TROPICAL BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS

TROPICAL BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT

Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 1 e-ISBN 978-1-84826-272-0 ISBN 978-1-84826-722-0 No of Pages 266

Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 2 e-ISBN 978-1-84826-273-7 ISBN 978-1-84826-723-7 No of Pages 252

Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 3 e-ISBN 978-1-84826-274-4 ISBN 978-1-84826-724-4 No of Pages 268 Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 4 e-ISBN 978-1-84826-275-1 ISBN 978-1-84826-725-1 No of Pages 406

Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 5 e-ISBN 978-1-84826-276-8 ISBN 978-1-84826-726-8 No of Pages 322 Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 6 e-ISBN 978-1-84826-277-5 ISBN 978-1-84826-727-5 No of Pages 288 Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 7 e-ISBN 978-1-84826-278-2 ISBN 978-1-84826-728-2 No of Pages 304

Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 8 e-ISBN 978-1-84826-279-9 ISBN 978-1-84826-729-9 No of Pages 376 Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 9 e-ISBN 978-1-84826-280-5 ISBN 978-1-84826-730-5 No of Pages 326 Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 10 e-ISBN 978-1-84826-281-2 ISBN 978-1-84826-731-2 No of Pages 476 Tropical Biology and Conservation Management Volume 11 e-ISBN 978-1-84826-282-9 ISBN 978-1-84826-732-9 No of Pages 306

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CONTENTS

VOLUME I

Tropical Biology and Natural Resources Historical Pathways and Perspectives 1 K Del-Claro Institute of Biology Federal University of Uberlandia Brazil 1 Introduction 2 The Foundations of Tropical Biology

21 Linnaeus Humboldt and the Illuminists 22 The Victorian Naturalists

3 New Insights in Tropical Biology 4 Important Topics in Tropical Biology

41 Tropical Ecology 42 Tropical Botany 43 Tropical Zoology 44 Tropical Agriculture Phytopathology and Entomology 45 Other Topics

5 Conclusion and Outlook The Importance Of Natural History Studies To The Knowledge Of Tropical Plants 23 H M Torezan-Silingardi Institute of Biology Federal University of Uberlndia Minas Gerais Brazil 1 Introduction 2 This Session Seasonally Dry Deciduous Forests Diversity And Soils In Arboreal Communities 27 A R T Nascimento G M Arauacutejo Instituto de Biologia Universidade Federal de Uberlacircndia (UFU) Brazil J M Felfili Departamento de Engenharia Florestal Universidade de Brasiacutelia (UNB) Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Ecology and community structure 3 Arboreal vegetation in seasonally dry tropical forests in Central Brazil 4 Soils and Vegetation relationships 5 Final Remarks Morphology And Anatomy Of Tropical Flowers 41 Luiz Antonio de Souza and Ismar Sebastiatildeo Moscheta Universidade Estadual de Maringaacute Departamento de Biologia Avenida Colombo 5790 (87020-900) Maringaacute Paranaacute Brasil 1 Introduction 2 Flower morphology and anatomy

21 Hypsophylls 22 Floral Pedicel 23 Floral Receptacle 24 Anthophylls 25 PerianthPerigone

251 Calyx 252 Corolla 253 Perigone

26 Hypanthium 27 Androecium

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28 Gynoecium 29 Ovule

3 Nectary 4 Flower diagram and formula 5 Prefloration or Aestivation 6 Inflorescences 7 Anthesis 8 Pollination

81 Abiotic pollination 82 Biotic Pollination

9 Fecundation Tropical Aquatic Plants Morphoanatomical Adaptations 84 Edna Scremin-Dias Botany Laboratory Biology Department Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul Brazil 1 Introduction and Definition 2 Origin Distribution and Diversity of Aquatic Plants 3 Life Forms of Aquatic Plants

31 Submerged Plants 32 Floating Plants 33 Emergent Plants 34 Amphibian Plants

4 Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations 5 Organs Structure ndash Morphology and Anatomy

51 Submerged Leaves Structure and Adaptations 52 Floating Leaves Structure and Adaptations 53 Emergent Leaves Structure and Adaptations 54 Aeriferous Chambers Characteristics and Function 55 Stem Morphology and Anatomy 56 Root Morphology and Anatomy

6 Economic Importance 7 Importance to Preserve Wetland and Wetland Plants Natural History And Ecology Of Neotropical Mistletoes 133 Rafael Arruda and Rodrigo F Fadini Coordenao de Pesquisas em Ecologia - CPEC Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amaznia - INPA 69011-970 CP 478 Manaus - AM Brazil Fabiana A Mouro and Claudia M Jacobi Laboratrio de Interao Animal-Planta Departamento de Biologia Geral Instituto de Cincias Biolgicas Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - UFMG 31270-901 CP 486 Belo Horizonte - MG Brazil Grazielle Sales Teodoro Setor de Ecologia Departamento de Biologia Universidade Federal de Lavras - UFLA Lavras - MG Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Taxonomical relationships geographical distribution and mistletoe diversity in Brazil 3 Effects of mistletoe infestations on plant communities 4 Reproductive biology 5 Mistletoe-host interactions 6 Metapopulation dynamics of mistletoes in Brazilian savannas 7 Economical relevance are mistletoes pests on agricultural systems or natural plant populations 8 Conclusions and perspectives Plant Strategies For Seed Dispersal In Tropical Habitats Patterns And Implications 155 Nataacutelia O Leiner Andreacute RT Nascimento and Ceacuteline Melo Universidade Federal de Uberlacircndia Instituto de Biologia Uberlacircndia MG Brazil

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1 Introduction 11 Megafaunal Syndrome

2 Plant strategies to Attract Frugivores 21 FruitSeed Size Constraints 22 Visual and Olfactory Displays and Nutritional Rewards 23 Phenological Strategies 24 Opportunist x Specialist Plant Strategies

3 Fruit Choice by Animals 4 Deposition Patterns and Frugivore Efficiency as a Seed Disperser 5 Seed Dispersal and Restoration Ecology Index 171 About EOLSS 175

VOLUME II

Impact Of Humanity On Tropical Ecosystems An Overview 1 Oswaldo Marccedilal Junior Biology Institute Federal University of Uberlandia Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Ecosystems

21 Tropical Ecosystems 3 Relationships between Humans and Natural Ecosystems 4 Consequences of the human population growth 5 Environmental Impact

51 Natural Impacts 52 Anthropogenic impacts

6 Evaluation of environmental impacts 7 Perspectives of the tropical ecosystems conservation 8 Scope and organization of the session chapters related to human impact on tropical ecosystems Deforestation and Forest Fragmentation in the Amazon 23 William F Laurance Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Apartado 0843-03092 Balboa Republic of Panama Heraldo L Vasconcelos Instituto de Biologia Universidade Federal de Uberlacircndia CP 593 38400-902 Uberlacircndia MG Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Causes of deforestation 3 Forest fragmentation 4 Ecological impacts of forest fragmentation

41 Nonrandom Deforestation 42 Area Effects 43 Distance Effects 44 Edge Effects 45 Matrix Effects 46 Synergistic Effects

5 Characteristics of fragmented communities 51 Changes in Species Composition 52 Changes in Trophic Structure 53 Changes in Ecological Processes 54 Changes in Ecosystem Processes 55 Ripple Effects

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6 Conclusions and conservation implications Human impact on tropical freshwater environments 40 Marcos Callisto and Marcelo S Moretti Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais Instituto de Ciencias Biologicas Departamento de Biologia Geral Laboratorio de Ecologia de Bentos Belo Horizonte MG Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Water Usage Policy From medieval civilizations to the present 3 Water resources degradation and loss of benefits 4 Schistosomiasis ndash Efforts to control this tropical disease 5 What to do to minimize water crisis 6 Environmental Biomonitoring Programs 7 Freshwater Biodiversity in Tropical Areas 8 Watersheds as the main focus for integrated intervention acts 9 Reference Sites for Biomonitoring Efforts in Tropical Watersheds 10 Maintenance of riparian vegetation as an intervention action 11 Litter Breakdown as a tool to assess Human Impacts Effects of Pollution and Wildlife Toxicology in Tropical Ecosystems 70 Yaico Dirce Tanimoto de Albuquerque Universidade Federal de Uberlandia Instituto de Quimica Campus Santa Monica Uberlandia MG Brazil Flavia Nogueira de Sa and Maria Teresa Raya Rodriacuteguez Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Departamento de Ecologia Instituto de Biociencias Porto Alegre RS Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Soil and Biodiversity of the Terrestrial Ecosystems 3 Tropical Forests and Ecological Services

31 Biodiversity and Benefits 32 Hydrological Cycle and Climate Control

4 Deforestation and Climatic Changes 5 Pollution and Living Beings 6 Closer Look at some Atmospheric Pollutants

61 Natural Sources of Pollutants 62 Anthropogenic Sources of Pollutants

621 Primary Pollutants Smog Photochemical and Ozone 622 Particulates

7 Closer Look at some Soil Pollutants 8 Effects of Pollutants on Biodiversity and Decline of Forests

81 Effects of Atmospheric Pollutants 82 Effects of Particulate Materials 83 Effects of Acid Deposition 84 Effects of Nitrogen Deposition 85 Effects of Heavy Metals 86 Effects of Pesticides

9 Concluding Remarks Contributions of Human Ecology to Conciliate People and Biodiversity with a Focus on Fishing Communities 128 RAM Silvano Dep Ecologia Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) and Fisheries and Food Institute (FIFO) Brazil A Begossi Fisheries and Food Institute (FIFO) and Fisheries Management and Training Program (CAPESCAPREAC) Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Unicamp) Brazil 1 Introduction

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2 Local people and biodiversity 21 The Main Issue 22 Local People and Biological Diversity Friends or Foes 23 Contributions of Human Ecology to understand the Use of Biodiversity by Local People

231 Investigating the Use of Nature 232 Major Research Topics in Human Ecology 233 How to Do It General Methods Adopted in Studies of Human Ecology

3 Fishing communities and biodiversity 31 Why Fish General Features of Local Fisheries 32 Brief Case Study Use of Fish Plants and Fish Diversity among Brazilian Fishing Communities

321 Overview of the Brazilian Fishing Communities 322 Objectives and Hypotheses 323 Data Gathering and Analysis 324 Patterns on Fish Use among Brazilian Fishing Communities

4 Co-management of natural resources 5 Conclusions Index 159 About EOLSS 161

VOLUME III

Introduction to tropical agriculture and Outlook for Tropical Crops in a Globalized Economy 1 F J Morales Head Virology Research Unit International Center for Tropical Agriculture Colombia 1 Introduction 2 The Origin of Tropical Crops 3 Dissemination of Tropical Crops outside Their Centres of Origin 4 Tropical Agriculture in Colonial Times 5 Independence and Tropical Agriculture 6 Tropical Food Crops 7 Outlook on Tropical Agriculture 8 Tropical Food Crops in a Globalized Economy 9 Historical Background 10 Globalization 11 Free Trade 12 The Starting Point 13 The Future of Tropical Crops 14 Market Inequalities 15 Crop diversification 16 Agricultural Research and Development 17 Free Trade and Politics Biological Control Of Insect Pests In The Tropics 28 M V Sampaio Instituto de Ciecircncias Agraacuteria Universidade Federal de Uberlacircndia Brazil V H P Bueno and L C P Silveira Departamento de Entomologia Universidade Federal de Lavras Brazil A M Auad Embrapa Gado de Leite Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuaacuteria Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Natural Enemies of Insects and Mites

