FOR PUBLIC COMMENT
J U N E 1 9 9 9
TRANSPORT, URBAN LAND USE
& PLANNING WORKING GROUP
TRANSPORT, URBAN LAND USE
& PLANNING WORKING GROUP
Report to the WA Greenhouse CouncilReport to the WA Greenhouse Council
Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group
Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
Western Australian Implementation Plan for the National Greenhouse Strategy in the
Areas of Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning
Prepared by
Western Australian Planning CommissionAlbert Facey House
469 Wellington StreetPerth, Western Australia 6000
J U N E 1 9 9 9
The Ministry for Planning and the Department of Transport have joint
responsibility for the administration of the TULUP Working Group.
This report has been finalised in consultation with the agencies
below through the forum of the TULUP Working Group.
The purpose of this report is to increase the level of information
and awareness of the issue of greenhouse gas emissions in the
transport and land use planning sectors. The TULUP Working
Group notes the difficulty in estimating greenhouse benefits from
implementation of actions with the current level of information,
especially where actions relate to changing community behaviour
and perceptions. It recommends that further investigation be
undertaken to determine social costs and benefits prior to formal
decisions on the implementation of greenhouse abatement
measures and procedures. The TULUP Working Group also
recommends that the additional benefits generated from
implementation of actions should be taken into consideration
during decision making.
ii TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
List of Contributors
The Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning (TULUP) Working Group was established in July 1998. Its membership comprises:
Mr Gary Prattley Ministry for Planning (Chair)
Mr Emmerson Richardson Department of Transport
Mr Richard McKellar Department of Transport
Mr Michael Waite Department of Environmental Protection (DEP)
Mr Derrick Fitzpatrick Main Roads Western Australia (MRWA)
Mr Jim Ironside Westrail
Mr Steve Hiller Western Australian Municipal Association (WAMA)
Mr David Wake Conservation Council of WA
Mr Matthew Quinn Urban Development Institute of Australia (UDIA)
A/Professor Barrie Mellote Royal Australian Planning Institute (RAPI)
Ms Verity Allan Housing Industry Association (HIA)
Mr Alan Layton Road Transport Association (RTA)
Mr Mike Upton Royal Automobile Club of Australia (RAC)
Mr Gary Mason Institute of Engineers Transport Panel
Dr Jeff Kenworthy Murdoch University
Mr Jim Davies Westralia Airports Corporation
Mr Simon Luff Australian Chamber of Shipping
Mr Aart ter Kuile Australian Gas Association
Ms Jane Aberdeen Chamber of Minerals and Energy (CME)
Mr Rob Griffiths Ministry for Planning
Ms Jodie Tennyson Ministry for Planning
Ms Shelley Shepherd Department of Transport
© State of Western Australia
Published by theWestern Australian Planning CommissionAlbert Facey House469 Wellington StreetPerth, Western Australia 6000
Published June 1999
ISBN 0 7309 9104 0
Internet: http://www.wa.gov.au/planningE-mail: [email protected]
Tel: (08) 9264 7777Fax: (08) 9264 7566TTY: (08) 9264 7535Infoline: 1800 626 477
Copies of this document are available in alternative formats on application to the Disabilities Services Coordinator
iii
Contents
Executive summary v
1. Background 1
1.1 The enhanced greenhouse effect 1
1.2 History of greenhouse negotiations 1
1.3 The Prime Minister’s Statement 1
1.4 National Greenhouse Strategy 1
2. WA Greenhouse Council and the TULUP Working Group 3
2.1 Role of the Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group 3
3. Methodology 3
3.1 Data sources 4
3.2 National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4
3.3 Greenhouse performance indicators 5
4. Context 5
4.1 Urban land use planning 5
4.2 Greenhouse gas emissions and transport 6
4.3 Business as usual 8
5. Greenhouse gas abatement strategies for transport and urban land use planning 9
5.1 Improved transport management, including better integration of modes,
infrastructure, and urban planning and design 10
5.1.1 Traffic management 10
5.1.2 Integration of transport modes 11
5.1.3 Infrastructure 11
5.1.3.1 Public transport infrastructure 11
5.1.3.2 Public transport fares 12
5.1.3.3 New public transport modes and technologies 12
5.1.3.4 Freight infrastructure 13
5.1.4 Integration of land use and transport planning 13
5.2 Reducing the demand for travel 15
5.2.1 ‘Just in time’ delivery 16
5.2.2 Telecommuting 16
5.2.3 Ride sharing and car pooling 16
5.2.4 Competitive neutrality within the freight industry 17
5.3 Encouraging sustainable modes of transport 18
5.3.1 Individualised marketing – TravelSmart 18
5.3.2 Cycling 19
5.3.3 Walking 19
5.3.4 Increasing public transport patronage 19
5.4 Improving fuel consumption of the vehicle fleet, covering both vehicle technology and vehicle mix 20
5.4.1 Vehicle emission standards 20
5.4.2 Vehicle tuning 20
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
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5.4.3 Targets for reducing emissions from commercial and freight vehicles 21
5.4.4 Vehicle emissions testing 21
5.4.5 Car scrapping programs 21
5.4.6 Incentives for fuel efficient vehicles 22
5.4.7 Information programs on efficient vehicle use 22
5.4.8 Environmental Strategy for the Motor Vehicle Industry 23
5.5 Increasing the use of alternative fuels in the vehicle fleet and/or revised specifications
for conventional fuels 24
5.5.1 Petrol 24
5.5.2 Diesel 25
5.5.3 Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) 25
5.5.4 Compressed natural gas (CNG) 26
5.5.5 Methanol 27
5.5.6 Ethanol 27
5.5.7 Hydrogen 27
5.5.8 Increased use of alternative fuels 28
6. Evaluation of greenhouse gas abatement measures 28
6.1 ‘No regrets’ measures 28
7. Summary of greenhouse gas abatement measures and actions 29
8. Conclusions 33
References 35
Figures
Figure 1: Greenhouse gas emission levels from commuting to work from East Perth and the Urban Fringe. 6
Figure 2: Greenhouse gas emissions from mobile sources in 1990 and 1995 by mode (NGGIC, 1998) 7
Figure 3: Greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector in WA in 1995 (NGGIC, 1998). 7
Figure 4: Forecast population and vehicle kilometres travelled in Perth to 2021 (Transport, 1995a). 8
Figure 5: Predicted road emissions by vehicle type (Mt CO2 equivalents) (BTCE, 1996) 8
Figure 6: Increases in patronage of the Perth Urban rail system 12
Tables
Table 1: A summary of Existing and Additional measures identified in Module 5 of the NGS 2
Table 2: Predicted increases in greenhouse gas emissions (Mt CO2) from the road transport sector in
Western Australia. 9
Table 3: Predicted increases in greenhouse gas emissions from the Australian transport sector in
2010 in comparison with 1990 levels (BTCE, 1996). 9
Table 4: Predicted reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) from implementation of actions
currently being undertaken by Government agencies. 30
Table 5: Actions unlikely to be implemented without additional funding. 31
Table 6: Other greenhouse abatement actions. 32
Appendices
1. Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group Terms of Reference 38
2. List of Abbreviations 40
iv TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
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Executive summary
As a result of agreements made at the Framework
Convention on Climate Change in Kyoto in December
1997, Australia has agreed to limit its greenhouse gas
emissions to 108% of 1990 levels during the period
2008 to 2012. Australia responded to the Kyoto
Protocol by releasing the National Greenhouse
Strategy (NGS) which describes initiatives to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions from human activities.
The NGS looks at the abatement of greenhouse gas
emissions through action on three fronts: fostering
knowledge and understanding of greenhouse issues;
limiting greenhouse gas emissions; and laying the
foundations for adaptation to climate change. This
report focuses on limiting net greenhouse gas
emissions through efficient transport and sustainable
urban planning.
Greenhouse gas emissions from transport are
significant. In 1995, the transport sector was
responsible for 15.4% of greenhouse gas emissions in
Western Australia (including the ‘forestry and other’
category, excluding land clearing), an increase of 0.7
megatonnes (Mt) or 1.5% since 1990 (NGGIC, 1998).
The proportion of greenhouse gas emissions from
mobile sources is expected to increase further if
business practices continue as usual.
This report identifies actions currently being
undertaken by Government and other agencies that
reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transport,
urban land use and urban planning sectors. These
actions demonstrate Western Australia’s compliance
with measures identified in Module 5 of the NGS, in
the areas of integrating land use and transport
planning, travel demand management and traffic
management, encouraging greater use of public
transport, walking and cycling, improving vehicle fuel
efficiency and fuel technologies, and freight and
logistics systems. The report identifies measures
additional to the NGS, including vehicle emissions
testing, emissions targets for commercial and freight
vehicles, changes to vehicle registration charges and
changes to regulation of the rail and sea freight
industry. It should be noted that a comprehensive
cost benefit analysis of these actions would need to be
undertaken prior to decisions to implement them.
In order to identify greenhouse gas abatement actions
that should be implemented, each action should be
evaluated to determine its cost effectiveness. This will
allow decisions on the implementation of actions to
be based on sufficient information and allow
justification in terms of environmental, economic
and social considerations; however, it is difficult to
quantify social considerations, however this is
necessary if accurate comparisons are to be made.
Unlike other sectors, it is difficult to reliably quantify
reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from actions
in the transport and urban land use sectors, as the
effectiveness of the majority of actions relies on
changes to community attitudes and behaviours.
Additionally, actions are not undertaken in isolation
and the outcomes of many strategies are influenced
by other actions.
The TULUP Working Group has used the targets for
mode shift outlined in the Metropolitan Transport
Strategy (MTS). The MTS predicts that emissions
from cars in the Perth metropolitan area will be
reduced by nearly 25% of the ‘business as usual’
(BAU) scenario in 2010 if the proposed mode shifts
are on target for 2029. This is a reduction of around
1 Mt CO2 equivalents (CO2-e) per annum.
Owing to predicted growth in emissions from certain
sectors, abatement strategies should focus on the
areas of private vehicle use, light commercial vehicle
and articulated truck use, and air transport. This
report has not discussed the issue of air transport, as
this sector is regulated federally and is being
investigated by the Commonwealth. The reduction of
emissions in other areas has been discussed largely on
a qualitative basis.
The Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning
Working Group believes that regional planning is an
effective tool to ensure the integration of land uses
with an efficient transportation system. Emissions
from the land use planning sector relate largely to the
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
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annual emissions of greenhouse gases from mobile
combustion engines consuming fuel purchased in
Australia and includes emissions from fuel
combustion and fugitive releases (fuel evaporation).
3.3 Greenhouse performance indicators
As recommended in the NGS, greenhouse
performance indicators should be developed for all
urban centres within Western Australia with
populations of more than 20,000. The indicators
should focus on energy use and greenhouse emissions
from the residential sector, urban systems and urban
transport. Key support indicators could be included
(e.g. trip numbers and lengths, emissions per
kilometre travelled).
Possible key indicators are:
• residential – total and per capita emissions;
• transport – total and per capita emissions;
– emissions per passenger kilometre
travelled; and
– emissions per tonne kilometre
travelled for freight.
Possible support indicators are:
• total kilometres travelled in urban areas;
• number and average length of trips;
• average kilometres per capita by mode;
• emissions per kilometre travelled in urban areas;
and
• emissions by mode and by fuel type.
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
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Actions
1. Establish a database for emissions from both the transport and urban land use sectors.
2. Develop performance indicators for greenhouse gas emissions from transport and urban land uses.
4. Context
In 1990, Western Australia contributed approximately
10% of the total 622 million tonnes (in Mt CO2
equivalent) of greenhouse gases emitted in Australia,
making it the fourth largest contributor in the
country (NGGI, 1997). Western Australia’s net
greenhouse gas emissions for 1990 totalled 42.5 Mt of
CO2 equivalents (CO2-e), increasing by 16% to 49.3
Mt CO2-e in 1995 (NGGIC, 1998).
4.1 Urban land use planning
Metropolitan and regional urban areas emit a
significant proportion of greenhouse gases in WA.
Conventional urban development, which places an
emphasis on greenfield developments, has resulted in
the segregation of land uses and a consequent heavy
reliance on private cars for transport to reach both
services and employment (Energy Victoria et al, 1996).
The urban land use sector emits greenhouse gases
through clearing for urban land use (i.e. loss of
vegetation), energy requirements of buildings (such
as heating and cooling), and the resultant travel
requirements of the population. The continued
growth of the Perth metropolitan area has resulted in
clearing of remnant bushland and changes to land use
patterns in agricultural areas on the periphery of
Perth and regional centres. This reduces the amount
of vegetation available to sequester greenhouse gas
emissions or act as a sink and, accordingly, increases
net emissions.
