Transition from College to Employment: Lived Transition from College to Employment: Lived Employment Experiences and Perceptions of Employment Experiences and Perceptions of
Seniors and Recent College Graduates with Seniors and Recent College Graduates with Physical Disabilities Seeking Employment Physical Disabilities Seeking Employment
Opportunities after GraduationOpportunities after Graduation
Statement of the Problem College students with disabilities disproportionately hired
after graduation across the nation (Kennedy & Harris, 2005; Leotta, 2003; McNeil, 2001a). Unemployment is approximately 30% for disabled vs. 4.7% of
general population unemployed (Leotta, 2003, p. 1; U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Disability Employment Policy [U.S. ODEP], 2003).
Hernandez, Keys and Balcazar, (2000) indicate that there is an estimated 34.6% of people with disabilities employed vs. the employment rate of 79.8% for those without disabilities (p. 1).
THEREFORE, The transition from college to work for students with
disabilities (SWD) presents an issue of national importance in higher education.
AND This disparity permeates all states including college
students enrolled in the colleges and universities in the Mid-Atlantic Region.
National statistics on People with Disabilities There are “49.7 million
people with disabilities in the United States with a ratio of 1-in-5 U.S. residents or 19%” have a disability (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004a, p. 1).
Persons between the ages of 16 and 54 are likely to have employment disparities at the level of approximately 22.6% (Kennedy & Harris, 2005; McNeil, 1997, 2001b).
People with Employment Disparities
22.6%
People without Employment Disparities
77.4%
People with Diabilities, 49.7 million, 19%
People without Diabilities, 211.9 million, 81%
National Enrollments In 2000, national
enrollments suggest that 1.5 million first-time, full-time students enrolled in college (Henderson, 2001; Kennedy & Harris, 2005).
Out of the 1.5 million, 6% to 7% self-identified that they had a disability (Henderson, 2001; Kennedy & Harris, 2005).
Students with Diabilities6 - 7%
Students without Diabilities93 - 94%
Disability Data • Any other health-related disability
or impairment.NOTE: Percentages do not sum to 100 because some students reported multiple disabilities.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1995-96 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS: 96), Undergraduate Data Analysis System.
Percentage of Full-Time College Freshmen Reporting Disabilities: 1998The above graph was adapted with permission from College Freshmen with
Disabilities: A Biennial Statistical Profile (1999), HEATH Resource Center, ACE
Research QuestionsMain Research Questions: What are the lived experiences of seniors and recent
college graduates with physical disabilities? What are their perceptions of how their disability
influences their ability to obtain employment opportunities after graduation from college?
How do seniors and recent graduates with physical disabilities perceive the contribution of career services in their preparation for the employment process in terms of the job readiness skills such as interviewing, resume writing, disclosure of disability, and how to request reasonable accommodations?
• The essence of this study is to reveal students’ perceptions about the challenges associated with looking for a job and whether or not they felt marginalized or discriminated against due to their disability.
Significance of the Study The study sought to increase the awareness of
administrators, educators, researchers, and policy makers in higher education to the disparities and barriers to employment for college students with disabilities.
The study served as an impetus of change in career services programs targeted to students with disabilities.
A gap in the literature indicated that an investigation of this topic is necessary as there are limited numbers of qualitative studies on this topic. Most employment studies are data driven and do not reflect personal perspectives of college students with disabilities.
This study provided a voice for an otherwise disenfranchised group of college students by going to the source for the data.
Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to understand and
reveal the phenomena of disability and employment of college students with physical disabilities. The study examined how seniors and recent graduates
with physical disabilities perceive that their disability influences their ability to obtain employment opportunities after graduation.
In addition, this study examined barriers to employment and the available programs that improve employment outcomes of college students with disabilities.
Limitations and Delimitations Limitations are the weakness of the study (Creswell, 2003).
1. Issues surrounding disclosure of disability.2. Challenges associated with the “gatekeeper” and access to students. 3. Findings are not generalizable to all disability groups.
Delimitations narrow the focus of a research study (Creswell, 2003).
1. Study limited to students with physical disabilities in a private urban four-year university in the Mid-Atlantic Region.
2. Students with physical disabilities to include sensory (blind, deaf, and hard of hearing) will be examined to maintain the integrity of a phenomenological research study with a homogenous population of participants (Creswell, 1998; Glesne, 1999).