21 Entomophagous 211 Predators

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212 Parasitoids 22 Entomopathogens

221 Fungi 222 Bacteria 223 Viruses 224 Nematodes

3 Categories of Biological Control 31 Natural Biological Control 32 Applied Biological Control

321 Classical Biological Control 322 Augmentative Biological Control 323 Conservation of Natural Enemies

4 Conclusions Tropical Fruit Crops and the Diseases that Affect their Production 71 RC Ploetz Department of Plant Pathology University of Florida Homestead FL USA

1 Introduction 2 Significance of Diseases 3 General Categories of Plant Pathogens 4 Tropical Fruit Pathogens and the Diseases that they Cause

41 Eukayota 411 Kinetoplastida 412 Chromalveolata 413 Plantae 414 Fungi 415 Metazoa (the Animal Kingdom)

42 Eubacteria 421 Firmicutes (bacteria with Gram positive or no cell walls) 422 Proteobacteria (Gram negative bacteria)

43 Nucleic Acid-Based Pathogens 431 Viruses 432 Viroids

5 Interactions 6 Disease Epidemiology and Management

61 Epidemiological Principles 62 Avoidance 63 Exclusion 64 Eradication 65 Protection 66 Resistance 67 Treatment of Diseased Plants

7 Conclusions Tropical Livestock Production and Management 107 G A Morales National and international Veterinary Consultant Colombia S A 1 General Introduction 2 Tropical Livestock Production and Management Generalities 3 Latin America Livestock Production and Management

31 Socioeconomic Trends 32 Geographical Divisions and Ecological Characteristics 33 Human and Livestock Population 34 Prevailing Farming Systems

341 Small Farm Systems and Subsisting Holdings in the Highlands of Peru and Bolivia

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342 Medium Size Farm Systems 343 Savanna Mixed Farming Systems

35 Meat and Live Animal Exports in Latin America 36 Concluding Remarks

4 African Tropical Livestock Production and Management 41 Historical Facts Geographical Social and Economic Trends 42 The African Continent Major Geographic Formations

421 The Sahara Countries People and Domestic Animals 422 The Sahel 423 Farming in Sub-Saharan Africa

43 Goats and Sheep in Southern Africa and Their Importance 44 Chickens in Sub-Saharan Africa and Their Importance for Women Wellbeing 45 Wildlife in Sub-Saharan Africa 46 Integration of Wild Animals and Livestock 47 African Trypanosomiasis

471 Tsetse Flies as Guardian of Rangeland For The Wild 48 Wild Animal Ranching 49 Concluding Remarks

5 Asian Tropical Livestock Production and Management 51 Tropical Asia Generalities 52 Phitogeography and Agriculture 53 Ethnicity and Religions 54 Livestock in Tropical Asia 55 Mining and Industry 56 The Indian Subcontinent

561 The Land Lord (Zamindar) and Transhumant Livestock Systems 57 Dairy Production in India 58 Total Livestock Number in India 59 Farmers Production Systems

591 Peri-urban 592 Rural and Integrated Crop Fish Livestock Farming In India

510 Livestock Production and Management in Other Southern Asian Tropical Countries 511 An Example of an Ecological Crop-Animal-Fish Interaction in Indonesia

6 Livestock Production and Management in Northern Australia 61 Population and Ethnic Groups 62 Indigenous Human Population 63 Cattle Production and Management 64 The Australian Buffalo 65 The Lamb Goat and Pork Meat Industries 66 Dairy Production in the Country 67 Cattle Commercially Important Diseases 68 Fisheries

The Conservation and Utilization of Crop Genetic Resources in the Tropics 142 W Roca C Ynouye C Espinoza C Zorrilla A Salas R Goacutemez A Panta and I Manrique International Potato Center (CIP) Lima-Peru 1 The Origin Diversity and Flow of Tropical Crop Genetic Resources 2 Conservation of Crop Genetic Resources

21 Methods for the Conservation of Crop Genetic Resources 211 In Situ Conservation 212 On Farm Conservation 213 Ex Situ Conservation

3 In Vitro Culture Conservation Methods of Crop Genetic Resources 31 Establishing Crop Biodiversity In Vitro 32 Plant Health in the In Vitro Genebank Elimination of Viral Infections of Clonal Collections 33 Multiplication of Clonal Accessions in the In Vitro Genebank

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34 In Vitro Maintenance of Clones 35 Long-Term In Vitro Storage of Clonal Germplasm under Cryopreservation 36 Multiplication Storage and Distribution of Clonal Germplasm using In Vitro Microtubers

4 In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation Relationships 5 Global Initiatives on Ex Situ Conservation of Crop Genetic Resources

51 Potato Conservation Strategy 52 Sweetpotato Conservation Strategy

6 Improving the Quality of Ex Situ Conservation and Utilization of Crop Genetic Resources 61 Assessing the Genetic Diversity of Crop Genetic Resources 62 Rationalization of Crop Germplasm Collections

621 Genetic Identity of Clonal Collections 622 Genetic Integrity of Collections

63 Monitoring Plant Health in the Genebank 64 Bar-Code and Mobile Solutions to Improve Genebank Management 65 Geographic Information Systems for Improving Germplasm Management and Utilization

7 Adding Value to Crop Genetic Resources 8 The Changing Scenario for Plant Genetic Resources Challenges and Opportunities for Genebanks

81 Challenges and Opportunities from Global Trends 82 Opportunities Offered By Science and Technology 83 Regulatory Framework for Plant Genetic Resources 84 Sustainable Management of Crop Genetic Resources

Index 173 About EOLSS 177

VOLUME IV

Tropical Botany A Brief Introduction 1 FR Scarano Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro CCS IB Depto Ecologia Brasil Instituto de Pesquisa Jardim Botacircnico do Rio de Janeiro Diretoria de Pesquisa Cientiacutefica Brasil U Luumlttge Darmstadt University of Technology Botany Institute Darmstadt Germany 1 Introduction 2 Choosing chapters 3 How did tropical botany get here 4 Postmodern botany Flooded Forests 8 FR Scarano Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro CCS IB Depto Ecologia Brasil Instituto de Pesquisa Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro Diretoria de Pesquisas Brasil 1 Introduction 2 Plant Survival under Oxygen Stress

21 Overview 22 Metabolic Mechanisms 23 Morpho-Physiological Mechanisms 24 Ecological Mechanisms

3 Tropical Flooded Forests 31 Amazon Flooded Forests 32 Swamp Forests 33 Cross-Comparing Amazon Flooded Forests with Tropical Swamps

331 Diversity and Biogeography 332 Flood-tolerance

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333 Seed and Seedling Ecology 4 Conservation and Restoration of Tropical Flooded Forests

41 Conservation Status and International Initiatives 42 Conservation and Restoration Tropical Case Studies

5 Conclusion Aquatic Macrophytes in the Tropics Ecology of Populations and Communities Impacts of Invasions and Use by Man 27 S M Thomaz Department of BiologyNupelia Maringa State University Parana 87020-900 Brazil F A Esteves Department of EcologyNupem Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Brazil K J Murphy Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences Graham Kerr Building University of Glasgow Glasgow G12 8QQ UK A M dos Santos State University of Montes Claros Minas Gerais Brazil A Caliman Department of Ecology Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Brazil R D Guariento Department of Ecology Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Brazil 1 Introduction 2 General Features of Macrophytes

21 Evolution 22 Main Adaptations to Life in Water

3 Importance of Macrophytes for Ecosystem Structure and Functioning 4 Macrophytes in Populations 5 Macrophyte Communities

51 The Organization of Macrophyte Assemblages 52 Factors Affecting Assemblage Composition 53 Biodiversity and Endemism

6 Macrophytes as Weeds 7 Potential Use of Water Macrophytes

71 Cultural and Economic Use 72 Water Gardening 73 Medical Use 74 Source of Food 75 Eutrophication and Pollution Control

Inselbergs Vegetation Diversity And Ecology 61 Manfred Kluge Institute of Botany Darmstadt University of Technology Darmstadt Germany Burkhard Bdel Plant Ecology and Systematics Department of Biology University of Kaiserslautern Germany 1 Introduction 2 Geomorphologic Genesis and Physiognomy 3 Inselberg Habitats

31 Exposed Rock Surfaces 32 Fissures and Cracks 33 Rock Depressions 34 Ephemeral Flush Vegetation 35 Vegetation Mats 36 Savanna and Forest Vegetation Islands

4 Physiognomy of the Vegetation 41 Cryptogams 42 Vascular Plants

5 Environmental Factors as Ecophysiological Stressors 51 The Concept of Stress Avoidance and Tolerance 52 Adaptation of Vascular Plants and Cryptogams to Scarcity and excess of Water

521 Extremes in Water Relations a Challenge for Cryptogams 522 Drought and Desiccation Tolerance of Vascular Plants

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523 Desiccation Avoidance 5231 Structural Avoidance Mechanisms Xeromorphism 5232 A Metabolic Avoidance Mechanism Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM)

53 Adaptation to High Irradiance and Temperatures 54 Deficiency of Mineral Nutrients Carnivorous Plants and Biological N2-Fixation by

Cyanobacteria 6 Inselbergs and Man Moist Tropical Forests Structure Function And Management 100 U Lttge Institute of Botany Department of Biology Technical University Darmstadt Germany 1 Introduction 2 Types of Tropical Forests

21 The Horizontal Structure 22 The Vertical Structure 23 Gap Successions

3 The Structure of Moist Tropical Forests 31 The Horizontal Structure 32 The Vertical Structure 33 Gap Successions

4 Sun- and Shade-Plant Physiotypes 5 Light Stress 6 Chlorophyll Fluorescence 7 Light-Fleck Dynamics on the Forest Floor 8 Drought in Moist Tropical Forests 9 The Pressure on Tropical Forests

91 Current Destruction 92 Relinquished Values 93 Sustained Management

10 Conclusion and Outlook Neotropical Mangroves 132 LD de Lacerda Instituto de Ciecircncias do Mar Universidade Federal do Cearaacute Fortaleza Brazil 1 Mangroves extension and distribution in the world 2 Mangrove flora and the origin of the Neotropical mangroves 3 Mangrove associated fauna 4 Ecology 5 Mangrove products and services 6 Environmental impacts on mangroves 7 Conclusion Tropical Artificial Forests 153 DJ Capossoli JBB Sansevero ML Garbin FR Scarano Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro CCS IB Depto Ecologia BrasilInstituto de Pesquisa Jardim Botnico do Rio de Janeiro Diretoria de Pesquisa Cientfica Brasil 1 Introduction 2 Concepts Definitions and Purposes 3 Historical Aspects 4 Quantitative Data 5 Criticisms and Ways to Increase Sustainability of Planted Forests 6 Case Studies in the Tropics