The life-cycle costs of building materials also
contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. This includes
emissions generated from energy used in the
production and extraction of raw materials, heating
and cooling resulting from poor insulation, and
emissions produced when structures are demolished.
It is recognised that more compact forms of urban
development have lower greenhouse gas emissions
from transport than dispersed forms (Dess & Millard,
1998). The growth of Perth using conventional urban
development has resulted in what is commonly called
suburban sprawl. This type of urban development
usually segregates land uses and tends to be
inadequately serviced by public amenities,
employment and public transport, and is difficult for
walking and cycling. This has consequently resulted
in increased reliance on the motor vehicle (Newman,
Kenworthy & Vintila, 1992).
In recent years, however, there has been a trend
towards smaller block sizes within the Perth
metropolitan area. In the past seven years, the average
size of green title blocks has decreased by over 130 m2.
In 1991, the median size of a green title residential lot
was 729 m2. This decreased in 1992 to average 698 m2
and again in 1998 to average 593 m2 (MfP
unpublished, 1999).
Additionally, a number of medium density urban
developments (such as Ellen Brook, Mindarie Keys,
Harbour Rise, Subi Centro and East Perth) are being
implemented in the Perth metropolitan region. This
new, more compact form of urban development is
similar to the concept of the ‘urban village’.
Both on a national and international scale, the urban
village model in its various forms is being promoted
as a means of achieving more sustainable cities.
Urban villages are suburban centres with a variety of
housing types, offices and shops, local employment
opportunities, good access to public transport, safe
and attractive streets and a range of community
facilities within easy walking distance. Their design
promotes energy efficiency and they provide
opportunities for people to travel by means other
than the car (i.e. walking, cycling and public
transport) (Dess & Millard, 1998).
The concept of the urban village has been developed
to address the social, environmental, economic and
transport problems that exist within the conventional
urban environment. Studies undertaken in Victoria,
such as the Greenhouse Neighbourhood (Loder and
Bayly et al, 1993) and the Urban Villages Project
(Energy Victoria et al, 1996), investigated the effect on
greenhouse gas emissions from mixed use, medium
density development in metropolitan environments
in comparison to more conventional urban forms.
The Urban Villages Project estimated that the
introduction of this type of development on the
urban fringe of Melbourne could result in a 26%
reduction in heating and cooling related emissions
and a 57% reduction in car related emissions (Energy
Victoria et al, 1996).
Figure 1: Greenhouse gas emission levels (Mt CO2-e) fromcommuting to work from East Perth and the Urban Fringe.
Figures based on comparison of the East Perth Redevelopmentmodel with traditional urban development on the urban fringe.
Source: Kenworthy & Newman 1992.
Research also suggests that urban redevelopment
based on the urban village model is more effective in
reducing greenhouse gas emissions for journey to
work trips than traditional urban development on the
metropolitan fringe (Figure 1) (Kenworthy &
Newman, 1992). It is likely that applying urban
village principles on the urban development fringe
would also achieve reductions in greenhouse
emissions as compared with traditional development
on the urban fringe.
4.2 Greenhouse gas emissions and transport
In 1990, emissions from mobile energy (transport)
sources in Western Australia totalled 6.9 Mt CO2-e.
This is equal to 20.5% of greenhouse gases emitted
from the energy sector and represents 13.5% of total
greenhouse gas emissions in Western Australia
(NGGIC, 1998). Although there were changes in
absolute emissions (i.e. mobile sources emitted 7.6
Mt CO2-e in 1995), the relative contribution of each
sector to Western Australia’s emissions in 1990 and
1995 remained stable. Emissions from mobile sources
in WA in 1995 represent just over 11% of total
6 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
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0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Urban FringeEast Perth
GH
GE
(Mt
CO
2-e)
4
7
emissions from mobile sources in Australia
(NGGIC, 1998).
The majority of greenhouse gases from mobile
sources are emitted from road transport (Figure 2),
primarily from cars (Figure 3). Rail transport is
accountable for around five per cent of greenhouse
gas emissions, although it should be noted that this
does not include emissions from generating
electricity for electric rail systems. Emissions from air
transport have increased from nine percent of mobile
sources to twelve percent between 1990 and 1995 and
emissions from sea transport have decreased from ten
to six percent (NGGIC, 1998).
Figure 2: Greenhouse gas emissions from mobile sources in 1990and 1995 by mode (NGGIC, 1998)
In 1995, road transport was responsible for 77.4% of
greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector
in Western Australia, of which 50.4% is attributed to
passenger cars (Commonwealth of Australia, 1998b)
(Figure 2). Emissions from motorcycles, buses and
medium sized tucks are negligible (0.2, 2.0 and 2.2%
of total WA emissions respectively); however,
emissions from heavy trucks and light commercial
vehicles (LCVs or light trucks) are fairly substantial
(10.7 and 11.8% respectively).
Figure 3: Greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector inWA in 1995 (NGGIC, 1998).
Unless transport management strategies are put in
place, the continued growth of Perth is predicted to
lead to an 18% increase in vehicle kilometres travelled
(VKT) per capita in 2011 based on 1990 levels
(Figure 4) (Transport, 1995a). The growth of the
metropolitan area will result in enhanced emissions
of greenhouse gases from vehicles through increased
traffic congestion, extended travel times and extended
travel distances. However, as cars emit over half the
emissions from mobile sources, reducing the demand
for car travel and increasing the use of non-car modes
of transport are key elements in limiting greenhouse
gas emissions from transport.
Figure 4: Forecast population and vehicle kilometres travelled inPerth to 2021 (Transport, 1995a).
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
71990
1995
Transport sectorRailRoadSeaAir
GH
GE
(Mt
CO
2-e)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
1995
1990
Road transport mode
GH
GE
(Mt
CO
2-e)
MotorcyclesBusesHeavytruck
Mediumtruck
Lighttruck
Car
50
100
150
200
250
300
VKT per personVehicle kilometres travelledPopulation
20212016201120062001199619911986Year
Inde
x
4.3 Business as usual
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of measures to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions over a period of
time, it is necessary to establish a base case or
‘business as usual’ (BAU) scenario of greenhouse gas
emissions. A base case BAU estimation is projected on
the assumption that no specific actions are taken to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
The Bureau of Transport and Communications
Economics (BTCE) first estimated long term base
case projections for greenhouse gas emissions from
transport within Australia (BTCE, 1995). These
estimates have since been revised using more up-to-
date information on likely technological
improvements. Models used by BTCE to predict the
BAU scenario include CARMOD, TRUCKMOD and
AVMOD (BTCE, 1996). These models can be adapted
to predict transport growth for Western Australia.
BTCE estimates that greenhouse gas emissions from
cars in Australia will grow by around ten per cent over
the period from 1996 to 2015 (Figure 5). This estimate,
however, assumes that there will be a significant
slowing in the growth of car ownership in Australia.
According to the BTCE report, Australia, like the
United States, is nearing the “saturation” point of
vehicle ownership. The Australian saturation level has
been estimated to be between 490 and 540 vehicles per
1000 persons (McRobert, 1997), but the current figures
of car ownership in Perth are already greater than
580 per 1000 persons (Transport et al, 1995).
BTCE, however, concludes that by modelling this
trend, coupled with a slowing in population growth
and reduced new car fuel and emissions intensities,
passenger vehicle (car) emissions of greenhouse gases
are projected to decline after 2010 (BTCE, 1996). The
conclusions about declining personal vehicle travel in
Australia are contrary to many European studies that
project a continuation of vigorous personal travel
demand and burgeoning car ownership (McRobert,
1997), and contrary to the MTS which estimates the
ratio to be around 630 cars per 1000 people by the
year 2010 and still growing (Transport et al, 1995).
Accordingly, the BTCE emissions projections may
significantly underestimate potential emissions from
cars in 2010.
The estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from
trucks and light commercial vehicles (LCVs) suggests
a completely different scenario. During the same
period, the growth in commercial road freight is
expected to increase by more than 90% and the levels
of emissions will be similar to that of cars sometime
after 2015 (BTCE, 1996). Figure 5 illustrates BTCE’s
projections for greenhouse gas emissions from the
road transport sector in Australia to the year 2015.
Figure 5: Predicted road emissions by vehicle type (Mt CO2 equivalents) (BTCE, 1996)
Extrapolating the BTCE projections for greenhouse
gas emissions from the Australian transport sector for
2010, based on the 1995 WA proportions of the
Australian vehicle task (ABS, 1996), suggests that
greenhouse gas emissions from road transport will
increase by nearly 150% in Western Australia. This
increase is just under ten per cent greater than that
projected for the whole of Australia.
Greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles
(cars) in Western Australia are projected to increase
to 109% of 1990 levels to 3.7 Mt CO2 (Table 2).
Emissions from LCVs will increase the most
dramatically however, to nearly 2.6 Mt CO2 or over
209% of 1990 levels. It should be noted that Western
8 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
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5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
BicyclesArticulated trucksRigid trucks
Year
LCV'sBusesMotorcyclesCars
20142010200620042002200019981996199419921990
CO
2 eq
uiva
lent
s (M
t)
4
9
Australia has proportionally more vehicles, with the
exception of passenger cars, than the average in
Australia. This is more than likely due to the size of
the State and the relatively small population and low
density development of Perth.
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
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Table 2: Predicted increases in greenhouse gas emissions (Mt CO2) from the road transport sector in Western Australia(assuming similar WA proportions of the Australian transport task in 2010 to those in 1995)
(Commonwealth of Australia, 1998).
Cars Motor- Buses LCVs Rigid Articulated Totalcycles trucks trucks
Aus %incr. from 1990 to 2010 114.79% 83.71% 108.94% 246.44% 124.48% 161.31% 136.15%
WA: Australia task ratio 0.95 1.15 1.08 1.18 1.17 1.01
WA %incr. from 1990 to 2010 109.05% 96.27% 117.66% 290.80% 145.64% 162.92% 147.8%
WA GHGE 1990 3.4 0.03 0.14 0.89 0.25 0.89 5.60
WA GHGE 2010 3.7 0.03 0.16 2.58 0.36 1.45 8.28
Estimations of domestic aircraft movements are also expected to grow strongly, with rail and maritime emissions
remaining comparatively low (BTCE, 1996) (Table 3).
Table 3: Predicted increases in greenhouse gas emissions from the Australian transport sector in 2010 in comparison with 1990 levels (BTCE, 1996).
Australia road rail air sea total
%incr. from 1990 to 2010 136.19% 128.00% 234.82% 71.53% 138.05%
These estimates suggest that the main focus for
reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transport
should be towards actions that reduce emissions from
cars, commercial road vehicles and domestic aircraft.
5. Greenhouse gas abatementstrategies for transport andurban land use planning
There are a number of strategies that can reduce
emissions of greenhouse gases from the land use
planning and transport sectors. They fall into five
broad categories:
• Improved transport and urban land management,
including better integration of modes,
infrastructure, and urban planning and design;
• Reducing the demand for travel;
• Encouraging sustainable modes of transport;
• Improving fuel consumption of the vehicle fleet,
covering both vehicle technology and vehicle mix;
and
• Increasing the use of alternative fuels in the
vehicle fleet and/or revised specifications for
conventional fuels.
Each category is discussed below.
5.1 Improved transport and urban land
management, including better integration
of modes, infrastructure, and urban
planning and design
5.1.1 Traffic management
Effective traffic management has the potential to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions through the
reduction of congestion and the time required for
travel, through modification to parking management,
increases in road capacity, congestion pricing or the
introduction of intelligent transport systems.
Mechanisms currently implemented in Western
Australia include:
• the introduction of the Perth Parking Policy and
supporting legislation. The Perth Parking Policy
aims to reduce the extent of all-day commuter
parking in the Perth CBD as this is an area that
experiences congested approach roads and has
accessible public transport. The policy also
addresses the issue of commuter parking fees; and
• an investigation of the use of high-occupancy
vehicle (HOV) lanes including dedicated bus or
transitways.
In addition, Transport (WA) in collaboration with
the City of Perth has developed and is implementing
Access to the City for People, which is a comprehensive,
long term traffic management initiative for central
Perth. ‘Access’ ensures the efficient movement of
people, goods and services to, from, within and
around Perth. It focuses on improving the streets for
people, and ensuring efficient public transport and
other traffic flows, and first rate access for cyclists.
