Translation Studies: An Anglo-American
Perspective
Dr. Constanza Gerding Salas
Universidad de ConcepciónUniversität Leipzig
May 2013
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Where to start? E. Genzler: leading US synthesizer of translation
theory Germanistics at Free University, Berlin PhD in Comparative Literature, Vanderbilt University,
Nashville, Tennessee Works at University of Massachusetts Amherst Contemporary Translation Theories (1993; 2001) General perspective on translation studies trends Translation and Identity in the Americas: New Directions in
Translation Theory (2008) The role of translation in the formation of Americas
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Translation in the the Americas Divided into geographical areas: the United
States, Canada, Brazil, Latin America, and the Caribbean Different linguistic history Research into translation has taken different
paths At present, Translation Studies scholars in the
Americas are viewing translation more as “a discursive practice that reveals multiple signs of the heterogeneous and polyvalent nature of the construction of culture” (Genzler, 2008: 183)
The study of translations, Genzler says, can reveal the processes of assimilation of language and culture
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New way of approaching translation in the Americas
It has come with the reassessment of the history of linguistic suppression in America
Suppression: preventing, inhibiting or eliminating the development or dissemination of languages (culture)
Valid situation in the whole continent in varying degrees
Indigenous languages minority group tongues Speakers marginalized and excluded. “Reductions”,
i.e. massive relocations of indigenous people Indigenous languages excluded from language
policies Fossils to be scientifically studied or exposed in
museums
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The US: multicultural but unilingual The USA is plenty of cases where the multicultural
population is forced to use the national SAE at school or at work
Due to massive immigration waves of Hispanics into the USA (80s and 90s), language became a problem for American identity
This strengthened the English-only Movement (a political group)
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Translation Studies: the continental situation
USA and Latin America: surprisingly slow in developing research into translation
The only two exceptions in the Americas: Canada Brazil
Professional associations, conferences, and important publications
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Brazilian examples of research instances
Brazil's National Library Foundation, a Ministry of Culture Office: Support program for the translations and publications of Brazilian authors abroad
Aim: to foster a greater presence of works of local literature in foreign publishing company's catalogs, bookstore shelves, and virtual bookshelves throughout the world
Cadernos de Traduçao, published by the Universidad Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil (Vol. 1, 1996)
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Canadian examples of research instances TTR, Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction, a journal
published by the Canadian Association for Translation Studies / Association Canadienne de Traductologie (Vol. 1, 1988)
Meta, journal des traducteurs / Meta: Translators' Journal, edited by Les Presses de l’Université de Montréal, Canada (Vol. 1, 1956)
Canada has been the location for debate about language and a policy of bilingualism since the 1960s
Translation has played a crucial part Research into translation started to develop in
Canada in the second half of the XX century
JournalTTR
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In the USA TIS: Translation and Interpreting Studies
Founded in 2008 Official journal of the American Translation and
Interpreting Studies Association (ATISA) American Journal of Translation Studies
Founded in 2009 Published by American Journal of Translation Studies
and Academic Press
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Implications of English dominance in the USA
The hegemony of English in the U.S. has resulted in an insignificant amount of translation of international literature
British and American publishers SELL the translation rights for English books at international book fairs, such as the Frankfurt Book Fair
But the number of translation rights they BUY is very low. Their interest is only in books that promise to be bestsellers
In comparison, France gets translated 12% and Germany about 15% (figures from 1990s given by Venuti, 1995)
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Monolingualism and culture survival The trend towards English books in the the USA may
indicate: a conceited belief of superiority of English an unwillingness to acknowledge or receive
different cultures Suppression of languages other than English: a way
of minimizing the effect of other cultures? About 20% of Americans speak a language other
than English at home today (2000 US Census)
Is translation then an issue?
