984b). Rajeh et al. (2012) reportedpreliminary oral acute toxicity of Euphorbia hirta leaf methanolextract. Jatropha curcas contain a toxalbumin, namely curcin,which can cause severe diarrhoea (Botha and Penrith, 2008).

Skin diseases included dermatitis, itching, sores, cracking ofskin, inflammation, loss of hairs, etc. The species with high fidelitylevel for skin disorders were Euphorbia royleana, Leucaena leuco-cephala, Parthenium hysterophorus, etc. The latex of Euphorbiaroyleana has also been reported as an irritant to the skin and eyeby Basak et al. (2009). The poisonous properties of Euphorbiaroyleana latex are due to the presence of several compounds i.e.epitaraxerol, ellagic acid, euphol, taraxerol, sitosterol, m-hydroxybenzoic acid, 7-hydroxy-3,4-benzcoumarin, 7-methoxy-3,4-benz-coumarin, 2,7-dihydroxy-3,4-benzcoumarin, etc. (Rastogi andMeharotra, 1993; Tiwari et al., 2008). Natural poisoning byLeucaena leucocephala, a leguminous fodder shrub found in tropi-cal regions, has been described in sheep, cattle, pigs and horses(Tokarnia et al., 2000). Some studies on experimental poisoninghave shown that in ruminants that ingest Leucaena leucocephala,the clinical signs can be acute, with loss of hair, particularly in theextremity of the tail, and loss of weight. When the plant isingested for one to ten months, there are alopecia, loss of appetiteand weight, excessive salivation, uncoordinated walk, hypertro-phied thyroid, and low levels of circulating thyroid hormones(Jones et al., 1978; Jones, 1985). Hair-loss, reduced fodder uptake,salivation, excitation, ataxia of hind limbs, vomit, uncoordinatedchewing of fodder, swollen buccal papillae, ulceration and necrosisof the oesophagus, and haemorrhagic lesions in the reticulum andrumen have been observed in experimental poisoning in goats(Martinez and Seifert, 1991). Incorporation of Parthenium hyster-ophorus into the diet of livestock was found to cause chronicor acute toxicity, due to the presence of parthenin, dependingupon the quantum of the weed ingested (Narasimhan et al., 1984).The toxicity of the weed to cattle and buffalo was shown to have asignificant amount (10–50%) as the weed in the diet had killedanimals within 30 days (Narasimhan et al., 1997). In addition,the toxicity of Parthenium causes animals to develop dermatitiswith pronounced skin lesions. The animals eventually die due torapture of tissue and haemorrhage in their internal organs (Ahmedet al., 1988).

H. Bhatia et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 152 (2014) 207–216214

Carica papaya, Thevetia peruviana and Calotropis procera were themain poisonous species responsible for sexual problems, especiallyabortion. Phytochemical analysis revealed that Carica papaya seedextract contained mainly papain, a sulfhydryl protease and chymo-papain, which have lysosomal action (Brocklehurst and Kierstan,1973; Leipner and Saller, 2002). Smith et al. (1986) reported thatpapain broke down the inter-cellular matrix of cartilage whileCherian (2000) documented that crude Carica papaya latex containa uterotonic principle which might be a combination of enzymes,alkaloids and other substances that evoke sustained contraction ofuterus. Thevetia peruviana plants are toxic to most of the vertebratesas they contain cardiac glycosides like thevetin A and B (Singh et al.,2012). Singh et al. (2012) reported many cases of intentional andaccidental poisoning of humans. In the present study, Thevetiaperuviana is misused as abortifacient. Singh et al. (2012) also reportedthat the seeds of Thevetia peruviana are used as abortifacient, andpurgative in rheumatism and dropsy. Calotropis procera was used asabortifacient by the locals. Jain et al. (1996) and El-Badwi and Bakhiet(2010) have also described Calotropis procera to be an abortifacient bystimulating a spontaneous contraction on the myometrium. Phyto-chemically, the plant has been investigated for cardenolide from latexand leaves of plants, triterpenoids, anthocyanins from flowers andhydrocarbons. The leaves and latex of Calotropis procera were foundto have cardiac glycosides which include calotrogenin, calotropin,uscharin, calotoxin, calactin (Al-Robal et al., 1993; Mueen et al.,2005).

Some other species with low fidelity level in the present studyhave been reported as highly poisonous or have high fidelity level inother works. Ingestion of the ripe berries ofMelia azedarach has beenassociated with vomiting, diarrhoea, dyspnoea, muscle tremors andconvulsions in children (Van Wyk et al., 2002). Pigs are mostsusceptible to poisoning by Melia azedarach, in particular the ripedrupes, which have also been incriminated in poisoning in children,but cases of poisoning have also occurred in sheep and cattle(Kellerman et al., 2005). Seeds of Lathyrus sativus contain a toxicamino acid which in large quantities can cause a very serious diseaseof the nervous system known as 0lathyrism0 (Frohne and Pfander,1984). All parts of Ranunculus sceleratus are poisonous. It containsa toxic irritant that produces protoanemonin upon mastication(Cooper and Johnson, 1984a,1984b). Ricin, derived from the castoroil plant Ricinus communis, is one of the most toxic substancesknown (Botha and Penrith, 2008). Lantana camara (Verbenaceae) isanother important cause of poisoning in cattle. Although this exoticweed is generally unpalatable to livestock, its abundant availability attimes when pasture is scarce results in ingestion by hungry cattle(Botha and Penrith, 2008). Affected animals develop photosensitivityand jaundice as a result of retention of phylloerythrin and bile stasis,which is ascribed to damage to the bile canaliculi caused by theaction of the toxins (Botha and Penrith, 2008). Datura stramoniumcontains parasympatholytic alkaloids such as atropine and hyoscine.Humans are extremely susceptible to their effects and hallucinationsmay occur, and the proverb “blind as a bat, red as a beet, dry as abone and mad as a hatter” aptly describes atropine poisoning inhumans (Botha and Penrith, 2008).

5. Conclusion

Poisonous plants are those which, when eaten or come incontact with, are harmful to the normal health of man andlivestock. They mainly result into gastrointestinal and dermatolo-gical disorders. The poisonous nature of these plants is due toproduction of toxic substances such as alkaloids, glucosides,amines, toxalbumins, picrotoxins, resins, saponins, tannins, essen-tial oils. The study and documentation of poisonous plants willgo a long way towards protecting people from being poisoned by

substances that may have cured them. In line with this, it issuggested that further studies are needed to be conducted to(i) confirm the traditional information associated with poisonousplants using appropriate experiments and (ii) determine theidentity of toxic phytochemicals associated with the poisonousplants, so that compounds of pharmacological interest havingpotential application in the treatment of human diseases may bediscovered.

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