Chapter II: Seminal Research Historical Perspective
on Disability and Higher Education
Overview of Disability Employment Legislation
National Perspective on Americans with Disabilities
1. The middle of the twentieth century was the first time individuals with disabilities were provided training beyond high school (Burgstahler, 1995).
2. Rehabilitation Act 1973 & ADA of 1990 requires unfunded mandates in HE as well as employment to provide reasonable accommodations and equal access to all programs and services (Kaplan & Lee, 1995; Latham & Latham, 1996;Raines & Rossow, 1994; Rothstein, 1998).
3. There are approximately 54 million Americans with disabilities (Hernandez et al., 2000; McNeil, 1997, 2001a, 2001b). Over 33 million of those are between the ages of 16 and 64. Of the 33 million, the number employed is approximately 18.6 million. These data show that 60.1% are men with disabilities, and 51.4% are women with disabilities (DOL, 2003; Hernandez et al., 2000; McNeil, 2001a, 2001b).
Seminal Research continued…
Disproportionately Hired
Career Services in Higher Education
Programs Tailored to Improve Employability
1. A gap in hiring due to lack of knowledge, self-advocacy skills, and job-seeking skills needed to secure employment. Students with disabilities are behind in their job-search skills and abilities after college, and they are often rendered non-competitive (Leotta, 2003).
2. Suggest: Career center programs are not adequately meeting the needs of graduating students with disabilities (Anue & Kroeger, 1997; Boen, Brown, & Roessler, 1994; Kennedy & Harris, 2005).
3. Solution: To improving the employment outcomes for college students with disabilities is through building more cooperative education programs (Burgstahler, 1995).
Paradigm of Inquiry Advocacy/Participatory Knowledge Claim:
Emerged in the 1980s to address marginalized individuals and groups and looks to liberate those that remain disenfranchised (Creswell, 2003; Mertens, 1999).
Relates to issues of “change and empowerment” (Creswell, 2003, p. 6).
The advocacy/participatory knowledge claim is closely aligned to the significance of this study, which argues for policy and curriculum reforms in career services programs in colleges and universities to address employment disparities of college graduates with disabilities.
Review of the Literature: Models and Theories of Disability The models of disability:
Medical Model of Disability (Parsons, 1975); Social Model of Disability (Oliver, 1995); Nagi Model (Nagi, 1965); and International Classification of Functioning (Strucki, Cieza,
Ewert, Kostanjsek, Chatterji, & Bedirhan, 2002). Over 40 years researchers have tried to define and explain
“disability. Current researchers in the field (Altman, 2001; Clapton & Fitzgerald, 1997; Mitra, 2006) find it difficult to define disability and there is no one model or theory available to define disability.
Critical Social Theory: Critical social theory in an educational setting helps to shed light on
the “relationship between social systems and people . . . and ultimately how critical social theory can contribute to the emancipation of both” (Leonardo, 2004, p. 11; Merriam, 2002), many times looking at the political issues surrounding a social issue… (Merriam, 2002).
Critical social theory is “grounded in the social awareness, political, and cultural problems of the age” (p. 13) thus making it very appropriate for a study on college students with disabilities critically linked to the Social Model of Disability (Oliver, 1995).
Phenomenology Phenomenological Research Study
Research Methodology & Design: Phenomenology
Husserl (1931), considered the father of phenomenology (Merriam, 2002; Morrissette, 1999; Moustakas, 1994; Van Manen,1990).
Phenomenology is the study of lived experiences, and the aim is to gain a deeper understanding of the nature of the meaning of everyday experiences” (Van Manen,1990, p. 9).
Phenomenology is used in research studies to ascertain knowledge about how people think and feel (Bentz & Shapiro, 1998) with a focus on kindheartedness and compassion.
Phenomenological research is a strategy associated with the “essence” of human experiences dealing with particular phenomena that is expressed or described by participants in a study (Creswell, 2003; Merriam, 2002; Moustakas, 1994; Van Manen, 1990).
Data Collection Method Bracketing or epoché (Merriam, 2002; Moerer-Urdhal & Creswell,
2004; Moustakas, 1994) establishes the process of phenomenological research assisting researchers to free themselves of any biases.
A small sample of 8 participants with intensive interviewing to establish themes and patterns was used examining relationships of meaning (Creswell, 2003).