It is recognised that the Perth Parking Policy will not
greatly reduce emissions; however, it will stop the
growth of all day parking within the city, thereby
reducing the growth in greenhouse gas emissions
from commuters. For greater greenhouse benefit, all
day parking charges would need to be substantially
increased. This would encourage greater use of public
transport by commuters. Additionally, parking
charges for short stay bays could be substantially
increased; but due to the potential impact on
commercial industries, this is not likely to be
introduced. It should also be noted that greenhouse
benefits obtained from modification to parking
charges and bay numbers will not provide ongoing
increasing gains.
Other traffic management projects, such as road user
charges or the introduction of intelligent transport
systems, may be more effective in reducing the
amount of travel by car as the decision to use a car has
greater economic considerations. Road user charges
are a method of making road users pay for the
congestion they impose on others. These systems are
expensive to install and raise issues of privacy and
equity that would need to be resolved. Road user
charges applied in Perth could reduce vehicle
emissions significantly; however, consideration of
social cost and equity issues is necessary prior to a
decision to implement them. BTCE suggests that road
user charges would produce an overall benefit to
society (i.e. ‘no regrets’ measure, see Section 6.1) and
calculates a cumulative reduction in Perth in
greenhouse gas emissions of 7.01 Mt CO2-e between
1996 and 2010 (BTCE, 1996). Western Australia has
no plans as yet to undertake feasibility studies
regarding the introduction of congestion pricing.
Intelligent, electronic traffic management systems
can reduce emissions from motor vehicles by
achieving more consistent speeds of travel and
reducing the amount of congestion, especially on
high-volume routes. It is unlikely, however, that
expansion of these systems in Perth would achieve
significant greenhouse gas emissions reductions prior
to 2010.
Heightened speed limit enforcement is an additional
traffic management strategy that would decrease fuel
consumption and consequent greenhouse gas
emissions, as well as increasing road safety. This
strategy has been implemented in the UK and the UK
Climate Change Consultation Paper suggests that
between 0.4 – 2.8 Mt CO2 could be saved up to 2010
through strict enforcement of the 70 mph speed limit
on the motorways (Local Transport Today, 1998).
This strategy may not be as effective in Western
Australia due to the lower volume of public travel;
nevertheless, the implications for road freight
transport should be assessed.
Reducing access to the central business district (CBD)
to allow only public transport and high occupancy
vehicles would reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
the most congested areas of the city. The majority of
cars journeying to the CBD contain one person only.
If one vehicle could be used to transport many
10 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
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11
people, the amount of greenhouse emissions would
be reduced. Implications for the retail outlets in the
city may be severe because the majority of trips are
made by shoppers. Commuters represent only 21% of
trips to the CBD.
5.1.2 Integration of transport modes
Bringing about balanced transport use requires
involvement from all areas of the transport and land
use sectors. It requires action by many players, and
raising their awareness is fundamental to realising the
aims of the NGS.
Enhancing transfer of freight between modes could
improve environmental performance. Rail in particular
could play a greater role in freight movement with good
sea-rail and road-rail terminals. Quantification of
greenhouse savings is dependent on the level of transfer
of road freight to either rail or sea modes.
A recent study by Transport (WA) regarding long
term land transport access to Fremantle Inner
Harbour recommended that the movement of freight
to and from North Quay by rail should be maintained
in the long term. Further investigations will be
undertaken to ensure that the transport of freight by
rail to and from the port is carried out in the most
effective and efficient manner.
Intermodal integration in freight transportation has
been expanded recently in Perth with the
establishment of Specialized Container Transport’s
(SCT) new rail facility at Forrestfield. SCT has
introduced a highly efficient non-containerised
service that allows small individual consignments to
be carried economically.
In addition, the Transport Infrastructure Project
group established by Transport (WA) will investigate
and introduce ways of attracting investment for new
proposals to establish intermodal freight terminals or
proposals for new road and rail links that improve
intermodal container movement.
At this time, Western Australia has no plans to
implement pilot projects using electronic trading
facilities. This will need to be pursued by the
Commonwealth, including the potential for
Government subsidies to encourage intermodal
transport.
5.1.3 Infrastructure
5.1.3.1 Public transport infrastructure
Generally, greenhouse emissions from public
transport per head are less than for private vehicles,
and consequently a greater share of travel by public
transport offers greenhouse benefits. It is suggested,
however, that Perth’s public transport system needs to
be improved if it is to be a viable and attractive travel
choice for a greater range of people. Investment in the
system in terms of infrastructural service provision is
needed to do this.
Transport (WA) has developed the Better Public
Transport: Ten-Year Plan for Transperth which sets out
detailed proposals to improve public transport,
including bus, train and ferry services, in the Perth
metropolitan area over the next 10 years. This
strategy recognises the need to develop efficient
public transport systems that are responsive to
customer demands, particularly through
improvements to service reliability, comfort and
personal safety.
The Ten-Year Plan provides for the introduction of
dedicated bus transitways on Kwinana Freeway
between Perth City and South Street, Murdoch, and
between Rockingham and Fremantle. It also provides
for bus priority measures, primarily traffic signal
priority at critical intersections, on all proposed
System 21 routes and on the new cross-suburban
service, the Circle Route, as well as local-area
intersection treatments at congested times.
Dedicated bus lanes are proposed to be provided for
the Causeway, and sections of Adelaide Terrace, St
Georges Terrace, William Street, Barrack Street,
Beaufort Street and Mill Street to improve peak
period bus services.
The extension and electrification of the Perth urban
passenger rail system has promoted public transport
use in Perth (Figure 6). Electric rail systems are the
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
5
most energy efficient motorised transport per
passenger kilometre (Kenworthy, pers comm).
A master plan for the expansion of the Perth
passenger rail system to Mandurah, via Kenwick,
Jandakot and Rockingham has recently been released.
It is proposed that the South West Metropolitan
Railway will be constructed to Jandakot by 2005.
This rail system is expected to reduce the number of
car trips to and from the CBD, thereby reducing
congestion, car use and associated greenhouse gas
emissions. Using the existing suburban rail passenger
service as a conservative base-case model (although
the proposed new railway is likely to be more
efficient), a comparison can be made between the
future shift of passengers to rail travel from current
use of the private motor vehicle.
Operational modelling indicates that the South West
Metropolitan Railway will reduce greenhouse gas
emissions by approximately 0.026 Mt CO2–e per
annum for the Perth to Rockingham service and
0.055 Mt CO2–e per annum for the Perth to
Mandurah service (N Hammer, pers comm). This is
equal to 0.34% and 0.72% respectively of total
emissions from mobile sources in WA (based on 1995
figures).
It should be noted, however, that the generation of
electricity to provide power for the rail system emits
greenhouse gases. These have been estimated at 0.023
Mt CO2–e and 0.033 Mt CO2–e respectively (N
Hammer, pers comm). Consequently the greenhouse
gas benefit is likely to slightly outweigh the
greenhouse cost of the electricity generation.
Greenhouse gas benefits from the rapid transit system
will be greatly improved if and when Western
Australia reduces its dependence on coal for the
generation of power.
5.1.3.2 Public transport fares
Reducing fares through Government subsidies is one
method of increasing public transport patronage in
capital cities (BTCE, 1996). Research suggests that
reducing fares to 80 per cent of normal levels would
reduce commuting travel by private cars by about
twelve per cent and reduce total emissions from all
passenger transport in urban areas (private car and
public transport) by about four per cent (BTCE,
1996). This effectively translates to an emission
reduction of around 0.15 Mt CO2-e per annum.
However, practical experience demonstrates that
lower fares require additional government
expenditure to maintain service levels and investment
in the system. If the quality of service is sacrificed in
an effort to reduce expenditure, this can have a
greater detrimental effect on public transport
patronage than the reduced fares, and so requires
careful consideration.
5.1.3.3 New public transport modes and
technologies
The NGS recommends that a forum be established to
investigate new public transport modes and
technologies and to evaluate best practice options
applicable to various Australian urban conditions. A
working group under the Australian Transport
Council (ATC) may be suitable as a forum for this
investigation, with provision made for inputs from
the private sector and appropriate research
organisations.
Modes currently being investigated in Western
Australia include bus priority systems, transitways,
light rail and ferries. A discussion paper entitled An
Overview of Light Rail Technology and its Potential
12 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
97-9896-9795-9694-9593-9492-9391-9290-9189-9088-8987-88
Patr
onag
e (m
illio
ns)
Electrification
Northernsuburbs line
Figure 6: Increases in patronage of the Perth urban rail system(Source: P Italiano,Westrail)
13
Within An Australian Environment has recently been
released by the WAPC (WAPC, 1998). The paper
presents opportunities for and constraints on
introducing this transport mode into areas of the
Perth metropolitan area.
For light rail transit to be introduced into Perth, it
would need to be developed in close association with
land use planning to ensure there is an adequate
market. At this stage, no sites have been identified as
being appropriate for light rail development. It is
therefore unlikely that light rail transit would have
any impact on greenhouse gas emissions in WA
within the timeframe of 1990 to 2012, although the
potential for light rail to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions generally is quite high.
Transport (WA), MfP and the Swan River Trust are
currently commissioning a study on behalf of the WA
Government to determine the feasibility of providing
additional ferry services on the Swan and Canning
Rivers. The study will involve extensive public
consultation of potential users within the identified
catchment area.
As this study is still in draft form, it is unlikely that
there would be a significant increase in additional
ferry services in the near future. However, it is not
likely that ferries would largely replace car use in
Perth due to the urban structure and travel patterns
of commuters. Consequently, reduced emissions
through increases in the use of public ferry transport,
although unlikely, are equivocal by 2010.
5.1.3.4 Freight infrastructure
The need for greater investment in the rail network
was identified in the recent Tracking Australia inquiry
1998. The 1997/98 Federal Budget allocated $1.6
billion to roads and $250 million over four years to
rail (ARA, 1997). Increased levels of funding would
expand the capacity for low emission rail freight
transport and aid in enhancing the competitiveness
of the rail freight industry. Greenhouse emissions
reductions would then result from the transfer of
road freight to rail.
5.1.4 Integration of land use and transport planning
Urban design can play an important role in enabling
a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from urban
areas (Energy Victoria et al, 1996). Altering the
current structure, approach and design of urban
environments will reduce distances required to be
travelled, support the use of alternate modes of
transport to the car and allow improved integration
of transport systems.
Many Western Australian Local Governments, in
conjunction with the Ministry for Planning (MfP)
and Transport, are in the process of preparing and
implementing integrated land use and transport
strategies for major urban regions. Regional
Strategies, which promote appropriate mixed use
developments near public transport systems,
complement other strategies prepared by State
Government agencies such as the State Planning
Strategy (WAPC, 1996), Metropolitan Transport
Strategy (MTS) (Transport et al, 1995), Metroplan
(DPUD, 1990) and the Way Ahead (Metropolitan
Transport) (Transport, 1995b).
The MTS proposes directions for moving from a
transport system that is dominated by low occupancy
car use to a more balanced transport system, in which
public transport and non-motorised transport
options are feasible for many trips. Many of the
strategies already mentioned in this report, such as
Better Public Transport: Ten-Year Plan for Transperth
and Access to the City for People, form the basis for the
MTS. If the targets in the MTS can be achieved by
2029 and are on target for 2011, it is estimated that
greenhouse gas emissions from private cars within
the Perth metropolitan area will be reduced by nearly
25% of BAU emissions. This approximates 1Mt CO2-e
per annum. The cost of implementation of the MTS
is very difficult to determine, however, as
Government is undertaking many initiatives to
execute the MTS.
MfP’s policy for Development Near Railway Stations
(Policy DC 1.6, WAPC, 1990) promotes medium and
high-density residential and commercial precincts
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
5
around railway stations. This policy is currently being
revised to broaden its application. Implementation of
this policy will result in increased public transport
usage and reduced private vehicle trips.
The NGS also recommends the utilisation of
subdivision design features that support a reduction
in car dependence in new residential developments.
The recently released Liveable Neighbourhoods:
Community Design Code (WAPC 1997), which is
currently undergoing a trial implementation period,
promotes the development of sustainable
communities with mixed land uses and a balanced
transport system, including the incorporation of
higher residential and commercial densities in
appropriate areas and in new residential
developments. The Community Design Code also
promotes the application of subdivision design
elements to reduce the reliance on private vehicles for
transport within the community.
Another method of reducing greenhouse gas
emissions from the urban land use sector is to modify
the layout of new housing areas and subdivisions.
Improved block layout can reduce the amount of
services required, for example street lighting and
bitumen for roads. It can also assist in improving the
solar efficiency of buildings by orientating housing
blocks in the most effective way, predominantly to
capture winter sun and reduce summer sun.
Captured energy can be utilised for heating, light and
hot water. Streets should also be orientated
predominantly north-south/east-west to optimise
solar energy opportunities (WAPC 1997).