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Translation training in the USA Today, about 30 colleges and institutes offer
translation-related programs in the United Sates Intercultural studies programs; translation and
interpretation certificates Low figures in relation to: the size of the nation the number of inhabitants the size of the non-English speaking population the diversity of the N-ES population hence the need for translation
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Translation training in Canada 13 prestigious translator training institutions All of them are members of the Canadian
Association of Schools of Translation They offer translation training ranging from
certificates to Ph.D.’s With minors and majors in translation and/or
interpretation, within degrees in English or French
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History of translation and identity formation in the USA
The United States, a nation made up of immigrants People comprising the nation have come from a
wide range of linguistic and cultural origins American immigration history can be viewed in four
epochs: the colonial period (late 16th century)the mid-19th centurythe start of the 20th centurypost-1965
Multilingual/multicultural diversity has characterized American immigration
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Multilingualism: origin of settlers First three periods different regions of Europe After 1965 Latin America / Asia First settlers English, Dutch, French, Spanish,
Portuguese They traded with Native American peoples Before Columbus + 300 languages were spoken in
(today’s) USA Half of them are extinct today
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Migration into the USA after 1965 Ethnic quotas on immigration removed in 1965, the
number of first-generation immigrants living in the USA increased fourfold
Foreign-born population increased from 9.6 million in 1970 to over 40 million today
About 40% of them come from Latin America and Caribbean countries
Most of these immigrants speak Spanish as a first or second language (e.g. Guaraní as L1)
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Top 20 immigrant-sending: 2010, 2000 & 1990
Total 39,955,854 31,107,889 19,767,316
Source: decennial Census and American Community Survey
40 million = 13%± 40% from SS-LA
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Racially diverse, linguistically homogeneous?
Other important ethnic groups immigrating into the USA after 1965 (Source: 2000 census): Italian Polish Ukrainian Japanese Greek Portuguese Russian Taiwanese Irish Iranian Pakistani Thai
Ethnically, the USA is a diverse country No official language at the federal level Several unsuccessful proposals to make English the
USA official language In 1780, e.g., John Adams’s proposal was deemed
"undemocratic and a threat to individual liberty” Is linguistic unity possible in a diverse society?
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De facto national language in the USA Today’s situation is quite varied at state/territorial
level: Some states mirror federal policy: adopt no official
language Others have adopted English alone Others have officially adopted English as well as
local languages Still others have adopted a policy of de facto
bilingualism English is the de facto national language, with 80%
of the population claiming it as their mother tongue (US Census Bureau, 2012)
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Languages other than English Spanish second most common language in the
USA Spoken by over 15% of the population. However,
nearly all second-generation Hispanic Americans speak English fluently
People of German ancestry are the largest single ethnic group in the US. The German language ranks fifth
French, Italian, Polish, and Russian are still spoken among immigrant populations or their descendants
The use of these languages is decreasing as the older generations die
Source: US Census Bureau, 2012
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Main languages spoken in the USA Language N° of native speakers English 260 million
Spanish 44 million Chinese 3.5 million
French (& Creole)
2.5 million
Tagalog 2.5 million Vietnamese 2 million
German 1.5 million
The Spanish / Latino population is over 15%It outnumbers African-Americans (12.8%) (2006 US Census Bureau)Tagalog = Filipino: first language of 25% of Filipinos
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The linguistic situation in Canada Canada may look and feel like America. But when it
comes to translation, it is a different world Simple reason: Canada has two official languages,
English and French 25% of the population speak Québécois, and is
geographically concentrated in the province of Quebec
Few Canadians speak both English and French 7 of the 10 provinces are massively English Everything must be translated: government documents, public signs, court
decisions, packaging, advertisements, etc.
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Canada: a land of translation Canada is a land of translation demographic reality It occupies 10% of the global translation market
(Hamilton, 2010) Biggest employer of translators federal
government The government’s Translation Bureau hires 1,200
professionals: salaried translators interpreters terminologists localization specialists
The Translation Bureau also a regular source of work for hundreds of freelancers
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Translation industry in Canada Main difference between the USA and Canada
opportunity for salaried employment in translation Job opportunities pay good dividends in terms of
professional development in Canada Many thousands also work for private firms in Canada Banks (Royal, Montreal) have in-house translation
depts. Translators in Canada a variety of businesses:
accountancies airlines grocery store chains big retailers telecoms law firms
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Translation industry in Canada (ctd.)
Canada generalized need for translation Everybody who does business in Canada is a
potential translation client Most freelance translators can cultivate direct clients
among people in their families and social circles There are about 15,000 translators, interpreters,
terminologists, and localization specialists in Canada
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The translation industry in the USA With the English-only policy, a small number of
translators have developed a career Citizens are usually denied regular translation
services (Genzler, 2008) No programs with federal funding for translation,
e.g. courts, educational institutions, hospitals, police, banks, social security agencies, etc.