61 Productive Plantations 62 The Use of Multiple Native Tree Plantations for Restoring a Conservation Unit in Brazil

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63 Pure and Mixed Plantation at La Selva Biological Station Costa Rica 64 Forest Restoration of Bauxite-Mined Sites in Central Amazon Brazil 65 The Application of Different Plantation Styles to Deforested Areas in Queensland Australia 66 Regeneration of Native Tree Species under Eucalyptus Plantations in Southeastern Brazil

7 Conclusion Sandy Coastal Vegetation 173 DSD Araujo Department of Ecology Rio de Janeiro Federal University Brazil MCA Pereira Herbarium Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Landforms in Coastal Areas 3 Vegetation Types and Community Structure

31 Beach Communities 32 Open Scrub Vegetation 33 Coastal Plain Forests 34 Dune Field Vegetation

4 Life forms 5 Species Diversity and Geography

51 Species Richness 52 Geographic Distribution

6 Conservation Marine Algae and Plants 190 M A O Figueiredo Programa Zona Costeira Instituto de Pesquisas Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro Brazil J C Creed Departamento de Ecologia Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Macroalgae and Seagrass Diversity 3 Species and their Environment 4 Marine Plant Communities Rain ForestsFloristics 203 F Z Saiter Instituto Estadual de Meio Ambiente e Recursos Hiacutedricos Espiacuterito Santo Brazil T Wendt Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Brazil D M Villela Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Rio de Janeiro Brazil M T Nascimento Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Rio de Janeiro Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Global Distribution and Main Features of Tropical Rain Forests

21 The Neotropical Rain Forest 22 The African Rain Forest 23 The Indo-Malayan and Australian Rain Forest

3 Floristic Patterns 4 Biodiversity

41 Tropical Rain Forests are generally Rich in Species and Endemism 42 The Diversity in Local Scale 43 Diversity as a Result of Latitudinal Gradients 44 The Paradox of the Monodominant Forests

5 Tropical Rain Forests are Dynamic 6 Nutrient Cycling

61 An Overview 62 Environmental Conditions Which Drive Nutrient Cycling in the Rain Forests 63 Floristic Composition Diversity Nutrient Cycling and Rain Forest Management

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7 Conclusion and Outlook Epiphytes 229 Fernanda Reinert Talita Fontoura Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Brazil Departamento de Botanica Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz Departamento de Ciecircncias Bioloacutegicas Bahia Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Geographic regional and point scales 3 Photosynthesis 4 Water relations 5 Mineral nutrition 6 Lichens 7 Ferns 8 Orchids 9 Bromeliads 10 Habitat modification the forest loss 11 Conclusion Cerrado 260 Augusto Cesar Franco Departamento de Botacircnica Universidade de Brasiacutelia Brazil Mundayatan Haridasan Departamento de Ecologia Universidade de Brasiacutelia Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Vegetation

21 Vegetation Forms 22 Floristic Composition

3 Climate and Soil as Determinants of Cerrado Vegetation 4 Ecosystem Functioning 5 Seedling Establishment Growth and Productivity of Native Plants

51 Woody Plants 52 Grasses and Herbs

6 Fire as A Determinant of Ecosystem Functioning 7 Anthropogenic Impacts Biodiversity Threats and Global Change 8 Conclusion Symbiotic Bacteria and Fungi 286 EK James and M Fomina College of Life Sciences University of Dundee Dundee DD1 5EH UK SM de Faria EMBRAPA-Agrobiologia km 47 Seropeacutedica 23851-970 RJ Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Nitrogen-fixing Legumes and their Symbionts 3 Infection of Legumes by Rhizobia 4 Other Nitrogen-Fixing Organisms 5 The Role of Nitrogen Fixation in the Nitrogen Cycle 6 Mycorrhizal Fungi and the Phosphorus Cycle 7 Use of Symbiotic Fungi and Bacteria in Bioremediation 8 Conclusion Index 311 About EOLSS 315

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VOLUME V

Introduction To Tropical Ecology 1 M Quesada Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico Mxico K Del Claro Institute of Biology Federal University of Uberlandia Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Contents of Current Section on Tropical Ecology Chapters Diversity of Prokaryotes fungi protozoa Bryophytes and Pteridophytes in tropical ecosystems 13 Ana Paula Trovatti Uetanabaro Laboratoacuterio de Controle de Qualidade Microbioloacutegico de Faacutermacos Departamento de Sauacutede Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana (UEFS) Feira de Santana BABrazil Aristoacuteteles Goacutees-Neto Laboratoacuterio de Pesquisa em Microbiologia (LAPEM) Departamento de Ciecircncias Bioloacutegicas Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana (UEFS) Feira de Santana BA Brazil Luiz Henrique Rosa Laboratoacuterio de Microbiologia Departamento de Ciecircncias Bioloacutegicas ICEB Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto Ouro Preto MG Brazil Alexandre Salino Departamento de Botacircnica ICB CP 486 Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais Belo Horizonte MG Brazil Alfredo H Wieloch Departamento de Zoologia ICB CP 486 Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais Belo Horizonte MG Brazil Carlos A Rosa Departamento de Microbiologia ICB CP 486 Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais Belo Horizonte Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Microbial diversity

21 Methods to Study Microbial Diversity 22 Prokaryotic Diversity in Tropical Ecosystems

221 Prokaryotic Diversity in Plants and Soil 222 Prokaryotic Diversity in Aquatic Environments

23 Fungi General Characteristics and Diversity 231 Chytridiomycota 232 Zygomycota 233 Glomeromycota 234 Ascomycota 235 Basidiomycota 236 Tropical Diversity of Lichenized Fungi

3 Diversity of Protozoa 31 Taxonomic Considerations 32 Protozoa Diversity in Tropical Region

4 Diversity of Bryophytes 5 Diversity of Pteridophytes 6 Concluding Remarks Rainforest Structure and Dynamics 45 Leandro da Silva Duarte Laboratorio de Ecologia Quantitativa Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Brasil Gabriel Selbach Hofmann Laboratorio de Geoprocessamento Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre Brasil 1 Rainforest Structure And Dynamics

11 Physical Structure 111 Macroclimate 112 Microclimate

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113 Geomorphology and Pedology 114 Plant Ecological Groups and Vertical Stratification 115 Altitude 116 Primary Production and Diversity 117 Rainforest Fragmentation

12 Rainforest Dynamics 121 A Brief History of Community Dynamics 122 Community Dynamics in Tropical Rainforests 123 Forest Gaps 124 Edge Dynamics 125 A Role for Seed Dispersal

2 Conclusions Tropical Communities 72 Sandra Maria Hartz and Ronei Baldissera Centro de Ecologia Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Av Bento Gonccedilalves 9500 CP 15007 CEP 90051-970 Porto Alegre Rio Grande do Sul Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Tropical ecoregions

21 Tropical Forests 211 Tropical Rain Forest 212 Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest 213 Tropical Dry Forest

22 Tropical Shrubland 23 Tropical Desert 24 Tropical Mountain Systems 25 Mangroves 26 Coral Reefs 27 Freshwater Ecoregions

3 Main features of tropical communities 31 Community Richness and Evenness

311 General Trends in Tropical Diversity 312 Why is there more diversity in the tropics 313 Scaling Diversity

32 Biological Interactions 33 Rarity and Endemism

4 Spatial and temporal patterns 41 Spatial Patterns 42 Temporal Patterns

5 Threats 51 Habitat Fragmentation 52 Invasive Species 53 Overexploitation of Fauna and Flora 54 Pollution 55 Climatic Changes

6 Conclusions Tropical Dry Forest Structure Distribution and Dynamics 101 B Hayden Department of Biology Concordia University Canada D Greene Department of Geography Concordia University Canada 1 Introduction

11 Distribution and Climate 12 Overview of Dry Forest Structure and Origin 13 Organization of this Review

2 Phenology

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21 Leaves and Stems 22 Roots

3 Sexual Reproduction 31 Mating Systems 32 Flowering and Pollination 33 Fruits and Seeds

4 Subsequent Life History Stages 41 Germination Establishment and Early Herbivory 42 Asexual Reproduction 43 Subsequent Growth

5 Growth Rings 6 Disturbance and Succession 7 Forest Structure and Diversity 8 Conservation Habitat fragmentation Edge effects and Biological Corridors in Tropical Ecosystems 122 Julieta Benitez-Malvido and Victor Arroyo-Rodriguez Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Antigua Carretera a Patzcuaro No 8701 ExminusHacienda de San Jose de la Huerta Morelia Michoacan Mexico 1 Introduction 2 Habitat Fragmentation

21 Impact of Habitat Fragmentation on Populations 22 Fragmentation Effects on Communities 23 Fragmentation Effects on Ecosystems

3 Edge Effects 4 Biological Corridors

41 Fragment Size 42 Fragment Shape 43 Fragment Isolation 44 Matrix Type

5 Conclusions Macroecology 133 Joseacute Alexandre Felizola Diniz-Filho Departamento de Biologia Geral ICB Universidade Federal de Goiaacutes (UFG CxP 131 74001-970 Goiacircnia GO Brasil Renata Alves da Mata CNPq Pos-Doctoral Program Instituto de Ciecircncias Bioloacutegicas Universidade Federal de Goiaacutes (UFG) Brasil 1 Introduction 2 Patterns and Processes 3 Geographical and Historical Structures 4 Patterns in Species Richness 5 Challenges in Tropical Macroecology 6 Concluding remarks Evolutionary Ecology of Pollination and Reproduction of Tropical Plants 154 M Quesada and F Rosas Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Mexico Y Herrerias-Diego Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolas de Hidalgo Michoacan Mexico R Aguliar IMBIV - UNC - CONICET CC 495(5000) Cordoba Argentina JA Lobo Escuela de Biologia Universidad de Costa Rica G Sanchez-Montoya Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Mexico

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1 Introduction 11 The Life Cycle of Angiosperms 12 Overview of Angiosperm Diversity

2 Degree of Specificity of Pollination System 3 Diversity of Pollination Systems

31 Beetle Pollination (Cantharophily) 32 Lepidoptera

321 Butterfly Pollination (Psychophily) 322 Moth Pollination (Phalaenophily)

33 Hymenoptera 331 Bee Pollination (Melittophily) 332 Wasps

34 Fly Pollination (Myophily and Sapromyophily) 35 Bird Pollination (Ornitophily) 36 Bat Pollination (Chiropterophily) 37 Pollination by No-Flying Mammals 38 Wind Pollination (Anemophily) 39 Water Pollination (Hydrophily)

4 Reproductive Systems of Angiosperms 41 Strategies that Reduce Selfing andor Promote Cross-Pollination 42 Self Incompatibility Systems

421 Incidence of Self Incompatibility in Tropical Forest 43 The Evolution of Separated Sexes from Hermaphroditism

431 From Distyly to Dioecy 432 From Monoecy to Dioecy

5 Phenological Patterns in Tropical Ecosystems 6 Biological Conservation Pollination and Reproduction of Tropical Trees 7 Conclusion Seed Dispersal and Frugivory in Tropical Ecosystems 176 K E Stoner and M Henry Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas Universidad Nacional Autoacutenoma de Meacutexico 1 Introduction