Use of the Community Design Code has been
promoted to Local Government and developers
through seminars and presentations, and training has
been provided for Local Government officers and the
development industry in the use of the code.
To date, two inner high to medium density urban
redevelopments of note have been undertaken in East
Perth and Subiaco. Both of these redevelopment
projects have been established near existing public
transport infrastructure which provides the
developments with an easily accessible integrated
transport network.
The Urban Villages Project estimated that the
introduction of this type of development on the
urban fringe of Melbourne could result in a 26%
reduction in heating and cooling related emissions
and a 57% reduction in car related emissions
(Energy Victoria et al, 1996). It is likely that applying
urban village principles on the urban development
fringe in Perth would also achieve reductions in
greenhouse emissions as compared with traditional
development on the urban fringe. This, coupled with
new developments based on the Community Design
Code should achieve significant reductions in
greenhouse gases.
MfP and Transport (WA) are currently working with
Local Governments to encourage increased densities
in appropriate areas, ideally near public transport and
major commercial, retailing and employment centres
within their locality, through the development of
Local Agenda 21 strategies and other actions. The
estimated savings from local transport measures
depend on the extent that Local Governments
become involved in emission reduction strategies.
An extreme method of reducing the growth of
emissions from transport in urban areas would be to
restrict further development and/or growth. The
provision of a green belt around the current
metropolitan area (through establishing a system of
reserves) would effectively limit the growth of the
metropolitan area. This would allow urban
development to occur only in existing vacant areas
and areas suitable for redevelopment. Higher density
living would be a likely consequence and this,
together with limiting expansion of the metropolitan
area, would reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
transport through reducing VKT.
The estimation of the level of greenhouse abatement
from land use planning strategies is not generally
possible at this time due to a lack of available data.
The TULUP Working Group recommends that a
research program should be undertaken to investigate
14 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
5
15
potential policy responses that support more efficient
outcomes from decisions on urban land
development. The research program should include a
study of the impacts on and effectiveness of urban
consolidation policies in the reduction of greenhouse
gas emissions. This may include an assessment of the
costs and benefits of applying urban consolidation
policies in Australian cities in relation to social and
environmental impacts, public infrastructure, and
transportation and land use patterns. Additionally,
the study could estimate the extent to which different
urban land use types can be manipulated to reduce
energy demands by retrofitting urban development
and by better transportation linkages and vertical
integration of industrial production streams, storage
and distribution methods.
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
5
Actions
3. Continually improve and upgrade public transport systems with the aim of achieving maximum
transport efficiency.
4. Actively pursue the development of measures to promote best practice in integrated urban land use and
transport planning including policy guidelines and a ‘Good Practice Guide’ for integrated urban land
use and transport planning.
5. Investigate the potential to include transport impact assessment as performance criteria for new
development and redevelopment proposals.
6. Undertake a study similar to the Victorian Urban Villages project in Western Australia to identify
possible sites for urban redevelopment where the Community Design Code can be applied. Development
plans for these sites should then be prepared.
7. Promote energy effective subdivision and block layout to Government, industry and developers.
5.2 Reducing the demand for travel
Travel Demand Management (TDM) strategies have
the ability to reduce the need to travel, and promote
preferred modes of travel, including walking and
cycling. These initiatives have major application in
urban areas and provide a range of complementary
benefits in terms of improvements in local air
quality and traffic congestion (Commonwealth of
Australia, 1998).
It should be recognised, however, that there has been
limited success in the abatement of greenhouse gas
emissions from the implementation of TDM
strategies in Australia (McRobert, 1997). This may be
attributed to the strong ‘car culture’ that exists within
Australia which will make any change in personal
travel behaviour difficult to effect. Other hurdles to
successful reduction in greenhouse gas emissions
from TDM initiatives are the misalignment of the
public transport system with travel destinations and
the need for dual modal trips. Consequently, in
addition to reducing the demand for personal
transport such as the car, it is also necessary to
provide fast, frequent and reliable public transport
throughout the region. The provision of transport
infrastructure should be coordinated with urban land
use planning, as mentioned in the Section above.
The need to reduce travel demand and to encourage
alternatives to single occupant vehicle trips is
recognised in strategic policies, but needs to be
effectively translated to development outcomes. For
example, current policy favours development around
transit nodes but this is not enforced. More action is
needed, on the part of State and Local Government
and the community, to develop transit based urban
villages in Perth.
BTCE projects that greenhouse gas emissions from
road freight vehicles, and in particular light
commercial vehicles, will more than double between
1994 and 2015 (BTCE, 1996) (Figure 5). This
projected growth creates an imperative for action such
as investigating methods of reducing the demand for
greenhouse intensive modes of freight transport.
As the transport of freight is generally considered at a
national level, there are few initiatives solely
undertaken within Western Australia. At State level,
Transport (WA) has identified the need to investigate
methods of reducing emissions from freight
transport in the Perth Metropolitan Freight Transport
Strategy (PMFTS) (Transport et al, 1998). The
PMFTS, and the integrated freight transport plans
derived from it, aim to guide public and private sector
investment in transport infrastructure and services to
develop an overall integrated freight transport system
for the Perth metropolitan region.
5.2.1 ‘Just in time’ delivery
Greenhouse gas emissions from light commercial
vehicles and light trucks are expected to increase in
Western Australia to almost three times 1990 levels by
2010 (Table 2). One potential reason for this dramatic
increase in urban freight emission levels is the
escalation of the practice of ‘just in time’ delivery. ‘Just
in time’ delivery has become standard practice in
logistics management for retail and other industries,
as it decreases storage and warehousing costs. This
results in increased number of truck trips and
resultant greenhouse gas emissions.
Consideration of the costs of this practice and how it
could be managed to minimise external costs are
important. There appears to have been little research
in this area, and better information would aid
discussion of strategies to manage freight movements
to meet greenhouse abatement, air quality and traffic
management objectives.
5.2.2 Telecommuting
Telework or telecommuting has the potential to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions through reducing the
amount of people commuting to work at peak times.
Tele-access can also avoid or lessen the number of
vehicle trips. This reduces congestion and the number
of vehicle kilometres travelled. It should be noted,
however, that benefits will only be observed if the
workers usually travel to work as a single driver in a car.
Western Australia is currently undertaking an
assessment of telecommuting. Transport (WA) has
developed and is trialling a formal tele-access process
that is applicable to other State Government agencies
and other major employers. The investigation
includes a review of regulations relating to work
conditions, insurance and other matters and the
project is proposed to be promoted to selected
industry/employer/employee groups, including the
public sector. Due to changes that are likely to be
required to legislation to permit formal tele-access
work programs, it is unlikely that telecommuting will
achieve a measurable decrease in greenhouse gas
emissions by 2010.
The MTS proposes that telecommuting will replace
around two per cent of metropolitan non-commercial
vehicle trips by 2010. This equates to a reduction of
greenhouse gases of around 0.1 Mt CO2-e per annum.
5.2.3 Ride sharing and car pooling
Car pooling is an effective way of reducing both
congestion during peak travel times and the number
of vehicle kilometres travelled. Car pooling is most
effective in areas that are frequently accessed, such as
universities, hospitals and the central business
district.
Car pooling or ride sharing programs are currently
implemented at Curtin University, University of
Western Australia and Murdoch University. Plans are
under way to extend these programs and to include
other travel demand management initiatives in these
and other major destinations. It is not anticipated
that car pooling will noticeably reduce greenhouse
emissions due to the limited promotion of ride
sharing programs and lack of support.
5.2.4 Competitive neutrality within the freight
industry
One aspect of managing travel demand is to ensure
that the most appropriate mode of travel is used. Rail
and sea transport provide low greenhouse emission
modes of freight movement in comparison to road
16 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
5
17
transport due to their potential to carry a greater
mass or volume of freight and therefore reduce VKT.
It is recognised that over 80% of all freight carried by
road transport travels no more than eighty kilometres
from origin to destination and therefore rail and sea
are not viable for the majority of freight movements.
However, there is a need to increase rail and sea
transport of long haul freight.
Rail and sea transport are constrained by their nature
to certain areas within the freight sector. Sea freight is
economical and requires comparatively minor
amounts of energy but is limited to transporting
freight from one port to another. Similarly, rail freight
is energy efficient yet constrained by infrastructure,
particularly in urban areas.
It is accepted that both road and rail transport have a
major role to play in the Australian economy;
however, there are some competitive neutrality issues
that need to be resolved. Issues of competitive
neutrality between road and rail exist in the areas of
diesel fuel excise, access pricing, road cost recovery
and Government regulations (ARA, 1997). These
details need to be resolved to level the playing field
between road and rail and create a more efficient
transport network.
There are a number of legislative issues that may
impede full exploitation of sea transport as a viable
alternative to long haul road transport. These include
the limitation of the amount of cargo a foreign-
flagged vessel may carry between Australian ports,
known as cabotage. Cabotage was introduced to
preserve the interests of Australian-flagged vessels
carrying similar cargo; however, no Australian
shipping companies currently provide a container
service between Western Australia and the eastern
seaboard. A number of foreign-flagged ships are
capable of offering such a service if the matter of
cabotage is addressed.
In addition, the Federal Government imposes heavy
rates of duty on foreign-flagged vessels carrying
coastal cargo between Australian ports. Lifting this
impost would also improve the competitiveness of sea
freight transport.
The crucial factor in achieving increased
competitiveness of rail and sea freight transport is to
ensure competitive neutrality between road, rail and
sea transport in areas such as infrastructure
investment, diesel fuel excise, duty on bunkers,
regulations, permits, access pricing and road cost
recovery. The addressing of these elements has the
greatest potential for shifting long haul road freight to
rail or sea with subsequent significant reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions. Quantification of these
benefits would require substantial investigation due
to a lack of information regarding the factors
affecting demand for the shipping and rail industries.
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
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18 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
5Actions
8. Promote and implement car pooling and ride sharing programs in State Government agencies.
9. Promote better understanding, acceptance and use of telecommuting initially within State Government
organisations, then within the community. Develop ‘Practice Guidelines’ to facilitate opportunity for
working via tele-access.
10. Investigate methods to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from freight transport, focussing on reducing
emissions from light commercial vehicles and increasing the mode share of less greenhouse intensive
methods of freight transport.
11. Investigate the impact of ‘just-in-time’ delivery on greenhouse gas emissions. Consideration of the costs
and benefits to social, economic and environmental factors is essential.
12. Encourage the Federal Government to investigate the consequences of removing cabotage and duty on
foreign-flagged vessels carrying coastal cargo between Australian ports. Consideration of the impact on
the competitiveness of the Australian shipping industry would need to be made.
13. Encourage the Federal Government to resolve issues of competitive neutrality between road and rail
freight.
5.3 Encouraging sustainable modes of
transport
As previously noted, transit oriented, mixed use,
medium to high density development can reduce
need for vehicle travel by residents. Appropriate land
use design, provision for alternative modes,
information and marketing and other strategies can
reduce travel demand and vehicle emissions. In
addition, a more balanced transport system, which
involves greater utilisation of public transport,
walking and cycling, will be less greenhouse intensive.
The substitution of public transport (where
sustainable or low emission fuels are used), walking
or cycling for car-based travel significantly reduces
greenhouse gas emissions, particularly in urban areas.
These actions also improve local air quality and
reduce traffic congestion.
5.3.1 Individualised marketing – TravelSmart
In Western Australia, Transport (WA) has been
conducting an ‘individualised marketing’ campaign
known as TravelSmart, which promotes the use of
public transport, cycling and walking. TravelSmart is
a sophisticated marketing program which empowers
people to use alternative modes of transport that lead
to fuel savings, financial benefits and reductions in
environmental impacts.
TravelSmart has been extremely effective in reducing
vehicle kilometres travelled by motor cars and in
transferring these trips to pedestrian, cycling and bus
modes. The pilot project in South Perth demonstrates
this effectiveness, as car trips were reduced by 10%,
public transport use increased by 21%, cycling
increased by 91% and walking by 14%. A further
survey of travel behaviour one year later showed that
these changes were sustained. The changes translate to
a decrease in VKT of 14% and a consequent decrease
in transport CO2 emissions of 0.012 Mt CO2 in 1998.
This extrapolates to a projected saving of 0.02 Mt CO2
in 2010, based on projected increases in both VKT and
the number of vehicles per 1000 persons.
The behavioural changes resulting from TravelSmart
were undertaken voluntarily by the community.
Where possible, people chose alternative
transportation modes to the motor car. No system
improvements such as additional public transport
services were required and no measures that
19
constrained people’s mobility such as parking
restraints were adopted.