Genzler (2008) possible cause: lack of funding, a sociopolitical issue
Over 150 languages are spoken in the USA today Is there a need for translation services?
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A unilingual melting pot The USA melting-pot ideology, aspiring to integrate
all incoming languages and cultures into one inclusive whole, does not match reality (Genzler, 2008)
The existing melting pot is the place where nothing has really melted
The English-only policy has played a role in people’s ghettoization. Several languages + cultures have been ghettoized because of socio-economic / legal pressure
Amerindians were relegated to reservations and blacks in urban ghettos
Chinese immigrants were centralized in Chinatowns and Latinos segregated in ‘barrios’ (where Hispanics can express communal culture and language)
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The English-only policy in the USA The current English-only policy in the USA dates back
to the epoch of the founding fathers Jefferson, Jay, and Franklin, among others, lobbied for
English as the national language Roosevelt: “We must have but one language. That
language must be of the Declaration of Independence.”
(Roosevelt’s Language Loyalties, quoted by Shell, 2002: 7)
Two hundred years later, arguments are still the same 2006, 2007, 2008: US Senate provisions to
“preserve and enhance the role of English as the national language of the United States of America”
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Translate or not translate… The Constitution itself was translated into several
languages (Fr., Sp., Ru., Ge., It.) in order to spread the word to the nation’s multilingual citizens
25% of the settlers were of non-English origin Those speaking African and Amerindian languages
were non-citizens, thus not included The German language was once a choice as a
national tongue in the USA 40% of Pennsylvania inhabitants spoke German there were many German-language newspapers there was even a German-language political party
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Non-translation policy in USA Treaties with Amerindians and Mexico invariably
supported language and translation rights for minorities in the past
Translation was put into practice in the early nation, but it quickly went underground
The monolingual English-only policy led to a translation policy of non-translation
The unwritten policy of non-translation became the norm enforced by “the system”
Genzler (2008) suggests that strategically repressed translation has played a central role in the construction of culture and identity
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No translation, no mediation, no integration
Non-translation policy is a leading socio-political issue today
No national translation policy no policy of mediation, negotiation, communication or inclusion
Discrimination against language minorities in streets, courts, jails, schools, hospitals, welfare offices
Ethnic and linguistic minority communities sometimes have their own committed group of (often unpaid) translators
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Translating from Amerindian cultures Translation from Amerindian cultures was a one-way
activity. British colonizers translated their culture into Amerindian languages for two reasons:
the non-translation policy dominance (power & influence) and domination (exercise of control)
the oral tradition of Amerindian literature In contemporary multicultural studies, traces of
Amerindian oral tradition occur, usually as “cultural translations” in the form of stories within stories
The role of translation from American Indian cultures in the formation of American identity has been neglected as a study area
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The turn into culture in translation studies Translation Studies became visibly active in the USA
when the pragmatic turn of the 1970s gave rise to the cultural turn in the 1980s
The importance of the CT in American translation studies (1990s) is evident (Genzler, 2008): cultural processes and systems of signification
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The cultural turn in America The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays
(1973) by American anthropologist Clifford Geertz was one of the foundational works facilitating the turn to cultural forms of analysis
The Interpretation of Culture elaborates upon cultural systems of social behavior (meanings, gestures, myths) that are unique to any given culture
People both shape and are shaped by society
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DTS: descriptive, target-oriented, functional & systemic
1990s new insights in translation in America and elsewhere
Societies were especially open to sociological & cultural factors
Research was based on the assumption that translation constituted a primary means by which culture is constructed
Translation became important to studies of cultural evolution and identity formation
Cultural studies became the impelling force of DTS scholars (“manipulation school”) in 1990-2000
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DTS: aim and interests
Aim: to describe the phenomena of translating and translation(s) as they manifest themselves in the world of experience
DTS focuses on three areas of research: Product:
synchronic (at one point) diachronic (as it has evolved)
Function: translation sociology or socio-translation studies
Process: psychology of translation or psycho-translation studies
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DTS and manipulation Premise: all translation implies a degree of
manipulation of the ST for a certain purpose 1990s focus on how textual practices are used by
governments, publishers, & educational institutions to manipulate culture
Fundamental questions around manipulation: Which texts are selected for translation Who makes the decisions and why Where those translations are made available Who the translations are meant for Perspective from which texts are translated to the
target culture
Manipulation is carried out in support of the status quo, i.e. the ultimate aim being to hold power
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Power in the construction of culture “Translation has been a major shaping force
in the development of world culture” (Lefevere & Bassnett, 1990: 12).