11 Definition of Seed Dispersal 12 Organization of this Review

2 The Seed Dispersal Cycle 21 Primary Dispersal 22 Secondary Dispersal

3 Why Seed Dispersal Matters 31 Seed Dispersal and Plant Diversity 32 Efficiency Effectiveness Quantity and Quality

4 Fruit Syndromes and Fruit Attributes Attracting Disperses 41 When is Seed Dispersal a Mutualistic Interaction 42 The Dodo Bird and the Tambalacoque Tree An Example of an Obligate Mutualism

5 Field Methods for Studying Seed Dispersal 51 Who Disperses What Removal Studies and Faecal Analyses 52 What is Dispersed Where Monitoring Seed Fate 53 Germination Experiments

6 Concepts and Statistical Approaches 61 Seed Shadow and the Janzen-Connel Hypothesis 62 Modeling Seed Shadows 63 Spatial Patterns of Seed Deposition and Seedling Establishment 64 Dispersal Limitation Winning By Forfeit 65 Seed Sowing Experiments and Disperser Exclusion Experiments 66 Mutualistic Networks Assessing the Stability of Seed Dispersal Systems 67 Genetic Techniques

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi


7 Seed Dispersal and Human Development Importance Of Tropics To Global Carbon Cycle 194 F Roland Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora Juiz de Fora MG Brasil JPOmetto Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora Juiz de Fora MG Brasil Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais Satildeo Joseacute dos Campos SP Brasil N Barros Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora Juiz de Fora MG Brasil F Pacheco Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora Juiz de Fora MG Brasil R Mendonccedila Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora Juiz de Fora MG Brasil A Assireu Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais Satildeo Joseacute dos Campos SP Brasil L Martinelli Centro de Energia Nuclear na Agricultura Piracicaba SP 13416-000 Brasil 1 General Overview 2 The Biosphere and Tropical Regions 3 Carbon Linking Ecosystems 4 Atmospheric Green House Effect 5 Carbon and Ecosystems Functioning 6 Land use Change and Tropical Deforestation 7 Ecological Processes and Hydrological Reservoirs Implication to Carbon Playing 8 An Integrative View 9 Towards Perspectives Origins And Maintenance Of Tropical Biodiversity 214 Jean Carlos Santos and Jarcilene Almeida-Cortez Departamento de Botacircanica Universidade Federal de Pernambuco Pernambuco Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Tropics Description Climate and Ecosystems 3 Earthrsquos Biodiversity 4 Why are there So Many Different Kinds of Organisms in the Tropics 5 Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness and Their Hypotheses

51 History Factor 52 The Time and Area Hypothesis 53 Climate Change 54 Climatic Stability 55 Spatial Heterogeneity 56 Geographic Area 57 Intermediate Disturbance 58 Primary Production 59 Ambient Energy 510 Evolutionary Speed 511 Rapoports Rule 512 Geometric Constraints 513 Biotic Interactions 514 Competition 515 Predation

6 Conclusion Index 227 About EOLSS 231

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VOLUME VI

Introduction to Neotropical Entomology and Phytopathology 1 A Bonet Department of Entomology Instituto de Ecologa AC Mexico G Carrin Department of Biodiversity and Systematic Instituto de Ecologa AC Mexico 1 Introduction 2 History

21 Phytopathology 211 Evolution of the Parasite-Host Relationship 212 The Evolution of Phytopathogenic Fungi and Their Host Plants 213 Flors Gene-For-Gene Theory 214 Pathogenetic Mechanisms in Plant Parasitic Fungi and Hyperparasites

22 Entomology 221 Entomology in Asia and the Middle East 222 Entomology in Ancient Greece and Rome 223 New World Prehispanic Cultures

3 Insect Evolution 4 Insect Biodiversity

41 Biodiversity Loss and Insect Conservation 5 Ecosystem Services and the Use of Biodiversity

51 Pollination in Tropical Ecosystems 52 Biological Control of Fungi and Insects

6 The Future of Entomology and Phytopathology 7 Entomology and phytopathology sectionrsquos content 8 Conclusion Effects of Climate change and Habitat Fragmentation on Tropic Interactions 26 MJ Klapwijk and OT Lewis Department of Zoology University of Oxford South Parks Road Oxford UK 1 Introduction 2 Direct effects of habitat fragmentation and climate change

21 Habitat Fragmentation 22 Climate Change

3 Effects on trophic interactions 31 Trophic Interactions and Climate Change

311 Phenological Asynchrony 312 Distribution Changes 313 Adaptation to Novel Trophic Interactions 314 Effects of Climate Change on Food Webs

32 Trophic Interactions and Habitat Fragmentation 321 Multi Species Metapopulation Models 322 Differential Effects of Fragmentation on Different Trophic Levels

33 The Effect of Habitat Fragmentation on Food Webs 4 Conclusions ChafersRhinoceros and Fruit Beetles of the Canopy in Tropical Forests 34 M A Moron Departamento de Biologiacutea de Suelos Instituto de Ecologiacutea AC Xalapa Mexico 1 Introduction 2 Diversity of Forms Habits and Life Cycles 3 Main Groups of Species Of Melolonthidae (Scarabaeidae-Pleurosticti) In The Canopy

31 Chafers (Melolonthinae) 32 Rhinoceros Beetles (Dynastinae)

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33 Shiny Chafers (Rutelinae) 34 Fruit Beetles (Cetoniinae)

4 Past and Present Studies 5 Conclusions Tropical Plant and Soil NematodesDiversity and Interactions 64 Rosa H Manzanilla-Lopez Nematode Interactions Unit (Plant Pathology and Microbiology Department) Rothamsted Research Harpenden Herts AL5 2JQ UK David J Hunt CABI Europe-UK Bakeham Lane Egham Surrey TW20 9TY UK 1 Introduction 2 What are the Characteristics of the Phylum Nematoda 3 Biodiversity and Nematode Diversity 4 The Tropics and Diversity 5 Nematode Diversity 6 Taxonomically Based Diversity

61 Aphelenchida 62 Dorylaimida 63 Triplonchida 64 Tylenchida

7 Ecologically Based Assessment of Diversity 71 The Soil Environment 72 Trophic Groups 73 Buccal Structures

8 Nematode Interactions in Communities 9 Plant-Parasitic Nematodes 10 Feeding Types and Parasitic Behavior

101 Ectoparasites 102 Migratory Endoparasites 103 Migratory Semi-Endoparasites 104 Sedentary (or Sessile) Parasites

11 Plant Nematodes and Interactions with Other Plant Parasites and Microorganisms 111 Nematodes as Vectors of Plant Viruses 112 Interactions with Fungi and Bacteria 113 Microbial Parasites of Nematodes 114 Insects 115 Nematode-Nematode

12 Plant-Nematode Interaction (Above- And Below-Ground Symptoms) 121 Stem Leaf and Seed Parasites 122 Parasites of Roots Bulbs Tubers or Rhizomes

1221 Roots 1222 Bulbs 1223 Tubers

13 Genetic Diversity 14 Molecular Diversity 15 Distribution of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes 16 Soil And Plant-Parasitic Nematode Communities In The Tropics A Diversity Dilemma 17 Future Research Beetles as Indicators for Forest Conservation in Central America 99 EB Cano and JC Schuster Systematic Entomology Laboratory Universidad del Valle de Guatemala Guatemala 1 Introduction 2 Forest Conservation in Central America 3 The Knowledge of Entomological Diversity in Central America

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4 Insects as Bioindicators 5 The Experiences in Central American Countries 6 Conclusions What Lacks To Do Sexual Selection in Tropical Insects 125 R Cueva del Castillo Lab de Ecologia UBIPRO Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico FES Iztacala Mexico 1 Introduction 2 Intra and inter sexual selection 3 Sexual selection and speciation 4 Sensory bias and Sexual Conflict 5 Sperm competition and Cryptic female choice 6 Sexual selection in tropical insects DiversityEcology and Systematics of Smut Fungi 141 Meike Piepenbring Department of Mycology Institute for Ecology Evolution and Diversity University of Frankfurt am Main Germany 1 Introduction

11 What are Smut Fungi 12 How can Smut Fungi be Distinguished from other Plant Parasitic Fungi with Thick-walled

Spores 13 How are Smut Fungi Collected and Preserved

2 Important genera and species of smut fungi 21 Important Genera and Species of Smut Fungi on Grasses (Poaceae)

211 Ustilago 212 Sporisorium 213 Tilletia 214 Erratomyces 215 Urocystis

22 Important Genera and Species of Smut Fungi on Sedges (Cyperaceae) 23 Smut Fungi on Dicotyledonous Host Families

231 Entyloma 232 Thecaphora 233 Microbotryum 234 Sphacelotheca 235 Mycosyrinx 236 Doassansia group

3 Systematics of smut fungi and related groups 31 Systematics of Smut Fungi 32 Fungi Related to Smut Fungi

321 Malasseziales 322 Exobasidiales

4 Conclusions Insect Vectors of Tropical Diseases 172 Sergio Ibaacutentildeez-Bernal Departamento de Biodiversidad y Ecologiacutea Animal Instituto de Ecologiacutea A C Xalapa Veracruz Mexico 1 Introduction 2 Insects as Parasites 3 Insect Parasite Classifications 4 Insect Taxa Parasites of Vertebrates 5 Other Symbiotic Relationships

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx


6 Health Effects of Insects 7 Vector-Borne Diseases and How They Are Transmitted 8 Parasites of Vertebrates Transmitted by Insects 9 Principal Insect Taxa as Vectors Of Disease 10 Resurgent Vector-Borne Diseases Index 193 About EOLSS 197

VOLUME VII

Insect Viruses Diversity Biology and Use as Bioinsecticides 1 Jorge E Ibarra and M Cristina Del Rincon-Castro Departamento de Biotecnologia y Bioquimica Cinvestav Campus Guanajuato Mexico 1 Introduction 2 Entomopathogenic Viruses 3 Taxonomic Classification

31 Ascovirus 32 Iridovirus 33 Polydnavirus 34 Baculovirus 35 Cypovirus 36 Entomopoxvirus

4 Life Cycle 41 In Vitro Replication of Insect Viruses

5 Genetics of Insect Viruses 6 Use of Insect Viruses as Biological Control Agents

61 Production 62 Application 63 Examples on the use of Insect Viruses in the Field 64 Important Considerations When Using Viral Bioinsecticides 65 Advantages and Limitations 66 Development of Resistance to Insect Viruses 67 Genetic Manipulation of Baculoviruses

Phylogeny Biology Behavior and Management of Tephritid fruit Flies An Overview 32 J Rull Instituto de Ecologia AC Xalapa Veracruz Mexico 1 Phylogeny