A cost benefit analysis was performed on the
TravelSmart program. It showed that a benefit to
cost ratio of 13 to 1 is achievable if individualised
marketing is applied to the whole community (B
James, pers comm). This analysis included a
financial assessment of the investor (ie State
Government) and respondents (i.e. motor car
drivers), and a socio-economic assessment of
impacts to the broader community.
Extrapolating the results of the South Perth pilot
program to include the inner suburbs of Perth, an
area containing approximately 30% of the WA car
population, suggests that a 0.16 Mt reduction in CO2
emissions can be achieved during the year 2000. This
is equal to a 4.2% reduction in CO2 emissions from
passenger cars within Western Australia. Emissions
savings in 2010 are projected to equal 0.3 Mt CO2.
The cost of implementing TravelSmart in the suburbs
surrounding the CBD, a population of approximately
500,000 people, is projected at $18 million over three
years. Relative to transport infrastructure projects,
this amount is small.
5.3.2 Cycling
Bikewest, a directorate of Transport (WA), has
developed and is implementing Bike Ahead: The
Bicycle Strategy for the 21st Century which is a
comprehensive strategy to improve infrastructure
and facilities for cyclists, consistent with the National
Bicycle Strategy. Bikewest aims to increase the mode
share of cycling in line with the MTS targets through
the constant review of standards and systems for
public transport. This will facilitate bicycle access by
establishing an integrated network of pedestrian and
cycle routes in existing built up areas. If the MTS
targets are achieved, the emission of greenhouse gases
from private vehicles in the metropolitan area is
expected to decrease by nearly 2% of Perth
metropolitan VKT by 2010. This extrapolates to a
saving of around 0.1 Mt CO2-e per annum.
Bikewest is also currently investigating methods to
increase cycling within the community. Social
marketing techniques will be used to promote the
benefits of cycling among non-cyclists. This research
will determine factors which are perceived to make
cycling attractive and those which make it
inconvenient.
5.3.3 Walking
Transport (WA) is in the process of developing a
Metropolitan Region Pedestrian Strategy. One
objective of the strategy is to reduce the dependence
on the car for personal transport through increasing
the number of walking trips made by the community,
with the aim of reaching targets outlined in the MTS.
This would achieve emission reductions in the
vicinity of 0.14 Mt CO2-e per annum through a
reduction in Perth metropolitan VKT of over three
per cent.
5.3.4 Increasing public transport patronage
Fiscal advantages for public transport companies
could be introduced to improve services offered by
contractors such as reimbursement of excise tax on
petroleum products. If this money is used to improve
services, this may encourage the community to better
utilise the public transport system. However, this
action may not be particularly effective in Perth, due
to the currently low level of contracted services.
Fiscal measures to encourage use of public transport
for professional commuter traffic could also be
introduced. An alternative method would be to
reduce incentive for business travel. Measures may
include the reduction in tax deduction of business
travel expenses or incentives for employer subsidy of
employee public transport passes. The potential level
of abatement would depend on the amount of
participation and promotion of these incentives.
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
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20 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
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5.4 Improving fuel consumption of the vehicle
fleet, covering both vehicle technology and
vehicle mix
There is no dispute that technological solutions are
capable of reducing the amount of greenhouse gases
produced from fuel combustion; however, there are
many barriers to advances in fuel and vehicle
technology. Pollution control technology on its own
cannot reduce the amount of CO2 produced by a
vehicle. Greenhouse gas emissions can only be
reduced by reducing fuel consumption or changing
the type of fuel used.
Despite technological advances, vehicle fuel
efficiency of the Australian fleet has not improved
during the last decade. Australia has the least efficient
cars in the OECD, with a national average fuel
consumption (NAFC) in 1996 of 8.9 litres per 100
km. Comparative figures for 1988 show the
Australian NAFC at 9.10 litres per 100 km, compared
with the UK at 7.4 litres per 100 km and Italy at 6.8
litres per 100 km (DEST, 1996).
Factors influencing the improvement in vehicle fuel
efficiency include modal shifts (from public transport
to personal car travel), decreasing vehicle occupancy
and a switch to more powerful cars (McRobert,
1997). The potential for reductions in fleet fuel
consumption is limited by the use of large six cylinder
vehicles. In 1984 only 19 per cent of cars purchased
has six or more cylinders. This increased to 33 per
cent in 1987-88 and to at least 45 per cent in 1994-95
(DEST, 1996). More powerful cars generally mean
additional power and consequently increased fuel
consumption and emissions. It will be difficult to
reduce the fleet average below 6 L/100kms without
substantially reducing the number of large six
cylinder vehicles in use.
5.4.1 Vehicle emission standards
Another barrier to improved vehicle technology is the
leisurely pace with which new emissions standards
are adopted within Australia. Changes in standards
controlling vehicle fuel efficiency and emissions
technology are generally the responsibility of the
Commonwealth, as the National Road Transport
Commission (NRTC) and the National Environment
Protection Council (NEPC) are the key bodies for the
recommendation of environmental standards for
motor vehicles. Transport (WA) is represented by the
Director General of Transport on the Motor Vehicle
Environment Committee (MVEC), which is
responsible for the coordination of a joint NRTC and
NEPC work program.
The Australian Government has agreed, however, that
by the year 2006 emission standards in Australia will
be compatible with the UN ECE (Euro) standards.
The timeframe for adoption of the Euro standards is
currently under review by the Commonwealth.
In Australia, there is no legislation that will ensure
on-going improvement in vehicle and fuel efficiency
(McRobert, 1997). The introduction of this sort of
legislation in the US has, in addition to reducing
levels of CO2 emitted per vehicle, increased the
amount of research into cleaner vehicle technology
(Amann, 1992).
5.4.2 Vehicle tuning
Results of the National In-Service Vehicle Emissions
Study (FORS, 1996) show that tuning cars can deliver
fuel consumption benefits as well as reductions in
vehicle emissions. A recent study by BTCE has
revealed that if all private vehicles are serviced every
six months, a greenhouse emission reduction of
around two percent VKT can be achieved (BTCE,
1996). This relates to a reduction of approximately
Actions
14. Extend the TravelSmart individualised marketing program to include the inner suburbs of the Perth
metropolitan area.
15. Promote sustainable forms of transport such as cycling and walking with the aim of achieving the
MTS targets.
21
0.1 Mt CO2-e per annum in WA, however, this level of
reduction will reduce as older cars are removed from
the vehicle population.
This greenhouse benefit may only be achieved if the
tuning of cars twice a year is made compulsory. This
has social and equity considerations that would need
to be carefully assessed prior to introducing
compulsory tuning.
5.4.3 Targets for reducing emissions from commercial
and freight vehicles
As previously noted, greenhouse gas emissions from
LCVs and articulated trucks are projected to increase
dramatically by 2010. To counteract this effect,
stringent targets for the reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions from commercial and freight vehicles could
be established. This has the potential to greatly reduce
emissions from the commercial and freight sectors
but may increase freight costs in the short term until
alternative fuels have been developed or an expansion
to rail freight infrastructure and utilisation occurs.
5.4.4 Vehicle emissions testing
At State level, a comprehensive review of
management measures designed to reduce vehicle
emissions from both individual vehicles and across
the fleet, including methods to improve the
maintenance of in-service vehicles to reduce fuel
consumption, will be undertaken as part of the
development of an Air Quality Management Plan
(AQMP) for Perth (WA Government, 1998). The
management plan will investigate methods of
reducing emissions that affect local air quality;
however, methods are usually complementary to
those reducing CO2 emissions.
The State Government’s Response to the Report of
the Select Committee on Perth’s Air Quality
(Government of WA, 1998) also included the
commitment to evaluate the cost effectiveness of a
range of vehicle emissions testing and vehicle disposal
incentive schemes including the evaluation of
Vancouver’s AirCare program. The AirCare program
is a light duty vehicle inspection and maintenance
program that is operating in the Lower Fraser Valley
of British Columbia. Annual compliance with
AirCare standards is a requirement of vehicle
registration and insurance renewal.
Vancouver’s AirCare Program, which inspects
approximately 1 million passenger cars and light
commercial vehicles per year – an amount similar to
that in WA, is estimated to have saved 23 million litres
of fuel or 0.057 Mt CO2 during the five year period to
31 August 1997 (ICBC, 1998). This equates to an
average reduction of 0.011 Mt CO2 per year which is
comparable to a 0.15% reduction in emissions from
mobile sources in Western Australia. This suggests
that the establishment of an inspection and
maintenance program in Perth would not achieve
significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions
from vehicles though the benefits to local air quality
are substantial and should not be trivialised.
5.4.5 Car scrapping programs
Removing old, fuel-inefficient, polluting vehicles
from the existing vehicle fleet may aid in the
improvement of overall fleet fuel economy. Car
scrapping programs can also have positive effects in
other areas, such as local air quality, through the
reduction in tail-pipe emissions. The United States
and Canada have implemented successful car
scrapping programs, for example the SCRAP-IT
program in Vancouver.
The ‘Scrap-It’ program, which forms part of the
Motor Vehicle Emissions Inspection and
Maintenance Program (as known as ‘AirCare’), has
been highly successful in removing polluting vehicles
from the vehicle fleet. Scrap-It is a voluntary program
for residents in British Columbia to trade older, high-
polluting vehicles for incentives toward cleaner forms
of transportation. The incentives include money that
can be put towards a new natural gas vehicle, a new
vehicle, a 1988 or newer used vehicle, a bicycle, or a
supply of transit passes. To qualify for the program, a
vehicle must be a model dated 1987 or older, and it
must be insured and have failed an AirCare test at
some point in the vehicle’s history.
The Scrap-It program reduced greenhouse gas
emissions by between 1,500 and 4,300 tonnes per year
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
5
per 1,000 vehicles scrapped in situations where
people chose a new car, used car or transit pass. This
equates to a cost effectiveness of around $130 per
tonne CO2 abated per year (Scrap-It Program
Steering Committee, 1997), which is a rather high
abatement cost. Consequently, the abatement of CO2
alone is not likely to justify the introduction of a car
scrapping program in WA.
Research has also shown that car scrapping schemes
may only be beneficial when targeted at very old
models and less-developed vehicle fleets. In addition,
only registered vehicles should be purchased as part
of the program and an appropriate price paid for the
scrapped vehicles (US DOE, 1996 as cited in ECMT,
1997). Accordingly, a large amount of research would
be required prior to implementation of a car
scrapping program in Western Australia or Australia.
The Federal Government, however, has recently
announced plans for a car scrapping program. It is
suggested that owners of cars more than twenty years
old would be given a payment of $1000 to consign
their old cars to the wreckers. This program takes no
account of the emission performance of the car and
will not ensure the owner purchases a vehicle with
‘cleaner’ emission performance or increased fuel
economy and lower fuel consumption.
5.4.6 Incentives for fuel-efficient vehicles
Fiscal measures could be introduced to promote the
sale of more efficient vehicles. Dealerships could be
rewarded for selling a greater proportion of
‘environmentally conscious’ cars. Vehicle
manufacturers could also be approached to
manufacture vehicles with lower emission levels than
required by Australian standards. Import restrictions
on highly polluting vehicles could be imposed to
reduce the occurrence of accepting imported vehicles
with low emission performance.
Changing the general preference of Australians for
large capacity engines towards smaller, more fuel
efficient cars has the potential to significantly reduce
greenhouse emissions. Consumers could be
encouraged to modify their preference for 6 cylinder
cars and purchase a vehicle with a smaller engine
capacity through education programs. The
Government could reduce registration charges for
small cars or provide stamp duty concessions when
changing over to a smaller car. A small car would be
defined as less than 2000cc engine capacity.
Alternatively, vehicle registration charges could be
formulated on the basis of engine size, power rating
and type of fuel.
5.4.7 Information programs on efficient vehicle use
It is widely recognised that the way drivers use their
vehicles can significantly affect vehicle fuel
consumption and emissions. It has also been shown
that differences in driving style can account for a
variation of up to fifty per cent in fuel consumption
among drivers using the same cars (ECMT, 1997).
Factors of driver behaviour that may lead to
improved fuel consumption include:
• avoiding excessive idling of the engine;
• driving smoothly and avoiding high revs;
• limiting high speed driving as fuel consumption
and pollution increase significantly above 80km/h
and even more so above 100 km/h;
• maintaining adequate tyre pressure; and
• eliminating unnecessary sources of drag.
Additionally, the RAC is currently conducting an
education campaign, supported by Transport (WA),
designed to raise the awareness for Western
Australian motorists about environmental issues
concerned with motor vehicle use. The RAC’s “Air
Care” campaign aims to reduce air pollution from
motor vehicles by increasing public awareness of how
proper car maintenance can assist with maintaining
Perth’s relatively good air quality. Even though this
campaign is aimed at local air pollution issues,
regular in-service maintenance will also improve
vehicle fuel efficiency and thereby reduce emissions
of CO2.