“The key topic that has provided the impetus for the new directions that translation studies have taken since the cultural turn is power” (Genzler/ Tymoczko, 2002: XVI)
“Translation […] was shown to be instrumental in the process of developing and maintaining power” (Genzler, 2008: 1)
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Power in translation In DTS power should not be understood as that
exclusively exercised by institutions and authorities traditionally seen as the proprietors of power
According to Tymoczko (2007), power is also exercised by people seeking empowerment, as a means to resist oppression
Power in translation is linked to: Hegemony: dominant cultures Norms: standards language target groups censorship ideologies (political, religious)
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Power and the role of the translator The role of translators is closely related to power:
‘the ability to influence the behavior of others’ Translators often function as double agents:
“representing both the institution in power and those seeking empowerment” (Gentzer/Tymoczko 2002: xix)
Translators always have the possibility to influence texts by emphasizing specific content by rearranging parts of the text
Imbalance of power
In the USA, “the English-only majority uses practices of translation and non-translation to marginalize language minorities” Gentzler (2008: 32)
The hegemonic power of English-only discourse plays a double role (Genzler, 2008: 32): externally, in global relations and
international exchanges internally, in relations with language
minorities within the borders of the USA
Translation Studies in the USA: infant stages
The American Translation and Interpreting Studies Association (ATISA) has only existed since 2002
Translation did not use to be a subject matter TS did not develop in the USA until the XX
century Translators were pragmatic users of the
languages they translated They knew very little about translation theories Most came to the field by chance and stayed by
choice
Translation studies in the USA and Canada Translation in the USA XX and XXI centuries Venuti, Maier, Tymoczko, and Levine, among
others, have increasingly connected translation phenomena to issues such as:
marginalization migration resistance Identity
Other TS scholars focusing on cultural aspects, identity, and minority groups in Anglo America: Simon, Von Flotow, Godard, Arrojo (2000-2010)
Translation in the USA in the 1960s The 1960s a great age
for cultural expansion in general for translation in particular
Many ideas entered US culture for the first time
Remarkably, key creative writers were also active translators:
William De Witt Snodgrass William Stanley Merwin Charles Simic Robert Bly Gary Snyder Philip Levine
Translation: not a minor affair During this period, important works entered
USA culture via translation: Philosophers: Husserl, Sartre, Lévi-Strauss,
Habermas, Heidegger Poets: Apollinaire, Rimbaud, Neruda, Vallejo Experimental playwrights: Beckett, Brecht,
Pirandello, Ionesco Marxist thinkers: Mao, Trotsky, Che Guevara,
Fanon, Luxemburg
Translation: a tool to uncover/discover culture
Translations have served not only to import ideas from other cultures
Also to inform and allow citizens to better understand themselves via an alternative culture
In the 1950s and early 1960s, e.g. translations helped to uncover unconscious thoughts and powerful emotions, e.g.: Pablo Neruda Antonio Machado Federico García Lorca
TS housed by American Studies The larger field of American Studies
(translation), is increasingly turning toward multilingual and multicultural issues
A new generation of researchers, who focus on the many cultures of the USA, is emerging
In this new American Studies paradigm, “American” does not (only) refer to the USA; it also includes the different languages, nationalities and cultures of the New World: Canada, Latin America and the Caribbean
AS focus on border cultures Scholars of American Studies (Dimock, Rowe,
Gruesz, Shell, Pease, Siemerling) focus on points of historical, geographical and linguistic contact where two or more communities must negotiate their respective identities
They have concentrated mainly on border cultures and contact zones within the Americas, which are obvious sites of translation Canada-USA USA-Mexico Brazil-ten neighbors
The scope of American Studies
American Studies focus on the United States’ new role as a global
power its form of linguistic, cultural and intellectual
domination the paradigm is also international: it includes
viewpoints from American scholars outside the USA: Latin American, Philippine, Vietnamese, and even Near Eastern perspectives on US texts and culture
Canada today
Canada contains a “nation” within a nation Québécois is the predominant variety of (formal
and informal) French spoken in Canada Quebeckers have maintained their language
and culture for nearly 400 years There have even been attempts to define
Québécois as separate from standard French
Linguistic reality of Canada The struggle once was: which language to use?