Methods of inquiry for this study include: intensive interviews of students with disabilities; coding; analysis; and interpretation of the data.
Tape recording interviews allow researchers to give participants undivided attention (Patton, 1980).
The interviews will be crosschecked for similarities and differences.
Data Analysis Method Data analysis consists of a process
that will allow the interpretation of the data. Phenomenological techniques such as textural, structural, and textural-structural narratives were used (Creswell, 1998; Moustakas, 1994). Textural narratives of the raw
interview data involve descriptions of the experiences of what happened using the participants’ own words verbatim (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996; Creswell, 1998; Moustakas, 1994).
Structural statements are those using the researcher’s own account of the phenomenon revealed (Creswell, 1998; Moustakas, 1994).
Textural-structural statements are a combination, reaching the phenomenon by “constructing an overall description of the meaning and essence of the experience” (Creswell, 1998, p. 150).
Data analysis consisted of several steps: organizing and preparing data for analysis; reading and reviewing of data thoroughly; writing notes in the margins; open coding of textural data using categories; clusters of similar topics; and themes (Creswell, 1998, 2003); and finally telling the story using textural-structural descriptions (Creswell, 1998).
The codes were reviewed and presented in a manner that gave meaning to the data, establish categories, themes and then interpretation (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996).
All data obtained from the participants was cross-referenced and analyzed to reflect commonalities and differences among the participants’ lived experiences relating to their perceptions of the employment process and how their disabilities may have influenced their employability.
Trustworthiness & Validity Horizonalization
(Moustakas, 1994) was used to capture and list all relevant expressions critical to the experience of the participants with the phenomenon.
Member checks was used for accuracy by taking the raw data and interpretation of the data from interviews and returning it to the participants for their review (Merriam, 2002).
External auditors (dissertation chair and methodologist) (Creswell, 2003; Merriam, 2002) was used to review interview data and preliminary coding, themes, categories and interpretations (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996).
Site and Participant SelectionSite: One private in the Mid-Atlantic Region.
Participants: A phenomenological study was most effective
with the use of homogenous groups of participants that share the same or similar experiences (Creswell, 1998; Glesne, 1999).
To this end, eight students with physical disabilities were examined.
Legal and Political Considerations
Ethical considerations of this study surround the legal confidentiality and disclosure of disability as cited in the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and the EEOC Technical Assistance Manual (EEOC, 1992).
The ADA states that there are limits on use of medical information and that all medical information must be “treated as a confidential medical record (EEOC, 1992). (1) for the purposes of informing an
employer of necessary work restrictions in order to make reasonable accommodations; (2) when the medical information is necessary for first aid and safety to the individual or safety of others; (3) when government officials are investigating compliance with the ADA or other state and federal laws; (4) when the medical information needs to be provided to an insurance company if a medical examination is required; or when the medical information needs to be provided to state workers’ compensation offices to establish eligibility for a claim. (p. VI-12).
Breech of confidentiality could possibly result in legal actions and a liability for the institutions involved as well as the researcher.
At no time did I make direct inquiries about any diagnoses, prognoses, treatments, medication regimes, or the nature and severity of participants’ disabilities. To do so would be a direct violation of the ADA.
All documents and data were destroyed where a participant has freely and optionally disclosed specific disability-related information and will not be published in the analysis of the data.
De-identification of the data was done to maintain confidentiality of all participants involved in the study.
The raw data with the actual names with the pseudonyms were kept in a secure location in a locked file cabinet to protect the data and the identities of the participants.
Three Major Findings Several major findings that emerged :
Transition from college to work was not a feasible option or priority after obtaining a baccalaureate degree or graduation;
Continued higher education beyond undergraduate education was a priority; and
Viewpoints about and experiences with disability and impairment are not monolithic.
Gap in the Literature & Scholarly Contributions • The discovery of data during the research process revealed an
overwhelming amount of employment studies on people with disabilities, but as the search became more narrowly focused, the data available became limited on the subject of college students with disabilities.
• Additionally, there were no phenomenological studies. This data is critical for disability service providers, vocational rehabilitation counselors, career center service providers, and more importantly higher education policy makers, and institutional researchers.
Extensive quantitative employment studies conducted by the federal government on people with disabilities at a national level;
Limited studies on college students with disabilities and employment outcomes;
No employment studies conducted by higher education instructions; and
No phenomenological employment studies on employment of college students with disabilities.
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