It is recommended by the TULUP Working Group
that a long term, Government funded information
campaign be initiated to educate Western Australian
drivers in ways to reduce vehicle fuel consumption.
22 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
5
23
Emphasis should be made of the environmental
consequences and economic gains that may be
achieved from modification to current driver
behaviour. The following “tips to reduce your
transport related greenhouse gas emissions” could be
included in a brochure:
• Buy a fuel-efficient car. Ask your car dealer for a
Fuel Consumption Guide to check the fuel
efficiency of the car you are considering buying.
• Drive smoothly and avoid stop-start traffic. Save
up to 30% of greenhouse emissions.
• Tune your car regularly. Save up to 15% of
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Ensure tyres have maximum recommended air
pressure so they roll more easily. Save up to 100
kilograms CO2 each year and extend tyre life.
• If possible walk, ride a bike or catch public
transport.
• Every litre of petrol saved reduces greenhouse
emissions by 2.5 kilograms.
• Remove unnecessary weight from the car – 50
kilograms less weight decreases greenhouse gas
emissions by nearly 2%.
• Removing roof racks and external sun visors
when not required can save hundreds of
kilograms per year. (Adapted from AGO, 1999)
In the area of freight transport, “TruckSafe”, the
industry accreditation program developed by the
Road Transport Forum (RTF), is currently being
promoted in Western Australia. The TruckSafe
program is similar to a quality assurance program
and contains various modules that specify
objectives for best practice for trucks in the
transport industry. The RTF is in the process of
developing a module for environmental
management for road transport companies as an
optional addition to the TruckSafe program.
Other innovations, largely in the area of road freight
transportation, include:
• the trialling of alternate vehicle combinations
which allow greater payloads hauled by a single
prime mover;
• aerodynamic developments which allow greater
fuel efficiency of road freight vehicles;
• on-board computers which allow a range of
advances which increase operating efficiency; and
• the integration of engines and transmissions to
provide fuel economy dividends.
5.4.8 Environmental Strategy for the Motor Vehicle
Industry
An Environmental Strategy for the Motor Vehicle
Industry is proposed to be pursued by the
Commonwealth Government and the motor vehicle
industry, in consultation with States and Territories
through MVEC and other stakeholders (including the
fuel industry and motoring organisations) where
appropriate.
The Environmental Strategy for the Motor Vehicle
Industry was announced in June 1997. This strategy
aims to significantly enhance the environmental
performance of the automotive industry through a
range of measures including:
• negotiation of improved NAFC targets for new
vehicles for 2005 and 2010 (with an expectation of
at least a 15% improvement over ‘business as
usual’ by 2010);
• extension of the NAFC framework to include
LCVs and 4WDs up to 3.5 tonnes;
• continuation of the Fuel Consumption Guide and
publication of fuel consumption data on the
internet;
• negotiations with individual car manufacturers
on initiatives they might take to improve the fuel
efficiency of the models they produce;
• model specific fuel efficiency labels for new motor
vehicles;
• fuel efficiency targets for the Commonwealth fleet
from 2003;
• the development of partnerships with consumer
groups (both private and fleet) to encourage
attention to fuel efficiency;
• a review of fuel quality in Australia, covering
issues such as the phasing out of leaded fuel and
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
5
24 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
5
Actions
16. Encourage the Australian Federal Government to adopt emission standards that are compatible with the
UN ECE standards as soon as is practically possible.
17. Actively participate in the oversighting of fuel efficiency and fuel technology investigations through
MVEC.
18. Initiate an information campaign to educate Western Australian drivers in ways to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions. Emphasis should be on the environmental consequences and economic gains that may
be achieved from modification to current behaviours and attitudes.
19. Encourage involvement and registration in the TruckSafe accreditation program, including
participation in environmental management. The potential for transport related concessions for
TruckSafe accredited companies should also be investigated.
5.5 Increasing the use of alternative fuels in
the vehicle fleet and/or revised
specifications for conventional fuels
Increased use of available alternative fuels, such as
LPG, CNG and ethanol, will result in reduced
emissions of CO2 from the transport sector. There is
widespread uncertainty, however, about the scope for
other alternative fuels to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions (McRobert, 1997). In addition to the
consideration of end use or tail-pipe emissions, the
emissions generated from the extraction, production
and distribution of the energy source need also to be
examined.
At present, about 80% of the world’s demand for
transportation fuels for road, rail, air and sea travel
are met by derivatives from the fossil fuel, petroleum.
Petrol is the major derivative of petroleum used as a
motor vehicle fuel. The major fossil fuel alternatives
to petrol are:
• diesel;
• liquid petroleum gas (LPG);
• compressed natural gas (CNG);
• ethers – methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)
produced from natural gas and butane;
• electricity from coal/oil/gas; and
• methanol produced from natural gas or coal.
The investigation and development of viable
alternative fuels for the transport sector has been
necessitated by the steadily dwindling supply of fossil
fuels as well as heightened awareness about the
environmental consequences of the dependence on
fossil fuels. Some alternative transport fuels are derived
from non-fossil, or partly renewable, sources such as
grain or other agricultural crops. However, these crops
often require fertilisers which are made from fossil
fuels and are not, therefore, totally renewable.
The major non-fossil alternative fuels are:
• ethanol; and
• hydrogen.
5.5.1 Petrol
Most cars today run on petrol because it is a relatively
cheap, convenient, safe and reliable fuel that yields
good vehicle performance complete with a good
vehicle range capability. It can also be stored and
handled easily. Exhaust emissions from petrol-driven
cars include, in addition to CO2 and water vapour,
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and CO (Australian
Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
the introduction of higher octane fuel; and
• harmonisation with international vehicle
emission standards by 2006, a measure more
focused on air quality rather than greenhouse
emissions.
25
5.5.2 Diesel
Diesel cars have better fuel economy than petrol-
driven cars and are cheaper to maintain; however, the
capital costs of a diesel are greater due to components
that are more costly than an equivalent petrol engine.
The diesel combustion system is very efficient. Diesel
fuels emit less CO2 per kilometre travelled than any
other fuel of fossil origin. Emissions of carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, benzene, butadiene and
formaldehyde are also lower than for petrol engines
(Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
The sulfur content of diesel fuels is of increasing
interest in terms of the potential effects of
particulates on health. Reduction in sulfur levels
creates difficulties such as fuel pump failure, reduced
engine durability, more expensive fuel and an
increase in CO2 emissions from the refining
operations necessary to remove the sulfur. Elevated
levels of particulates have been linked to serious
health problems.
A range of Australian and international studies has
shown that the health effects of air pollution are
extensive and include increases in mortality,
incidence of respiratory illness, hypertension, strokes,
heart disease and damage to the IQs of children. Most
of the health damage and associated costs arise from
increased deaths due to exposure to particles
(Australia Institute et al, 1999).
In Australia, the total economic cost of particulate
pollution has been estimated at around $8 billion per
annum. Around $4 billion of this figure may be
attributable to particle emissions from road vehicles,
principally those that run on diesel (Australia
Institute et al, 1999).
Western Australia recently announced its intention to
replace 133 buses in the Transperth fleet; 128 of
which were to be powered with diesel fuel. Significant
community concern was expressed with regard to the
use of diesel fuel and the potential impact of this on
the environment. In response to these concerns, an
Expert Reference Group (ERG) was established to
provide independent, expert advice on the most
appropriate fuel for Perth’s buses in the long term.
The ERG claims that ultra low sulfur diesel, known as
city diesel, with a continuous regenerating particulate
trap gives lower full cycle CO2 emissions per
kilometre than LPG or CNG (Bult et al, 1998). Buses
powered by diesel were also found to have the highest
reliability and the lowest maintenance costs.
However, research suggests that new diesel
technology may produce more small particle
pollution, increasing the risk to health.
In April 1998, the WA Premier agreed to replace
some of the buses in Transperth’s fleet over the
period of twelve years. If Transperth replaces 848
buses with engines utilising ultra low sulfur diesel
fuel, as described in the Report on the Findings of
the ERG (Bult et al, 1998), this should reduce CO2
emissions by approximately 0.3 Mt per year. This is
equal to four per cent of greenhouse gas emissions
from transport sources.
5.5.3 Liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
LPG is produced as a secondary result when raw
natural gas is processed into pipeline quality natural
gas. LPG is also produced when crude oil is refined.
The use of LPG is widespread, with an estimated
250,000 vehicles running on it in Australia. Of these,
around 180,000 are privately owned. Estimates are
that exhaust and evaporative greenhouse emissions
are approximately 15 per cent lower from LPG than
from petrol vehicles. LPG is a non-renewable
resource (Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
LPG is available Australia-wide through the service
station networks. When converted to a gas, LPG
expands up to 270 times. This means that the liquid
form, which is easily achieved, is a very efficient way
of carrying large amounts of gas. In general economic
terms, however, LPG is unattractive as it requires a
subsidy, in the form of an excise exemption, as an
incentive to consumers who must cover the costs of
conversion of the vehicle to operate on LPG
(Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
5.5.4 Compressed natural gas (CNG)
Methane is the principal component of natural
gas, generally comprising between 87 per cent and
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
5
97 per cent by volume hydrocarbon, depending on
the source of the gas. Natural gas is lighter than air
and will dissipate into the atmosphere if leakage
occurs. It is non-toxic and non-reactive and can be
compressed for use as an automotive fuel – CNG.
The major issues with CNG for cars are the
economics associated with conversion and the short
range between refuelling. A CNG-fuelled car with a
75 litre tank is about 150 kg heavier than a petrol-
driven car of the same size (Australian Institute of
Petroleum, 1998). When properly operated and
maintained, leakage of CNG is minimal, although it
should be noted that methane is an even more active
greenhouse gas than CO2.
Cars running on natural gas are estimated to emit
twenty per cent less greenhouse gases than diesel and
petrol cars (Australian Gas Industry, 1998). Use of
CNG also substantially reduces particulate
emissions, particularly from the new, dedicated CNG
engines now available for buses and trucks. Natural
gas is also about half the cost of other fuels due to
fuel excise tax exemptions. Additionally, as natural
gas is produced locally the cost of obtaining this fuel
is drastically reduced.
Many State Governments have perceived the benefits
of CNG for city bus fleets. TransAdelaide currently
operates one of the world’s largest fleets of CNG
buses and NSW State Transit has awarded a contract
for the supply of 300 new ultra low floored CNG
powered buses. The NSW decision came after an
exhaustive analysis of financial considerations and
follows four years of experience operating CNG buses
at State Transit. During this time, it was found that
savings in fuel costs more than offset increases in
capital and maintenance costs (State Transit, 1997).
Operational needs of natural gas vehicles must be
supported by a carefully planned infrastructure. In
many countries, the overall costs of natural gas
vehicle operation, including capital, maintenance and
fuel, are much less than the total cost of running
conventionally fuelled vehicles (International
Association for Natural Gas Vehicles, 1998).
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Infrastructure
Program
To encourage companies to switch their fleets to
compressed natural gas, the Prime Minister’s
statement allocated $3.8 million over four years to
facilitate the establishment of a distribution network
of service stations supplying CNG. An additional $3.8
million was announced by the Government during
the 1998 election campaign. The program aims to
establish a minimum refuelling network within
urban areas in collaboration with natural gas
companies and local government authorities.
This action, however, seems to be in direct opposition
with plans by the current Government to reduce the
price of diesel fuel. The GST Package proposes to cut
the price of diesel by 25 cents/litre for vehicles with a
gross or loaded weight exceeding 3.5 tonnes. While the
target is large trucks, the threshold covers almost all
trucks as well as some 4WD and All-Terrain Vehicles.
This change in policy position has the potential to
create a major disincentive for the transport sector to
embrace the benefits of gaseous fuels.
A fall in the price of diesel will increase demand for
diesel. Using elasticities calculated by the BTCE and
the Australian Road Research Board, it is estimated
that the reduction in the price of diesel will lead to an
increase in diesel consumption and diesel pollution
over the longer term (by 2010) of at least 7.6%
(Australia Institute et al, 1999). This will, in turn, lead
to increased production of greenhouse gases through
reduced levels of utlisation of other alternative fuels.
For example, the New Zealand government provided
incentives through the late 1970s and early eighties to
promote CNG use. This resulted in sales of CNG for
motor vehicles growing from 0.1 PJ to 5.4 PJ between
1979 and 1986 (GASEX, 1996). In New Zealand
incentives were removed between 1984 and 1986, and
the excise on diesel was cut by 15 cents/litre in 1989
and 11 cents/litre in January 1991. Between 1989 and
1998, diesel consumption grew in New Zealand by
around 130% while alternative fuels fell by around
66% (Australia Institute et al, 1999).