11 Diptera 12 Tephritoidea 13 Tephritidae

2 Biology 21 Life Cycle 22 Natural Enemies

221 Parasitoids 222 Predators

3 Behavior 31 Feeding Behavior 32 Host Finding Behavior 33 Oviposition Behavior 34 Mating Behavior

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4 Management 41 Pest Status 42 Monitoring 43 Control

431 Chemical Control 432 Biological Control 433 Sterile Insect Technique 434 Biorational Control Methods

Insect vectors of phytoplasmas 46 R I Rojas-Martiacutenez Department of Plant Pathology Colegio de Postgraduado- Campus Montecillo Meacutexico 1 Introduction 2 Factors Involved in the Transmission of Phytoplasmas by the Insect Vector 3 Acquisition and Transmission of Phytoplasmas 4 Families Reported to Contain Species That Act As Vectors of Phytoplasmas 5 Bactericera Cockerelli

Effects of Aflatoxins Contaminating Food on Human Health 60 Magda Carvajal and Paacutevel Castillo Departamento de Botaacutenica Instituto de Biologiacutea Universidad Nacional Autoacutenoma de Meacutexico Ciudad Universitaria Colonia Copilco Delegacioacuten Coyoacaacuten 04510 Meacutexico DF 1 Aflatoxins Production Occurrence Chemical Structure

11 Definition of Aflatoxins 12 Aflatoxin Producing Fungi and Production Conditions

121 Aflatoxin Producing Fungi 122 Conditions for Aflatoxin Production

13 Occurrence 14 Chemical Structure and Types

141 Physicochemical Properties of Aflatoxins 15 Biological Properties

2 Biosynthetic Pathway 21 Biotransformation of AFB1

3 Analytical Methods for Aflatoxin Study 4 Aflatoxin Metabolism 5 Toxic Effects of Aflatoxins in Health

51 In Plants 52 In Animals 53 In Humans

531 Mutagenesis and Proto-Oncogene Activation 5311 Mutagenesis 5312 Proto-Oncogene Activation

532 AFB1 -DNA Adducts 533 Carcinogenesis

6 Economic Losses Due To Aflatoxin Contamination 7 Control

71 Preventive Measures 72 Structural Degradation after Chemical Treatment 73 Modification of Toxicity by Dietary Chemicals 74 Detoxification 75 Chemosorbents 76 Radiation

8 Legislation 9 Conclusions

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Tropical Insect Chemical Ecology 85 Edi A Malo Departamento de Entomologia Tropical El Colegio de la Frontera Sur Carretera Antiguo Aeropuerto Km 25 Tapachula Chiapas CP 30700 Mexico 1 Introduction 2 Semiochemicals

21 Use of Semiochemicals 3 Pheromones

31 Lepidoptera Pheromones 32 Coleoptera Pheromones 33 Diptera Pheromones 34 Pheromones of Insects of Medical Importance

4 Kairomones 41 Coleoptera Kairomones 42 Diptera Kairomones

5 Synthesis 6 Concluding Remarks Passalidae Insects which live in Decaying Logs 112 M L Castillo and P Reyes-Castillo Departamento de Biologiacutea de Suelos Instituto de Ecologiacutea AC Xalapa Ver Meacutexico 1 Introduction

11 What are Passalid Beetles 12 How to Recognize Passalid Beetles 13 Where do Passalid Beetles Live

2 Natural History 21 Life Cycle 22 Food 23 Relationships with Other Organisms

3 Behavior 31 Galleries 32 Courtship and Copulation

321 Sound Communication 33 Subsocial Behavior

331 Oviposition and Nests for Eggs 332 Parental Care 333 Territoriality

4 Ecology General Features 41 Other Specialized Microhabitats 42 Percentage of Decaying Logs Housing Passalid Beetles 43 How Many Arboreal Species are Fed on by Passalid Beetles 44 Passalidae Life Strategies in Decaying Logs 45 Passalidae and the Succession of Fauna in the Decomposing Trunk 46 Ecological Interest

5 Conclusions Insects as Plant Virus Vectors 134 Daniel L Ochoa Martiacutenez Department of Plant Pathology Colegio de Postgraduados-Campus Montecillo Meacutexico 1 Introduction 2 Vector Concept 3 Plant Viruses Transmission by Insects 4 Aphids Virus Vectors 5 Leafhoppers Planthoppers and Treehoppers Virus Vectors

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6 Whiteflies Virus Vectors 7 Thrips Virus Vectors 8 Beetles Virus Vectors Insect Conservation 142 Michael J Samways Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology and Centre for Agricultural Biodiversity University of Stellenbosch Private Bag X1 Matieland 7602 South Africa 1 Introduction

11 The Rise of Insects 12 Current World Species Richness 13 Insect Survival prior to Human Impact 14 Early Human Impact 15 Current Extinctions 16 Taxonomic Challenges 17 Perception Challenges

2 Insects and Ecosystem Processes 21 Insects as Keystone Organisms 22 Insect Ecosystem Engineers 23 Insects as Food 24 Insect Pollinators 25 Insect Interactions with Plants

3 Threats to Insects 31 Threats from Contaminants 32 Threats from Increasing Loss of Natural Habitat 33 Urbanization 34 Forest Loss 35 Loss of Grasslands 36 Loss of Special Habitats 37 Over-collecting

4 Threats from Invasive Aliens 41 Invasive Alien Plants 42 Invasive Alien Vertebrates 43 Invasive Alien Insects

5 Risks of Biological Control 51 Biological Control of Insect Pests 52 Biological Control of Weeds 53 Biocontrol Leading into Conservation 54 Risks of Introducing Insect Pathogens

6 Risks of Genetic Engineering 61 Questions being posed 62 Effect of Genetically Modified Crops on Natural Enemies 63 Effect of Genetically Modified Crops on Pollination and Soil Organisms

7 Response of Insects to Global Climate Change 71 What Evidence is There of Climate Change 72 Effects of Global Climate Change on Insects 73 Changes in Speciesrsquo Geographical Ranges 74 Climate Change Interacting with Other Threats

8 Prioritizing for Insect Conservation 81 Large-scale Planning 82 Systematic Reserve Selection 83 Surrogates in Conservation Planning 84 Does the Conservation of Plants and Other Organisms Conserve the Insects

9 Recording Insect Diversity 91 Mapping 92 Making Inventories 93 Monitoring

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94 Red Listing 10 Managing for Insect Diversity

101 Importance of Reserves 102 Landscape Heterogeneity 103 Countryside-wide Management 104 Corridors

11 Restoration of Insect Populations 111 Restoring to What 112 Restoration Results 113 Insect Gardening 114 Species-recovery Plans 115 Captive Breeding

12 Conventions and Social Issues 121 International Conventions 122 National Issues 123 Increasing Public Awareness

Parasitoids Wasps Natural Enemies Of Insects 185 A Bonet Department of Entomology Instituto de Ecologa A C Mexico 1 Introduction 2 Parasitoidism (= parasitism) important mode of life in Hymenoptera 3 Evolution of Hymenoptera parasitoids 4 Parasitoid biology

41 Developmental Strategies of Parasitoids 411 Ectoparasitoids 412 Endoparasitoids

4121 Evolution of parasitoid virulence genes 4122 Nutrition and developmental strategy between parasitoid-host interactions 4123 Wolbachia endosymbionts

5 Parasitoid Behavioral Ecology 51 Foraging and Optimization Theory with Parasitoids 52 Parasitoid Interactions Through Infochemicals

6 Multitrophic interactions between parasitoids and other organisms in natural and modified environments

7 Augmentative biological control with parasitoids in the Neotropics 71 A Success Case Study Biological Control of Agricultural Pests with Trichogramma in Brazil

20 Years of Research Maintenance and Release of Trichogramma 72 Search for New Parasitoids against Bruchid Pests in one of the Domestication Centers of Beans

(legume pulses) a Mexican Example 8 Digital information resources about parasitic wasps 9 Conclusion Index 209 About EOLSS 213

VOLUME VIII

Introduction to Tropical Zoology 1 R H Macedo Departamento de Zoologia Universidade de Braslia Brazil M R Morris Department of Biological Sciences Ohio University USA 1 Introduction

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2 Contents of Current Volume Classification and ecology of major tropical insect groups 10 Ivone R Diniz Department of Zoology University of Brasilia Brazil Helena C Morais Department of Ecology University of Brasilia Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Characteristics and Success 3 Hypotheses on the Origin of the Latitudinal Species Richness Gradient 4 Evolution 5 Geographic Distribution 6 Classification Terrestrial Vertebrate Diversity and Demography in Tropical Ecosystems 27 Marcos Robalinho Lima Centre for Ecology and Conservation University of Exeter Cornwall Campus UK Raphael Igor Dias Programa de Poacutes-graduaccedilatildeo em Ecologia Universidade de Brasiacutelia BR Daniel Paz Decanini School of Biological Sciences Monash University AU Programa de Poacutes-graduaccedilatildeo em Ecologia Universidade de Brasiacutelia BR 1 Introduction 2 General Characteristics of the Tropical Region 3 Factors that Cause Diversity

31 Spatial Heterogeneity 32 Species Interaction 33 Productivity 34 Rapoportrsquos Rule 35 Climate 36 Evolutionary Time 37 Evolutionary Speed 38 Geometric Constraints 39 Speciation in the Tropical Rainforests

391 Paleogeography Hypothesis 392 River Hypothesis 393 Refuge Hypothesis

4 Demography and Tropical Ecosystems 5 Conservation of Tropical Biodiversity 6 Conclusion Threats to Amphibians in Tropical Regions 49 Jean-Marc Hero and Kerry Kriger Centre for Innovative Conservation Strategies Griffith University PMB 50 Gold Coast Mail Centre Queensland 9726 Australia 1 Introduction

11 Assessing Population Decline 12 Which amphibians are declining (Ecological characteristics of declining frogs)

2 Causes of Amphibian Declines 21 Habitat Loss 22 Over-Harvesting 23 Introduced Species 24 Pollution 25 Global Change 26 Emerging Infectious Diseases 27 Synergistic Effects

3 Solutions to Global Declines

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Reptile Diversity in an Amazing Tropical EnvironmentThe West Indies 72 L Rodriguez Schettino Department of Zoology Institute of Ecology and Systematics Cuba To the memory of Ernest E Williams and Austin Stanley Rand 1 Introduction 2 Reptile Diversity

21 Morphology 22 Habitat

3 West Indian Reptiles 31 Greater Antilles 32 Lesser Antilles 33 Bahamas 34 Cuba (as a study case)

341 The Species 342 Geographic and Ecological Distribution 343 Ecomorphology 344 Threats and Conservation

4 Conclusions Tropical Bird Communities 111 Rafael Maia and Eduardo S A Santos Programa de Ps-Graduao em Ecologia University of Braslia Brazil 1 Introduction