English, British English, American English, Canadian English, French, standard French, Canadian French or Québécois?
The Québécois secession movement has failed In 1976, French became the official language of
Quebec Both English and French are official languages in
Canada today By the Constitution, both languages have equal
status and rights in Parliament and in Government
Bilingualism/biculturalism Two significant immigration waves into Canada: 1901-1911: over 1.7 million people; WWI and
the Great Depression halted the flow 1951-1961: over 2 million people; after WWII
But Canada has concentrated on its bilingual nature
Thus, it has excluded other language groups from discussions on social/cultural policies defining its multiculturalism: indigenous populations recent immigrants (e.g. political refugees)
Immigrant-sending countries into Canada, 2010
Country Number %Philippines 36,578 13.0India 30,252 10.8China 30,197 10.8 United Kingdom 9,499 3.4
United States 9,243 3.3 France 6,934 2.5
Iran 6,815 2.4 United Arab Emirates 6,796 2.4Morocco 5,946 2.1South Korea 5,539 2.0Top 10 Total 147,799
52.7Other 132,882
47.3Total 280,681
100
• Canada’s population: 34.5 million
• Immigration: 20%• Rate: 250,000 a
year
Source: Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2010
Canada: also a multicultural society Canada has immigrants from dozens of
countries Up until 1960, about 90% of immigrants were
European Most learned English quickly; assimilated to
Canadian life Immigration policies ensured the dominance of
English speakers and a Eurocentric cultural policy
Today, the top three immigrant-sending countries are The Philippines, India, and China
Translation bridges cultures?
Translation has proven to be a crucial tool in culture formation
It has played a crucial role in aiding understanding and the shaping of identity
A bridge between peoples of Canada It has also exposed power imbalances and
exacerbated problems Translation was a leading tool for the
construction of a separate “Québécois identity” and the social democratic Parti Québécois
Translation a tool for empowerment
Translators felt standard French was incapable of expressing certain experiences/concerns of Quebeckers
The translation of canonical literature (Molière, T. Williams, Pirandello, B. Brecht, B. Shaw) into Québécois was a clear attempt to make foreign works Quebec’s own
The language of translation thus became a tool: for empowering regional groups for articulating repressed social/political
concerns
Translation and feminism in Quebec Translation had to do with how NOT to be
assimilated by the other It was a way to reject the other It allowed space for the creation of
Quebeckers’ own identity Social turmoil (1960s and early 1970s) some
women began to use language & translation to critique the predominant, powerful, patriarchal structures
Quebec feminists perform(ed) double translation: English/Québécois and masculine/feminine
Visibilizing the feminine in Quebec Women writers/translators (Brossard, Godard, De
Lotbinière-Harwood) have studied/practiced feminist translation, developing a form of translation called the ‘rewriting of the feminine’
Inventing words part of this feminist strategy: auther instead of ‘author’, herstory instead of ‘history’
Not only adapting words/re-sexing pronouns to destabilize male discourse: translation has been used to articulate a new theory of culture: one that is a) more inclusive, b) more democratic, and c) more open for change
Speaking out against discrimination The situation in Quebec has underscored the
value of translation as a tool in the construction of the identity of any ethnic minority
Marginalized peoples, being discriminated against for
language differences ethnic backgrounds sexual orientations
can learn a lot from Quebec translators and translation theorists (Genzler, 2008)
Support of translation in Canada
In this context, it is interesting to note that: the Canada Council supports translation and
publication of selected Canadian titles from one official language into the other
translations of Canadian titles into various languages are published around the world
Canada has grants to support the translation of works into languages other than French
(Edwin Genzler, 2008: 40)