It is recommended that a balance between these two
competing interests be found, possibly by
26 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
5
27
maintaining the reduction in the diesel excise while
providing an incentive for users to convert to and
continue to use gaseous fuels. Grants could be also
provided for a portion of the capital cost of
conversion of each LPG or CNG powered vehicle.
5.5.5 Methanol
Methanol is a clear liquid alcohol that can be
produced from natural gas, coal, crude oil and
biomass crops such as wood and wood residues as
well as directly from catalytic synthesis. At present,
however, natural gas is by far the most economically
and environmentally viable source of methanol.
Methanol is a high cost fuel compared with petrol,
but relatively cheap compared with other options. It
has only half the energy content of petrol, which
results in greater fuel consumption per unit volume
and shorter travelling range.
Methanol has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions but would need to be produced from
biomass to make a possible contribution. Methanol
derived from natural gas using current technology
offers at best only a small greenhouse gas emission
benefit over petrol.
Methane is a major greenhouse gas. The use of
methanol as fuel can lead to large unburnt fuel
emissions of methanol and methane; however,
methanol produces neither soot particles nor sulphur
oxides and emits lower levels of CO, hydrocarbons
and nitrogen oxides. Methanol is extremely toxic and
therefore hazardous to handle. It is also corrosive,
requiring modification of a conventional vehicle’s
fuel system (Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
5.5.6 Ethanol
Ethanol is presently the most widely used alternative
fuel in the world. It is mostly produced from crops
which contain sugar or by pretreatment of starch
crops or cellulose. Ethanol is less toxic and corrosive
than methanol, although its technical performance
and emission levels are similar (Australian Institute of
Petroleum, 1998).
A positive environmental aspect is that ethanol is a
renewable resource, unlike oil, gas or coal, and in
some cases may even be produced from waste
material. However, there are drawbacks. Ethanol has a
high affinity with water and this can cause
environmental problems. For example, if ethanol is
spilt in a small watercourse or drain it will dissolve
and be almost impossible to recover. Ethanol is,
however, more easily biodegraded or diluted to non-
toxic concentrations than petrol (Australian Institute
of Petroleum, 1998).
As with methanol, the potential greenhouse gas
savings depend on the feedstock and process used for
production. Ethanol’s full fuel cycle greenhouse gas
emissions are said to range from 30 – 180% from
maize and 0 – 115% from wood, of the emissions
from the petrol it replaces. CO2 from the combustion
process alone is similar for alcohol fuels and petrol on
an energy equivalent level (Australian Institute of
Petroleum, 1998).
Ethanol has the potential to become an important
renewable fuel for the Australian transport sector over
the long term (Australian Institute of Petroleum,
1998). At present ethanol production is two to three
times more expensive than petrol production;
nevertheless, the Federal Government has allocated $2
million to build an ethanol pilot plant to demonstrate
new technologies for the production of ethanol.
5.5.7 Hydrogen
There are two common feedstocks for hydrogen
production – water and hydrocarbons, such as are
found in methane. Hydrogen is produced from
water by hydrolysis using electricity. The major
positive aspects of hydrogen are that there is an
almost limitless supply of water and that hydrogen is
non-toxic. Because electricity is most often derived
from fossil fuel-powered stations and is also
required for electrolysis, the full life cycle process
may involve considerable CO2 emissions. For the
total environmental effect of hydrogen to be
positive, the electricity used in its production should
be generated from renewable sources such as solar,
wind or hydro-power.
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
5
The main technical difficulty with hydrogen is
storage. In compressed or liquid form, it needs a
heavy and expensive tank. Other disadvantages of the
use of hydrogen gas include the cost of liquification
and safety factors due to it high level of flammability
(Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
Currently, hydrogen is used as a fuel only in space
rockets. However, some vehicle manufacturers are
developing hydrogen powered engines which may be
tested as prototypes in about three years’ time
(Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
5.5.8 Increased use of alternative fuels
Increased use of alternative fuels with low greenhouse
gas emissions could be obtained through
encouragement and promotion of the benefits of
alternative fuels for the environment. Incentives such
as fuel tax exemptions could also be introduced;
however, current use suggests that this will not ensure
the use of alternative fuels is significantly increased.
Enforcement of alternative fuels is likely to be costly
and problematic, especially if the infrastructure
required to support the introduction of alternative
fuels, such as modified engines, has not sufficiently
progressed. Social and equity issues would also need
to be considered.
28 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
6
Action
20. Investigate the potential for compensating subsidies to encourage development and use of alternative fuels
6. Evaluation of greenhouse gasabatement measures
The actions in this report have been evaluated in
terms of the possible maximum level of greenhouse
abatement achievable per annum at full
implementation and the cost of implementing these
actions for Government per annum. The TULUP
Working Group acknowledges that this evaluation is
not sufficient to identify cost effective abatement
actions; however, it has committed to a further
investigation to obtain more quantitative data.
The following estimations are approximations of
Government funding required per annum for
implementation of each action. This approximation
should not be considered to represent the ‘real’ cost of
abatement of CO2, as the total cost of abatement
should include an estimate of social and
environmental costs (and benefits) to the community
at large as well as financial costs. The estimation of
cost per kilogram CO2 abated presented in this
report, however, is useful for comparing the
effectiveness of abatement actions in terms of
funding required for implementation. The costs to
Government have been quantified approximately, but
costs and benefits to the community are only
qualitatively identified.
The TULUP Working Group emphasises that the
estimates produced in this report are based on many
assumptions and information available at the current
time. Decisions on implementation of greenhouse
abatement measures should not be made until a full
analysis of the costs and benefits, both environmental
and societal, have been made. This is particularly
relevant in the transport and urban planning sectors
due to the high cost of the provision of infrastructure
and the level of benefit to the community in social
terms.
The majority of actions in this report are not likely to
be cost effective to implement in terms of reductions
in greenhouse gas emissions only. This is because the
economic gain from just the resultant reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions is not likely to be large
enough to justify the expense of implementation of
the action. As previously mentioned, the abatement
of greenhouse gas emissions is a secondary outcome
for the bulk of actions in this report, as the measures
and actions were designed and implemented for
other purposes (Tables 4, 5,6).
6.1 ‘No regrets’ measures
‘No regrets’ measures are those that have financial,
social and environmental benefits to the community
29
at large, in addition to reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and which, over time, are sufficient to
outweigh the direct and indirect costs associated with
the measures. Within this framework, benefits and
costs are considered from a community rather than
an individual perspective, although individual
impacts and equity considerations should be
addressed over-all timeframes, including the short,
medium and long term.
As no social or environmental cost/benefit analysis
has been undertaken for the actions in this report,
none of the strategies identified have been classified
as ‘no regrets’ measures. Further investigation is
planned to determine the true cost of the actions in
this report. The implementation estimates of the
measures have therefore been categorised as either
low to medium, high or very high. These
classifications are defined in Section 7.
7. Summary of greenhouse gasabatement measures andactions
The following tables summarise the actions
mentioned in this report. Table 4 outlines actions that
are currently being undertaken in Western Australia
by various agencies. As previously noted, the
estimations of greenhouse gas emission abatement
are based on many assumptions such as the
achievement of the MTS targets. Consideration
should be given to the level of accuracy required prior
to using the following information for greenhouse
policy decisions. The TULUP Working Group cannot
be expected to predict with accuracy changes in
community attitudes and behaviours.
Additionally, the TULUP Working Group
recommends that the additional or primary benefits
(tabulated below) that can be achieved from each
action should be taken into consideration in future
policy decisions.
The actions in this report have been classified in
terms of the magnitude of implementation cost for
Government as follows:
• Low to medium cost measures – cost of
implementation is less than $30 per tonne CO2
per annum;
• High cost measures – the next magnitude, where
the cost of implementation is estimated between
$30 and $300 per tonne CO2 per annum; and
• Very high cost measures – cost of implementation
estimated to be over $300 per tonne CO2 per
annum. Very high cost measures are unlikely to be
implemented on the basis of greenhouse
abatement only due to the significant costs
involved; however, benefits achieved in other areas
generally outweigh the cost.
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
7
Table 4: Predicted reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) from implementation of actionscurrently being undertaken by Government agencies
Action Primary benefits GHGE Implemen- Other considerationsreduction tation
per annum cost
30 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
7
Urban villageprinciples
Integrated land use planning,community formation, transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
20%reduction in‘village’ VKT
Low tomedium
Urban village model applied onurban fringe – 25% job self-containment. Depends on size ofdevelopment. 26% reduction inheating and cooling emissions, 57%reduction in car related emissions.
LocalGovernmentactions
Integrated land use planning,transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality
Variable Low tomedium
Dependent on level of participationand promotion
TruckSafe Transport efficiency, safety, localair quality
Variable Low tomedium
Dependent on level of participationand promotion
Perth ParkingPolicy
Reduced car use, local air quality Negligible Low tomedium
Fees should be increased to obtainadditional benefits
Encouragementof use ofalternative fuels
Local air quality Negligible Low tomedium
Dependent on level of participationand promotion
Car pooling Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality
Negligible High Dependent on level of participationand promotion
Bike Ahead Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality, health
0.1 Mt CO2-e
High 1.8% Metro VKT. Dependent on levelof participation and promotion
MetropolitanPedestrianStrategy
Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality, health
0.14 Mt CO2-e
High 3.4% Metro VKT. Dependent on levelof participation and promotion
Intelligenttransportsystems
Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality
Negligible High Potential for abatement increase iflevel of implementation increased
MTS Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality
1 Mt CO2-e Very high GHGE from cars reduced by 25%BAU by 2010
SWMRMP Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
0.026 – 0.055Mt CO2-e
Very high Electricity generation GHGE intensive.Abatement incr. if move away fromcoal-fired power generation
Bus prioritysystems andtransitways
Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
0.06 Mt CO2-e
Very high MTS target for public transportusage would reduce emissions by0.16 Mt CO2-e
Regionalstrategies
Integrated land use planning Negligible Very high
31
Table 5:Actions unlikely to be implemented without additional funding
Action Primary benefits GHGE Implemen- Other considerationsreduction tation
per annum cost
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
7
TravelSmart Increase public awareness,reduced car use, local air quality
0.3 Mt CO2-e
Low tomedium
Undertaken in Perth’s inner suburbs– 500,000 people
Telecommuting Reduced car use, local air quality 0.1 Mt CO2-e
Low tomedium
Dependent on level of participationand promotion
Fuel efficiencystandards
Local air quality Variable Low tomedium
Dependent on stringency ofstandards
Vehicle emissionstandards
Local air quality Variable Low tomedium
Dependent on stringency ofstandards
Education andinformationprograms
Safety, local air quality Variable Low tomedium
Dependent on level of participationand promotion
HOV lanes Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
negligible High
Additional railinfrastructure
Improved public and freighttransport efficiency, reduced roadtransport, local air quality
Variable Very high Dependent on accessibility andquality of service
Table 5 identifies actions that have yet to be allocated
funding, together with those that may have
greenhouse benefits but are not likely to be cost
effective to implement in terms of greenhouse
abatement only. It should be noted that the
effectiveness of these actions largely depends on the
level of promotion undertaken by relevant agencies
and the level of participation by the community.
The estimation of abatement and cost of these actions
is, however, only an indication of scale of magnitude.
Not enough information currently exists to allow a
reliable assessment of the effectiveness of these
actions under Western Australian conditions. Further
investigation of the costs and benefits of each action
is recommended prior to decisions regarding
potential implementation. This is proposed to be
undertaken by appropriate Government agencies.
Table 6 contains actions that have been identified as
having some greenhouse benefit, but which, for
certain reasons, may not be implemented due to their
estimated cost effectiveness or the potential social
repercussions. Many of these actions may also involve
major changes to Government policy or an increase
in the level of regulation and control on community
lifestyle by the Government.
The level of abatement indicated is representative of
the reduction that could be achieved at full
development of the action. The levels of abatement
are as follows:
High above 1.0 Mt CO2-e per annum
Medium 0.1 to 1.0 Mt CO2-e per annum
Low 0.01 to 0.1 Mt CO2-e per annum
Negligible below 0.01 Mt CO2-e per annum
No cost estimates of implementation for the actions
in Table 6 have been performed as it is considered
that cost of implementation by the Government is
not representative of the “real” cost of the action. A
comprehensive cost benefit analysis is planned to be
undertaken to identify social, economical and
environmental consequences of greenhouse
abatement actions in the urban land use and
transport sectors and this will provide support for the
greenhouse abatement decision-making process.