11 Trends in Species Richness 2 Factors Shaping Tropical Bird Communities 3 Tropical Bird Communities How are they unique 4 Birds of a Feather Different Ecosystems Different Communities 5 Extinction and Conservation Issues and Considerations 6 Concluding Remarks Ecology and Behavior of Tropical Primates 133 Juan Carlos Serio-Silva Departamento de Biodiversidad y Ecologiacutea Animal Instituto de Ecologiacutea AC Xalapa Veracruz Meacutexico Jessica Lynch Alfaro Center for Society and Genetics University of California Los Angeles Los Angeles California USA Laura Teresa Hernaacutendez Salazar Instituto de Neuroetologiacutea Universidad Veracruzana Xalapa Veracruz Meacutexico 1 Introduction

11 Primate Phylogenetics and Distribution in Tropical Areas 12 Conservation Status of Primates

121 Endangered Species and Factors with Influence in their Conservation 122 Primate Status around the Tropical World 123 Primate Conservation Strategies

13 Impact of Primate Biomass on Tropical Areas 131 Biomass by Trophic Niches

2 Primate Behavioral Ecology 21 Foraging Ecology

211 Chemoreception Mechanisms and Primate Perception of Flavors 212 Dietary Strategies

22 Social Organization and Mating Systems 221 Primate Mating Systems 222 Intrasexual Competition and Female Choice 223 Primate Reproductive Strategies and Parental Investment

23 Primate Community Ecology

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii


3 Neotropical Primates Overview of Platyrrhine Diversity 4 Case Studies in Neotropical Primate Behavioral Ecology

41 Marmosets and Tamarins Cooperative Breeding 42 Capuchin Monkeys Tool Use and the Evolution of Culture 43 Howler Monkeys Low Energy Strategists 44 Spider Monkeys Ripe Fruit Specialists 45 Muriquis Egalitarianism and Sperm Competition 46 Human Interactions with Primates in the Neotropics

The Foraging Strategies Of Primates 153 PW Lucas Department of Anthropology George Washington University USA 1 Introduction 2 The Senses of Primates 3 Vision in Primates

31 Binocular Vision 32 Color Vision

4 Smell 5 Touch and Texture 6 Taste 7 Conclusion Communication Systems in Tropical Terrestrial Vertebrates An Overview 164 Gabriel Francescoli Seccion Etologiacutea Facultad de Ciencias Universidad de la Republica Montevideo Uruguay 1 General Features about Communication Systems

11 Communication Systems Basic Features 111 Communication Networks

12 Communication Channels 121 Multimodal Communication

2 Main Constraints to Communication in Tropical Habitats 21 Environmental Sources of Constraints 22 Biological Sources of Constraints

3 What Kinds of Communication Systems Can We Expect for Terrestrial Vertebrates 31 Forests and Jungles 32 Grasslands and Savanna 33 Wetlands and Coastal Habitats 34 Arid Regions 35 Self-constructed Habitats

4 Communicating in the Real World Some Examples of the Systems at Work 41 Communication Systems in Subterranean Rodents Constraints in a Self-constructed Habitat 42 Visual Signals in Birds Adaptation to Background Light and Predator Constraints 43 Sociality and Group Coordination in Neotropical Primates 44 Individuality in tropical birds Communication and Conservation

Evolution of Sociality and cooperation in tropical animals 188 Regina H Macedo Departamento de Zoologia- IB Universidade de Brasilia Brazil Daniel P Decanini School of Biological Sciences Monash University Australia Programa de Poacutes-graduaccedilatildeo em Ecologia Universidade de Brasiacutelia Brazil Jefferson A Graves Environmental and Evolutionary Biology School of Biology University of St Andrews Scotland 1 Introduction 2 Costs and Benefits of Sociality

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii


3 How Can Cooperation Evolve 31 Kin Selected Cooperation 32 Reciprocity 33 By-product Mutualism 34 Group Selection

4 Cooperation and Social Behavior of Tropical Animals 5 Cooperative Breeding in Birds 6 Cooperative Breeding in Mammals

61 Cooperative Breeding in Primates of the Callithrix Genus Mating Strategies of Tropical Insects 205 R Maciacuteas-Ordoacutentildeez Departamento de Biologiacutea Evolutiva Instituto de Ecologiacutea AC Meacutexico L Mendoza-Cuenca Facultad de Biologiacutea Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolaacutes de Hidalgo Meacutexico 1 Introduction

11 Resource Distribution and Limitation Predict Mating Strategies 12 The Tropics

2 The Mating System 3 Some Mechanisms behind Mating Strategies

31 Sperm Competition and Cryptic Female Choice 32 Male Mating Effort and Parental Investment 33 Physiological Traits

4 Alternative Mating Strategies 5 Constraints on Mating Systems of Tropical Insects

51 Ecological Constraints 52 Morphological Constraints

6 Evolution of Mating Systems of Tropical Insects 61 Heliconius Butterflies 62 Dung Beetles

7 Health and Economic Issues of Mating Strategies in Tropical Insects 71 Tephritid Flies 72 Malaria

Mating Systems and Strategies of Tropical Fishes 219 O Rios-Cardenas Instituto de Ecologiacutea AC Depto de Biologiacutea Evolutiva Mexico M R Morris Department of Biological Sciences Ohio University USA 1 Introduction

11 Ecology and Dispersion 12 Parental Care 13 Operational Sex Ratio 14 Sexual Conflict

2 Polygyny 21 Resource Defense Polygyny 22 Female Defense Polygyny 23 Scramble Competition Polygyny 24 Lek Polygyny

3 Polyandry 31 Genetic Benefits 32 Direct Material Benefits

4 Monogamy 5 Promiscuity 6 Alternative Reproductive Strategies and Tactics 7 Sex Change 8 Hermaphroditism 9 Asexual Reproduction

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix


Breeding Strategies of Tropical Birds 241 Alexandre Ferreira de Souza Dias Pos-graduaccedilao em Biologia Animal Universidade de Brasiacutelia Rafael Maia and Raphael Igor Dias Pos-graduaccedilao em Ecologia Universidade de Brasiacutelia 1 Introduction 2 Tropical Birds Life History and Ecology 3 Monogamy And Extra-Pair Paternity

31 Socially Monogamous Bonds 32 Breaking the Bonds Conflict and Extra-pair Paternity

4 Polygamous and Promiscuous Mating Systems 41 Polyandry

5 Cooperative Breeding 51 Home sweet home 52 To help or not to help 53 Costs of Cooperative Breeding

6 Final Considerations Extinction of Species in the Tropics 269 Carlos Eduardo Viveiros Grelle Departamento de Ecologia Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro Brazil Maria Alice S Alves Departamento de Ecologia Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro Brazil 1 Introduction

11 Concepts of Extinction and the Question of Scale Local Global and Functional Extinction-Some Examples

12 Concepts of Species and the Convenience and Usefulness of Biological Concepts 13 A Concept of Tropical Region The Zone between the Tropics (Cancer and Capricornio)

2 Patterns of Extinction Biological and Biogeographical 3 Process of Extinction 4 Consequences of Extinction For Natural Systems and for Humanity


VOLUME IX

Desert Ecosystems An Introduction 1 Silvio Carlos Rodrigues Instituto de Geografia Universidade Federal de Uberlndia Uberlndia MG Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Section Overview Geomorphology and Biogeography of Tropical Deserts 12 Silvio Carlos Rodrigues Instituto de Geografia Universidade Federal de Uberlandia Uberlandia MG Brazil Gelze Serrat de Souza Campos Rodrigues Instituto de Geografia Universidade Federal de Uberlandia Uberlandia MG Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Tropical Deserts

21 Geographical Distribution

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx


22 Controlling Factors 23 Distinguishing Characteristics

231 Temperature 232 Precipitation

3 Processes Landforms and Tropical Deserts Tipology 31 Eolian Processes 32 Sandy Deserts

321 Dunes 322 Ergs

33 Pavement Features 331 Regs 332 Wadis and Chotts 333 Pediments Playas and Alluvial Fans 334 Mountains Features

4 Biogeography of Tropical Deserts 41 Biological Adaptation to Aridity

411 Desert Vegetation 412 Desert Fauna

Desertification in the Tropics 33 Dirce Maria Antunes Suertegaray and Roberto Verdum Geography Departament Geosciences Institute - UFRGS Porto Alegre ndash Brazil 1 The Desertification Process and Its Area of Occurrence 2 The Origin (1940) and the Renewal (1970) of the Concept of Desertification

21 Desertification awareness and debate 3 Diversity in the Comprehension of the Desertification Process 4 Policies and Experiences of Control Practices Success and Failure 5 Sandization as a Process of Special Attention Desert Ecosystems in India 51 TSChouhan Department of Geography University of Rajasthan Jaipur India UKSharma Ministry of Rural Development (NLM) Government of India 1 Introduction 2 Physiography of Indian Desert Regions

21 Landscape 211 Desert Peneplains 212 Sand Dunes of Marusthali 213 Sandy Plains 214 Indus Plains 215 Flood Plains 216 Marshy Land 217 Salt Playas

22 Geomorphic Evolution 221 Playas or Ranns 222 Genesis of Carbonate Pan 223 Origin of Sand Dunes

23 Soils 231 Soils of Desert Plains 232 Soils of Sandy Plains 233 Sand Dunes of Varied Categories 234 Soils of Old Flood Plains 235 Soils of Rock Lands 236 Soils of Playas 237 Soils of Rann and Coastal Plains

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi


3 Wastelands in Desert Regions of India 31 Rajasthan 32 Gujarat 33 Punjab 34 Haryana 35 Andhra Pradesh 36 Karnataka 37 Jammu amp Kashmir

4 Climate 5 Agro-ecological Zones in Desert Region 6 Geology and hydrology of Desert Regions

61 Geology 62 Water Bearing Properties of Various Groups of Geological Successions 63 Hydrology of Desert Regions

7 Land Use Pattern 8 Ecosystem in Indian Desert

81 Natural Factors 82 Human Interface

821 Deforestation 822 Land Degradation and Desertification 823 Water Management Problems 824 Use of Chemical Fertilizers and Chemical Pesticides 825 Increasing Population Pressure on Land 826 Deterioration in Ethnic Values 827 Flora and Fauna

83 Ecosystem of Desert Regions 9 Conclusions and Suggestions

91 Management of Land Resources 92 Management of Water Resources 93 Human Resource Management 94 Controlling Human Interface 95 Restoration of Ecology

Desert ecosystems and global climate change 105 Xiaoping YANG Nina MA and Jufeng DONG Institute of Geology and Geophysics Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China 1 Introduction 2 Living in the Desert Ecosystems

21 Adaptation of Plants to Aridity 22 Adaptations of Animals to Aridity

3 Responses of Desert Ecosystems to Global Climate Changes Ecology of Tropical DEserts in Special Reference to Biogeography amp Evolution of Desert Animals 112 TSChouhan Department of Geography University of Rajasthan Jaipur India UKSharma Ministry of Rural Development (NLM) Government of India 1 Introduction 2 Animal Species

21 Mollusks 22 Arthropods 23 Reptiles 24 Birds 25 Mammals

3 Co-Existence of Animals

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii


31 Simile in Plants and Animals 311 Stress Evading Strategies 312 Structural and Eco-physiological Stress Controlling Strategies 313 Strategies to Prevent Death by Over-heating 314 Strategies Optimizing Water Uptake 315 Strategies to Control Reproduction in Relation to Environmental Conditions