Table 6: Other greenhouse abatement actions
Action Other benefits Potential Other considerationslevel of
abatement
32 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
7
Targets for reducing GHGE fromcommercial and freight vehicles
Local air quality High Competitiveness of freight industry
Maintenance of speed limit Improved transport efficiency,safety, local air quality
Low
Compulsory tuning of vehicles Local air quality Low Equity and social implications.Benefit reduces as older cars removedfrom population
Vehicle emissions testing Local air quality Low Equity and social implications. Benefitreduces as emission standards tighten
Fuel efficiency targets forGovernment fleets
Local air quality Low Benefit reduces as emission standardstighten
Reducing access to the centralbusiness district
Local air quality Low Implications for retail industries andpublic transport infrastructure
Fiscal advantages for publictransport companies
Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
Low
Fiscal measures to encouragepublic transport use byprofessional commuter traffic
Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
Low Measures to reduce incentive forbusiness travel
Fiscal measures that promotesale of more efficient vehicles
Local air quality Low Social considerations
Establishing a green-belt aroundthe Perth metropolitan area
Urban consolidation Variable Dependent on level of additionaldevelopment
Ferries Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
Negligible Journeys are more likely to be forpleasure than commuting
Car scrapping programs Local air quality, safety Negligible Equity and social implications.Benefit reduces as older cars removedfrom population
Removal of cabotage Competitiveness of national seafreight industry
Unknown Impact on local industry, loss ofrevenue
Removal of duty on foreign-flagged vessels
Competitiveness of national seafreight industry
Unknown Impact on local industry, loss ofrevenue
Reduce PT fares to 80% currentlevels
Increased public transport use,reduced car use, local air quality
Medium Level of resultant service due to lackof funding
Increased use of methanol andethanol fuels
Local air quality Medium Dependent on advancement oftechnology
Improved sea-rail, road-rail andsea-road terminals
Improved freight transportefficiency, reduced road use, localair quality
Medium Dependent on accessibility andquality of service
Reduced registration charges forfuel efficient cars with smallerengines
Local air quality Medium Potential for stamp duty concessionswhen changing over to a smaller car
Light rail Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
Medium Feasibility of service in Perth
Road user charges Reduced car use, local air quality Medium Equity, social implications such asprivacy
Import restrictions on highlypolluting vehicles
Local air quality Medium
33June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
88. Conclusions
Although Australia contributes just over 1% of total
global greenhouse gas emissions, its per capita
emissions are amongst the highest in the world (Dess
& Millard, 1998). Australia also has one of the highest
levels of car use in the world, second only to that of
North America (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999;
Kenworthy & Laube et al, 1999). Consequently,
Australians should be made aware of the need to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transport
sector.
The long term solution to reducing greenhouse gas
emissions from transport and urban land use sources
is to reduce the amount of combustion of fossil fuels.
Various methods of achieving this have been
discussed in this report and include reducing vehicle
consumption through engine and fuel technology
and the use of alternate fuels, modification to
community attitudes and behaviours towards public
transport and alternative modes of transport to the
car, and reducing the need to travel through means
such as land use and transport planning.
Regional planning is one of the most effective tools to
ensure integration and an efficient transportation
system. The achievement of a more integrated
transport and land use system can only be achieved
through high level Government commitment and
active community participation. Emissions from the
land use planning sector relate largely to the level of
use of the car for private travel. Appropriate and
effective land use planning will achieve reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions through consequent
reductions in car use.
Planning can only indirectly affect transportation
demand, though its effect can be very powerful in
shaping choices in personal transportation. Planning
can provide an urban system where modes such as
public transport, walking and cycling become natural
choices because they are more convenient than
driving for many trips. Personal choice of transport
mode, especially for the car, will always be a factor in
transport. However, in terms of urban land use
planning, it is important to distinguish between
genuine choice and car dependence. If urban land
uses are presently structured to make the car a
necessity of life, thus eliminating real choice, the goal
of urban land use planning for the future must be to
ensure that a genuine choice between modes is
possible for most trips.
Improving the fuel efficiency of vehicles using
conventional fuels, encouraging consumer preferences
toward vehicles of greater fuel efficiency, and
promoting the use of ‘alternative’ fuels of relatively
low greenhouse intensity are important actions to
limit greenhouse gas emissions from transport
(Commonwealth of Australia, 1998). Improved
vehicle and fuel efficiency will not be able to stabilise
the growth in emissions, let alone reduce emissions
from transport, however, if the use of motor vehicles
continues to grow. Any benefits observed from
increased vehicle and fuel efficiency will be negated by
the predicted increase in the number of vehicles and
the distance travelled per vehicle.
The reduction in the reliance on the car for personal
travel may be the most effective method to achieve
long term reductions in greenhouse gas emissions
from the transport sector. This may be attained
through effective land use planning and
implementation of urban village concepts and the
implementation of travel demand strategies,
together with improved integration of transport and
urban land use. This will result in reduced
dependence on individual cars and trucks through
making greater use of car pools, buses, trains,
bicycles and walking; and through the provision of
efficient, convenient and affordable public
transport, as well as other alternatives.
A role for the car will still remain where travel
demand is slight or very dispersed, however. This role
will be best met by encouraging the use of the
smallest most fuel efficient vehicle practicable,
consistent with safety needs.
The majority of the actions outlined in this report are
currently being implemented with the abatement of
greenhouse gases a secondary effect. This report has
recommended actions to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions from the transport and urban land use
sectors, such as extension of the TravelSmart
program. TravelSmart is capable of reducing the
amount of low occupancy vehicle use, and resultant
vehicle emissions, as it promotes the use of non-car
transport alternatives.
The development of strategies in other areas will
require some preliminary investigations to determine
potential costs and benefits. The potential for
transport and energy impact assessment for new
development proposals to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions from the urban land use sector should be
investigated as well as a survey of appropriate sites in
Perth for urban redevelopment. In the area of freight
transport, the investigation of the impacts of just-in-
time delivery and the removal of cabotage and duty
on foreign-flagged vessels carrying coastal cargo will
aid in the development of greenhouse gas reduction
strategies for the freight sector.
There is also a need for community consultation and
education to ensure that the community is aware of
the need for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
and the benefits that may be achieved in other areas.
34 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
8
35
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Bult, B., Bishop, K., Bray, A., Martin, G., Morgan, P. & Stanley, J. (1998) Euro 2 & Beyond: Fuel for Transperth’s bus
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Cosgrove, D, & Garrett, D. (1992). The Australian domestic transport task. Australasian Transport research forum,
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Australia.
Dess, M, & Millard, B. (1998) Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving air quality through sustainable
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DEST (1996) More with less: initiatives to promote sustainable consumption. Commonwealth Department of the
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DETR (1998) A New Deal for Transport – Better for Everyone: The Government’s White Paper on the Future of
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ECMT (1997). CO2 Emissions from Transport. European Conference of Ministers of Transport. OECD Publications
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Energy Victoria, Victorian EPA, Department of Infrastructure & Energy Research and Development Corporation
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Government of Western Australia (1998) The Western Australian Government’s Response to the Report of the Select
Committee on Perth’s Air Quality, Perth, Western Australia.
ICBC (1998) AirCare® Program Review and Evaluation of Benefits: Program years one to five, September 1992 to
August 1997. Prepared by S. J. Stewart and D I Gourley, Insurance Corporation British Columbia.
International Association for Natural Gas Vehicles (1998) Advantages of NGVs. IANGV Website.
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Referen
ces
Appendix 1
Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group
Terms of Reference
1. Role
The prime role of the technical panel is to provide a forum and network to acquire, offer and facilitate advice,
through the Chair, to the WA Greenhouse Council about the implementation of the National Greenhouse Strategy
and the WA Greenhouse Strategy, with respect to the integration of land use and transport planning.
2. Terms of Reference
Provide advice and assistance to the WA Greenhouse Council on:
• the implications to WA of implementing the measures contained in module 5 and the relevant sections of
module 3 of the National Greenhouse Strategy. The working groups will need to identify measures already
being implemented, those requiring enhancement and those requiring initiation;
• determining priorities for implementing transport and urban planning and design aspects of the National
Greenhouse Strategy and the WA Greenhouse Strategy;
• identifying cost effective measures for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transport and urban planning
and design.
The working group will consult with other working groups and other organisations as appropriate.
3. Proposed Representation
Mr Gary Prattley (Chairman) Ministry for Planning
Dr Chris Whittaker Department of Transport (Deputy Chairman)
Representative Main Roads WA
Mr Michael Waite Department of Environmental Protection
Representative Westrail
Mr Alan Layton WA Road Transport Association
Representative Australian Gas Association
Representative Urban Development Institute of Australia
Prof Barrie Mellotte Royal Australian Planning Institute
Mr Mike Upton Royal Automobile Club of WA
Representative WA Municipal Association
Representative Public Transport area
Mr David Wake Conservation Council of WA
Mr Behnam Bordbar Institute of Engineers Transport Panel
Dr Jeff Kenworthy Murdoch University
Mr Simon Williamson Chamber of Minerals and Energy
4. Meetings
The panel will meet at least once per year and more frequently as required to perform its role.
38 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
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5. Support for the WA Greenhouse Council
Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group
Work program
1. Through the WAGC, keep Cabinet informed of State, National and International developments with regular
status reports.
2. Consider the measures outlined in Module 5 of the NGS and those outlined in the Western Australian
Greenhouse Strategy (WAGS).
i) Correlate measures from the NGS and the WAGS with existing programs, policies and actions.
ii) Identify the costs and benefits to WA from each of the measures.
iii) Identify new actions/priorities which can be cost effectively undertaken in WA.
3. Investigate a mechanism to monitor and report on WA’s greenhouse gas contribution from transport (and
urban land use).
i) Investigate the ability to provide base line data using 1990 as the base year for transport (and urban land
use) and where possible provide relevant information.
ii) Estimate the projections for the year 2010 for the ‘business as usual’ case.
4. Provide at an appropriate stage, as a routine ancillary note for development of a State Interest Analysis, a
preliminary comment on social, environmental, economic and cultural impacts on affected parties of proposed
measures and, where practicable, options.
5. Identify any cost effective measures for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from the transport, urban land use
and planning sector not included in the National Greenhouse Strategy and propose strategies for implementing
these measures.
6. Contribute to and provide comment in any media release or information provided under the auspices of the
Council related to energy supply and use.
7. Prepare for the WAGC a progress plan which takes account of Australia’s requirement under the Framework
Convention for a Work Program by 2005.
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
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Appendix 2
List of AbbreviationsADR Australian Design Rules
ADR Australian Design Rules
AGO Australian Greenhouse Office
AQMP Air Quality Management Plan
ATC Australian Transport Council
AVMOD BTCE spreadsheet model of the scheduled domestic aviation fleet composition and aircraftutilisation
BAU business as usual
BTCE Bureau of Transport and Communications Economics
CARMOD BTCE spreadsheet model of the Australian car fleet
CBD central business district
CNG compressed natural gas
CO2 carbon dioxide
CO2-e CO2 equivalents
DEP Department of Environmental Protection
ECMT European Conference of Ministers of Transport
EPRA East Perth Redevelopment Authority
ERG Expert Reference Group
ESD ecologically sustainable development
FORS Federal Office of Road Safety
FPA Fremantle Port Authority
GHGE greenhouse gas emissions
HOV high occupancy vehicle
LCV light commercial vehicle
LPG liquid petroleum gas
LRT light rail transit
MfP Ministry for Planning
MRWA Main Roads WA
Mt megatonnes (106 tonnes)
MTBE methyl tertiary butyl ether
MTS Metropolitan Transport Strategy
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MVEC Motor Vehicle Environment Committee
NAFC national average fuel consumption
NCP National Competition Policy
NEPC National Environment Protection Council
NGGI National Greenhouse Gas Inventory
NGGIC National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Council
NGS National Greenhouse Strategy
NRTC National Road Transport Commission
NMVOC non-methane volatile organic compounds
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
PJ Petajoules (1015 joules)
PT public transport
PMFTS Perth Metropolitan Freight Transport Strategy
RTA Road Transport Association
RTF Road Transport Forum
SCOT Standing Committee on Transport
SCT Specialised Container Transport
SMVU Survey of Motor Vehicles Usage
SWMRMP South West Metropolitan Railway Master Plan
TDM Travel Demand Management
TIP Transport Infrastructure Project
TRUCKMOD BTCE spreadsheet model of the Australian truck and light commercial vehicle fleet
TULUP Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group
VKT vehicle kilometres travelled
WAGC Western Australian Greenhouse Council
WAPC Western Australian Planning Commission
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
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