32 Animal- Animal Interactions 33 Animal of Tropical Desert Regions

331 Animal Species of American Tropical Deserts 332 Animals of North Africa Tropical Deserts 333 Animals of South African Tropical Deserts 334 Animals of Tropical Desert Regions of Asia

4 Biogeography Of Tropical Desert Regions 41 Heat and Temperature 42 Wind Impact 43 Precipitation and Water Balance 44 Water Balance in Animals 45 Nutrition

5 Morphological Adaptations 51 Arthropod Cuticle 52 Vertebrate Integument and Pelage 53 Animal Color 54 Water Storage 55 Shape and Size of Species

6 Behavioural Adaptations 61 Tolerance to Dehydration 62 Cold Tolerance 63 Adaptive Heterothermy 64 Behavioral Thermo-regulation 65 Specialized Respiration and Transpiration 66 Imbibitions of Fog Dew and Water Vapor

7 Reproduction In Desert Environment 71 Physiological Issues 72 Ecological and Evolutionary Considerations 73 Diversity 74 Sustainability

8 Human Interface 81 Adaptation of Man in Desert Environment 82 Consequences of Human Interface 83 Crux of Problems

9 Conclusions 91 Revival of Ecosystem 92 Productivity of Land 93 Water Management 94 Sustenance of Surviving Animals

Archaeo-Historical Environment and Significance of Ancient Agriculture in Tropical Deserts165 Farooq Ahmad Department of Geography University of the Punjab Lahore Pakistan 1 Introduction

11 African and Eurasian civilizations 12 Sumer 3500-2334 BC 13 Indus Valley and the Indian subcontinent 3200-1700 BC 14 Ancient Egypt 3200-343 BC 15 Elamite 2700-539 BC 16 Persia 550 BC-330 BC 17 China 2200 BC-present

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18 Greece 2000-1450 BC 19 Korea 900 BC-present 110 The fall of civilizations

2 Significance of agriculture 21 Ways of cultivation

3 The beginning of agriculture 31 Early agriculture

Ecology of Tropical Deserts With Special Reference to Arid Plant Physiology 184 TSChouhan Department of Geography University of Rajasthan Jaipur India UKSharma Ministry of Rural Development (NLM) Government of India 1 Introduction 2 Tropical Desert Ecosystem

21 Etymology 22 Climate

221 Wind Impact 222 Precipitation and Water Balance 223 Water Balance in Plants 224 Nutrition

3 Physiography of Tropical Deserts 31 Landscapes and Landforms 32 Hydrological Cycle 33 Desert Features 34 Vegetation 35 Plant Morphology 36 Water Storage

4 Physiology of Arid Plants 41 Germination and Seedling Behavior of Desert Plants 42 Water Uptake and Transpiration in Plants 43 Photosynthesis and Respiration of Plants 44 Translocation of Assimilates 45 Root Development Activities 46 Tolerance to Dehydration

5 Problems of Tropical Desert Regions 6 Conclusions and Suggestions

61 Rain Water Harvesting 62 Use of Surface Water 63 Water Use in Canal Regions 64 Reforestation of Degraded Regions 65 Conservation of Pasturelands 66 Treatment of Degraded and Marginal Cultivated Lands 67 Utilization of Waste and Barren Lands in Plantation 68 Disaster and Risk Management in Desert Regions 69 Mode of Treatment

691 Peoplesrsquo Participation 692 Sharing of Benefits 693 Restoration of Traditional Practices of Vegetation 694 Association of Voluntary Organizations 695 Scientific and Research Application 696 Restoration of Ecosystems


copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv


VOLUME X

Nutritional Aspects in Trachypogon Savannas as Related to Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycling 1 Danilo Lopez-Hernandez and Ismael Hernandez-Valencia Instituto de Zoologiacutea Tropical Facultad de Ciencias Universidad Central de Venezuela 1 Introduction 2 Soils of Trachypogon Savannas 3 Vegetation of Trachypogon Savannas 4 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Inputs

41 Atmospheric Deposition (Wet and Dry Deposition) 42 Nitrogen Biological Fixation

421 N-Fixation by Rhizobium-Symbiosis 422 N-Fixation by Organisms Located in the Rhizosphere Rhizoplane and Endorhizosphere of

Savanna Grasses 423 N-Fixation by Microbial Crust System

5 Nitrogen and Phosphorus in the Plant-Soil System 51 Primary Productivity and N and P Uptake by Plants 52 N and P Released by Decomposition Processes 53 Soil N NO3 and NH4 Forms- N Mineralization 54 Soil P Actives and Recalcitrant Forms 55 N and P Microbial Forms 56 The Role of Mycorrhiza and Soil Fauna in N and P availability

561 Mycorrhiza 562 Soil Fauna

6 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Outputs 61 Losses by Fires 62 Losses by Leaching

621 Nitrogen Losses by Leaching 622 Phosphorus Losses by Leaching

63 Nitrification Denitrification and Emissions of NO and N2O 7 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Budgets 8 The Agricultural Activities and the Fate of Trachypogon Savannas 9 Conclusions Plant Adaptations to Rainfall Seasonality in the Savannas of Central Brazil 28 Augusto C Franco Department of Botany Universidade de Brasilia Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Root Patterns and Hydraulic Redistribution of Soil Water 3 Rainfall Seasonality and Tree Water Balance

31 Tree Water Status Leaf Area and Stomatal Regulation of Transpiration 32 Osmotic Adjustments and Elastic Properties of Plant Cell Walls

4 Water Storage Structure and Efficiency of the Transport System 41 Wood Density Water Storage and Hydraulic Architecture 42 Hydraulic Conductivity Vulnerability Curves and Embolism Repair

5 Rainfall Seasonality and Leaf Phenology 6 Implications of Stomatal Regulation of Transpiration on Photosynthesis 7 CO2 Assimilation Water Use Efficiency and Leaf Phenology 8 Conclusion Fire in NeoTropical Savannas 44 Mario R Farias and Juan F Silva Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Ecolgicas ICAE Universidad de Los Andes Mrida Venezuela 1 Introduction

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxv


2 Fire Behavior in Neotropical Savannas 3 The Effects of Fire on the Herbaceous Layer 4 The Effects of Fire on the Woody Layer 5 Fire and Savanna Physiognomy 6 Fire and the Management of Neotropical Savannas Reproductive Biology Of Tropical Plants 55 Claudia Ines da Silva and Helena Maura Torezan Silingardi Instituto de Biologia Universidade Federal de Uberlacircndia Minas Gerais Brazil 1 Introduction

11 Distribution of Biomes in the Tropics 2 Reproductive Biology of Tropical Plants

21 Sexual System 22 Reproductive system 23 Plant-Pollinator System

231 Plant Strategies to Assure Pollination 232 Pollination Syndromes

24 Plant-Disperser system 241 Adaptations of Fruits and Dispersion Syndromes of Seeds in the Tropics

Pollination Ecology of Neotropical Savannas Vegetation 82 Nelson Ramirez Universidad Central de Venezuela Fac Ciencias Instituto de Biologiacutea Experimental Centro Botaacutenica Tropical Caracas Venezuela 1 Introduction 2 Savanna types 3 Pollinator species and pollination agent classes 4 Pollination agent classes

41 Pollination classes and plant life forms 42 Pollination classes and habitats 43 Pollination classes and Vegetation structure

431 Pollination and horizontal disposition 432 Pollination and vertical disposition

5 Classification of the component of the Venezuelan Central Plain 6 Temporal variation in pollination classes

61 Temporal variation of the pollination agent classes number 62 Seasonality of pollination agent classes at the community level

7 Pollination agent classes overlap 8 Pollination system specificity

81 Plant life forms and Habitats 82 Vegetation structure and pollination specificity 83 Temporal variation in pollination system specificity

9 Time of pollination activity 91 Habitats and plant life forms 92 Vegetation structure and the time of pollination activity 93 Temporal variation in time of pollination activity 94 Pollination system specificity and time of pollination activity

10 Richness and diversity of pollination agent classes 101 Temporal variation of pollination agent classes diversity

11 Concluding Remarks Are there Germination Patterns for CerradoSpecies 106 M A Ranal Biology Institute Federal University of Uberlandia Brazil D G Santana Agronomy Institute Federal University of Uberlandia Brazil and I Schiavini Biology Institute Federal University of Uberlandia Brazil

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxvi


1 Introduction 2 Climatic Seasonality Determining the Rhythm of Reproduction Events 3 Within and Between-Species Variation 4 Seed Germination and Seedling Emergence Patterns for Cerrado Species Birds in The Tropical Savannas 160 Alexandre Gabriel Franchin Laboratory of Ornithology Biology Institute Federal University of Uberlandia Brazil Rafael de Freitas Juliano Laboratory of Ornithology Biology Institute Federal University of Uberlandia Brazil Mieko Ferreira Kanegae Bioscience Institute General Ecology Department Sao Paulo University Brazil Oswaldo Marccedilal Junior Laboratory of Ornithology Biology Institute Federal University of Uberlandia Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Global Ecoregions and the Savanna Biome

21 Flooded Grasslands and Savannas 22 Temperate Grasslands Savannas and Shrublands 23 Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands Savannas and Shrublands

3 Tropical Savannas 31 Afrotropical

311 The Horn of Africa Acacia Savannas 312 The East African Acacia Savannas 313 The Central amp Eastern Miombo Woodlands 314 The Sudanian Savannas 315 The Saharan Flooded Grasslands 316 The Zambezian Flooded Grasslands

32 Indo-Malayan 321 Terai-Duar

33 Australasia 331 Northern Australia 332 Trans-Fly

34 Neotropical 341 Cerrado 342 Llanos 343 Pantanal 344 Beni Savannas 345 Guyanan Savannas 346 Orinoco Wetlands

4 Birds in the Tropical Savannas 41 Similarity in the Bird Composition among Tropical Savannas 42 Patterns of Bird Diversity and Speciation in the Tropical Savannas 43 Bird Conservation in the Tropical Savannas

5 Cerrado An Unique Tropical Savanna Hotspot The Herpetofauna Of The Neotropical Savannas 200 Vera Lucia de Campos Brites Institute of Biology Federal University of Uberlacircndia Brazil Renato Gomes Faria Departamentof Biology Federal University of Sergipe Brazil Daniel Oliveira Mesquita Departament of Engineering and Environment Federal University of Paraiacuteba Brazil Guarino Rinaldi Colli Institute of Biology University of Brasiacutelia Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Amphibians

21 Reproduction of the Amphibians 3 Testudines

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxvii


4 Squamata 41 Lizards and Amphisbaenians 42 Snakes

5 Crocodilians Diptera of Tropical Savannas 287 Julio Mendes Institute of Biomedical Sciences Uberlandia Federal University Brazil 1 Introduction 2 General Characteristics 3 Classification 4 Suborder Nematocera

41 Psychodidae 42 Culicidae 43 Simullidae 44 Ceratopogonidae

5 Suborder Brachycera 51 Tabanidae 52 Phoridae 53 Syrphidae 54 Tephritidae 55 Drosophilidae 56 Chloropidae 57 Muscidae 58 Glossinidae 59 Calliphoridae 510 Oestridae 511 Sarcophagidae 512 Tachinidae

6 Impact of Human Activities upon Dipterans Communities in Tropical Savannas Bees of the Brazilian Savannah 301 Isabel Alves-dos-Santos Dept Ecologia IBUSP University of Satildeo Paulo Satildeo Paulo 05508-900 Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Diversity of the Brazilian Cerrado Bees 3 Nest habitats of the Cerrado Bees 4 Final Remarks The Capybara its Biology and Management 323 J Ojasti Instituto de Zoologia Tropical Facultad de Ciencias UCV Venezuela 1 Introduction 2 Origin and Classification 3 General characters 4 Distribution 5 Biological aspects

51 Semi-aquatic habits 52 Foraging and diet 53 Digestion 54 Reproduction 55 Growth and Age 56 Behavior

6 Population Dynamics 61 Estimation of abundance

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxviii


62 Population densities 63 Birth mortality and production rates

7 Capybara in the savanna ecosystems 8 Management for Sustainable Use

81 Hunting and Products 82 Management of the Harvest 83 Habitat Management 84 Captive Breeding

Tropical Savannas ndash Introduction 341 Gerhard Gottsberger and Ilse Silberbauer-Gottsberger Botanischer Garten and Herbarium Universitaumlt Ulm D-89081 Ulm Germany 1 Introductory Remarks 2 Definition of Savanna 3 Location and Extension of Tropical Savannas 4 Cerrado and Neotropical Savannas 5 Paleoclimate Paleoecological Changes and Origin of Cerrado and South American Savannas 6 Climate 7 Soil Properties and Relationships among Soil Vegetation and Plants 8 Cerrado Vegetation Physiognomy 9 The Origin of the Cerrado Flora 10 Floristic Diversity and Community Structure 11 Physiognomic Characters Life Forms Growth Forms and Underground Organs 12 Water Balance Nutrient Availability and Xeromorphic and Scleromorphic Features of Cerrado

Plants 13 Fire and its Influence on Plants and Vegetation 14 Seasonality and Rhythm of Vegetation 15 Events and Processes Leading to Reproduction and Seed Formation 16 Sex Expression and Breeding Systems 17 Animals and their Role as Seed Dispersal Agents 18 The Study of Dispersal in Cerrado Vegetation Index 381 About EOLSS 385

VOLUME XI

Mangroves of the Reef Domain A Case Study in Belize 1 Ilka C Feller Smithsonian Environmental Research Center Smithsonian Institution 647 Contees Wharf Rd Edgewater MD 21037 USA Klaus RuetzlerNational Museum of Natural History Smithsonian Institution Washington DC 20560 USA 1 Introduction

11 Mangroves Definitions Distribution and Ecological and Economic Significance 12 Threats to Mangroves

2 A Case Study in Belize 21 Oceanic Mangrove Forests in the Reef Domain 22 The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef 23 Structure and Diversity of Mangrove Forests on Oceanic Islands 24 Mangrove Island Communities

241 Terrestrial Communities

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxix


242 Marine Communities 243 Prop Root Communities 244 Benthic Communities 245 Seagrass Communities 246 Microbial Communities

3 Conclusions Tropical Insect Diversity - How to Sample it 35 J T Longino The Evergreen State College Olympia WA USA 1 Introduction

11 Why Sample Insects 12 ATBI versus ABTI 13 The Taxonomic Impediment 14 Favorite Taxa

141 Butterflies 142 Ants 143 Dung Beetles

2 The Species x Sample Matrix 3 Sampling Methods

31 Volumetric Methods 311 Direct Visual Inspection of Samples 312 Berlese Samples 313 Winkler Samples 314 Branch Bagging and Canopy Fogging

32 Individual-based Hunting and Trapping Methods 321 Aerial Netting Sweeping and Beating 322 Malaise Traps and Flight Intercept Traps 323 Pitfall Traps 324 Attraction to Lights 325 Baiting

4 Measuring Diversity 41 Graphing Diversity 42 Diversity Indices 43 Species Area versus Local Community 44 Pooled-Quadrat Plots 45 Species Accumulation Curves 46 Species Density versus Species Richness 47 Rarefaction 48 Estimating Species Richness

481 Extrapolating Species Accumulation Curves 482 Fitting Parametric Models 483 Non-Parametric Methods

49 Hyperdiverse Tropical Insects 410 Recommendations

The Impact of Forest Fragmentation on Populations of New World Primates 59 Stephen F Ferrari Department of Biology Universidade Federal de Sergipe So Cristvo Sergipe Brazil 1 Introduction 2 New World Monkeys 3 Effects of Habitat Fragmentation 4 A Short History of Human Impact in the Neotropics 5 Diversity Patterns 6 Fragmentation and Conservation 7 The effects of anthropogenic habitat fragmentation

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xl


8 Conservation strategies 9 The Future Life in the Treetops ndash A Concise Summary of Forest Canopy Ecology 83 Margaret D Lowman Professor of Biology and Environmental Studies Director of Environmental Initiatives New College of Florida USA Center for Canopy Ecology Sarasota FL USA 1 History of Canopy Biology

11 Introduction 12 Chronology of the Development of Canopy Access Tools 13 History of the Development of Advances in Canopy Research

2 Canopy Access Techniques 21 Introduction 22 Advantages of Current Methods of Canopy Access 23 Long Term Collaborative Canopy Research 24 Future Directions for Canopy Access

3 Case Studies of Critical Canopy Questions 31 Sessile Organisms 32 Mobile Organisms 33 Canopy Processes and Interactions 34 Canopy Education Outreach

4 Future Directions 5 Conclusions Natural History of Amazon Fishes 113 Lucelia Nobre Carvalho and Jansen Zuanon Coordenacao de Pesquisas em Biologia Aquatica Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazocircnia Brazil Ivan Sazima Departamento de Zoologia and Museu de Historia Natural Universidade Estadual de Campinas Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Main aquatic environments of the Amazon 3 Fish diversity and community structure 4 Time and space activity periods territoriality and resource partitioning among fishes 5 Reproduction different responses to environmental factors 6 Feeding tactics trophic specializations and ecological interactions 7 Predator-prey interactions taking the chances 8 Defense by disguise dealing with risks posed by visually guided predators 9 Conclusions and perspectives The danger of introducing bee species A case study on Brazilian Tropical Savanna 145 Helena Maura Torezan Silingardi InBio Universidade Federal de Uberlacircndia Uberlacircndia MG BrazilFFCLRP Universidade de Satildeo Paulo Ribeirao Preto SP Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Material and Methods

21 The Field Area 22 The Plant Species 23 Floral Biology 24 Reproductive Biology 25 Floral Visitors

3 Results 31 Floral Biology 32 Reproductive Biology 33 Floral Visitors

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xli


4 Discussion and Conclusions Diversity of Tropical Spiders - Ground-Dwelling Species of Brazilian Savannas 157 Marina Farcic Mineo Federal University of Uberlandia Brazil Kleber Del Claro Biology Institute Federal University of Uberlandia Brazil 1 Introduction 2 The Araneae order 3 The diversity of spiders

31 Web-building Spiders 311 Orb-weaving Spiders 312 Tangle-web Weavers 313 Sheet-web Weavers 314 Funnel-web Weavers

32 Non-web-building Spiders 321 Jumping Spiders 322 Cursorial Spiders 323 Sit-and-wait Spiders

33 Considerations 4 Ground-dwelling spiders of Brazilian savannas

41 Ground-dwelling Spiders 42 The Brazilian Savannas 43 Methods 44 Results and Discussion

5 Conclusion Natural History and Social Behavior in Neotropical Pseudoscorpions 177 Everton Tizo-Pedroso Universidade Federal de Uberlandia Programa de Pos-graduacao em Ecologia e Conservacao de Recursos Naturais CP 593 Cep 38400-902 Uberlandia MG Brasil Kleber Del-Claro Universidade Federal de Uberlandia Instituto de Biologia CP 593 Cep 38400-902 Uberlandia MG Brasil 1 Introduction

11 What we know about the Order Pseudoscorpiones 12 Predatory Behavior and Feeding Habits 13 Reproductive Behavior 14 Development Life Cycle and Parental Care 15 Living Together

2 The Social Pseudoscorpions 21 Distribution and Occurrence of the Social Pseudoscorpion Species 22 Colony Structure Growth and Division 23 Forage and Feeding Habits of Social Pseudoscorpions 24 Cohesion and Cooperation 25 Parental Care

3 New Directions Natural History of Tropical Parasitoid Wasps 194 M O Gonzaga Instituto de Biologia Universidade Federal de Uberlacircndia 1 What is a Parasitoid 2 Life Histories 3 Host Location 4 Host Selection and Acceptance 5 Variation in Natural History and Study Cases

51 Ichneumonidae and Braconidae

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xlii


52 Scelionidae 53 Mutillidae 54 Non-pollinating Fig Wasps 55 Ampulicidae

6 Host behavior Manipulation Index 211 About EOLSS 215

copyEncyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xliii


CONTENTS

VOLUME I

Tropical Biology and Natural Resources Historical Pathways and Perspectives 1 K Del-Claro Institute of Biology Federal University of Uberlandia Brazil 1 Introduction 2 The Foundations of Tropical Biology

21 Linnaeus Humboldt and the Illuminists 22 The Victorian Naturalists

3 New Insights in Tropical Biology 4 Important Topics in Tropical Biology

41 Tropical Ecology 42 Tropical Botany 43 Tropical Zoology 44 Tropical Agriculture Phytopathology and Entomology 45 Other Topics

5 Conclusion and Outlook The Importance Of Natural History Studies To The Knowledge Of Tropical Plants 23 H M Torezan-Silingardi Institute of Biology Federal University of Uberlndia Minas Gerais Brazil 1 Introduction 2 This Session Seasonally Dry Deciduous Forests Diversity And Soils In Arboreal Communities 27 A R T Nascimento G M Arauacutejo Instituto de Biologia Universidade Federal de Uberlacircndia (UFU) Brazil J M Felfili Departamento de Engenharia Florestal Universidade de Brasiacutelia (UNB) Brazil 1 Introduction 2 Ecology and community structure 3 Arboreal vegetation in seasonally dry tropical forests in Central Brazil 4 Soils and Vegetation relationships 5 Final Remarks Morphology And Anatomy Of Tropical Flowers 41 Luiz Antonio de Souza and Ismar Sebastiatildeo Moscheta Universidade Estadual de Maringaacute Departamento de Biologia Avenida Colombo 5790 (87020-900) Maringaacute Paranaacute Brasil 1 Introduction 2 Flower morphology and anatomy

21 Hypsophylls 22 Floral Pedicel 23 Floral Receptacle 24 Anthophylls 25 PerianthPerigone

251 Calyx 252 Corolla 253 Perigone

26 Hypanthium 27 Androecium

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