TU-Chemnitz, "Culture in Language: Research in Variation, Variation in Research", July 2011 Daniel...

TU-Chemnitz, "Culture in Language: Research in Variation, Variation in Research", July 2011

Daniel A. Nkemleke

Academic writing practices in Cameroon English, culture and

variation

Daniel A. Nkemleke

[email protected]

University of Yaounde I/TU-Chemnitz

TU-Chemnitz: "Culture in Language" July 1 - 3, 2011

Daniel A. Nkemleke 2

Outline

1. Introduction: language, culture and variation Linking language and idea of culture Language practices in different cultures

2. Academic writing as community practice Conventions, Styles and Community Critique of a horizontal relationship

3. Academic culture Two views of culture Academic writing as cultural practice

4. Theoretical premise Galtung’s (1981) Intellectual Styles Kaplan’s (1966/1980) Cultural Thought Patterns

5. Data and methodology6. Fingings Grandiloquent style (discoursal and lexical levels) Textual architecture (from general to specific vs. specific to general) In-Text strategies (metadiscourse and hedging)

7. Conclusion8. A word on ICE-Cameroon



1. Introduction:language, culture and variation

1.1 Linking language and idea of culture

The link between culture and language has always been a strong one, with the understanding that the “spirit” of language exerts a formative influence on its speakers and writers (German philosopher, Karl Wilhelm von Humboldt, 1767-1835)

“le style est l’homme même” (style makes a man) (Dournon 1994)

There is a long tradition in world Englishes of investigating “sociolinguistic

realities” and “bilingual creativity” of Outer-Circle and Expanding-Circles societies (Kachru 1983; Mauranen 1993a)



language, culture and variation

1.2 Variation of language practices in different cultures

Differences in the ways of speaking prevailing in different societies and different communities are profound and systematic, and reflect the different cultural values (Wierzbicka 1990)

Contrastive linguistic studies have explored cross-cultural differences in thought and writing patterns (Kaplan 1966/1980; Galtung 1981; Clyne 1981, 1987; House 1997 etc.)



2. Academic writing as community practice

2.1 Conventions, communities and styles

Academic writing is writing done by students, researchers/scholars, or simply stated, writing practices in an academic community such as the university. Such writing should enable community practioners to acquire and understand knowledge; and manipulate such knowledge in appropriate styles and conventions in the disciplinary or discourse community (Bailey & Heritage 2008; Chamot & O’Malley 1994; Schleppegrell 2004)

Academic English has become increasing conventionalized, developing its own specific ways of “doing” and “saying” things (Bizzell 1994)



Academic writing as community practice

2.2 Critique of a horizontal relationship

• The term “community”, “conventions” and “styles” often placed alongside prominent qualifiers of ‘discourse’ and ‘practices’ implies homogeneity and idealization that downplays asymmetrical relationships (cf. Barton & Tusting 2005; Ivanič 1998; Prior 1998, 2003)

• “Community” is a horizontal metaphor which dominates the sociolinguistic study of language, and there is the need to include a vertical dimension to the notion of community (cf. Blommaert 2006)



3: Academic culture

3.1 Two views of culture

An “open” view of culture is often identified with the behaviour, the rituals or ceremonies, the songs, dances, narratives and other cultural artefacts of individual societies. This is what is implied in phrases like: (1) African cultural evening, (2) Japanese culture, (3) Turkish culture etc.

A cognitive view such as the one expressed in Holland & Quinn (1987) sees culture as “shared presuppositions about the world”. This view defines culture as knowledge, acquired through membership of a particular community



Academic culture

3.2 Are there academic ways of “doing”?

Sociology of science: academic discourse is both socially situated and structured as to accomplish rhetorical objectives

Academic writing is a set of rules, regulations, practices, and attitudes on how texts should be written and presented by

members who participate in that discourse community

If these objectives can be achieved through certain linguistic devices, then use of those devices constitute ways of writing



4. Theoretical Premise

4.1 Galtung’s (1981) metaphors in intellectual styles

‘Saxon’: USA/UK ‘Teutonic’: Germany ‘Gallic’: France ‘Nipponic’:Japan

Galtung correlates these styles of sociological thought and writing in terms of criteria such academic ability to (1) analyze paradigms, (2) generate hypotheses (or ‘propositions’), (3) form theories, (4) describe parameters and comment on the work of others



Theoretical Premise

The ‘Saxon’ intellectual style (English)

Characterized by avid collection and organization of data

Analysis of all sources, concealing nothing

Strong on hypothesis generation, but weak on theory formation

Engaged in dialogue with their peers, less elitist

More tolerant of diversity “objective” statements on language



Theoretical Premise

The ‘Teutonic’ intellectual style (German)

Focus on fundamental issues of theory formation and deductive reasoning rather data analysis and induction

Less democratic and strongly elitist, with academic knowledge passing from ‘master’ to ‘apprentice’

Academic debates centres around the weakness of others’ line of argument



Theoretical Premise

The ‘Nipponic’ intellectual style (Japanese)

Dialectic way of thinking

Little or no theory at all being developed

Never pronounce absolute statements

Underlying figure of theory is a circle

Tolerant and democratic



Theoretical Premise

The ‘Gallic’ intellectual style (French)

Intellectual activity has at its very center theory formation

Preoccupied with linguistic artistry

Persuasion is carried by elegance

Clarity and elegance of style are as important as theory

formation

Criticism of peers is concealed behind the smoke screen of language



Theoretical Premise

The typical question asked when confronted with a proposition

Saxon: How do you operationize (US version)?

How do you document it (UK version)?

Teutonic: How can you trace this back to basic principles?

(Wie kőnnen Sie das ableiten?)

Nipponic: Who is your master?

Gallic: Can we say this in good French?

(“Peut-on dire cela en bon Français?”)



Theoretical Premise

What looks like a Gallic Style here?

Application for a jobSir,

It has been so immense for me and previlegious [sic] to drop to you this note, asking for a job opportunity. I wish to table before you that I would like you to employ me as a driver in your society.

Sir, my curriculum vitae behind this paper will brief you on my driving experiences as well as educational qualifications. Even though driving is not my priority you could still employ me as a cleaner, day watch, yard boy, houseboy, or anything you feel you could do to help if there is no driving opportunity there may be other jobs that you will be convinced could still do.

I am waiting to have a positive response from you Sir,

Thank you

Yours Sincerely



Theoretical Premise

What looks like a Gallic Style here?

Application for a holiday job

Sir,

I have the honour and respect to come to you to apply for help. Please having obtained my Ordinary and Advanced Level certificates but now presently in the house without going to the university because I was not given the opportunity by my parents for the reason that they had no money.

I would be very grateful if you would kindly offer me a job in your company so as to enable me earn some monies that I may go to the university.

Sir, your kind consideration would be highly appreciated.

Your humbly servant



Theoretical Premise

4.2 Kaplan’s Cultural Thought Patterns (1966/1980)

Kaplan (1966/1980) differences in paragraph structure

English Semitic Oriental Romance Russian



Theoretical Premise

The relationship between underlying thought patterns and language design in African and Indian Englishes have been investigated and documented (see Taiwo 1976; Pandharipande 1983; Y. Kachru 1983)

Question: Does the following text from the Corpus of Cameroon English (private letter component) illustrate a style that might be linked to a Thought Pattern above?



Theoretical Premise

Hello Male 1, How is life at the moment? Hope everything is on the good footing. As you know I will not come down to Yaounde. I may come down if there should be new presidential elections in March. What I wanted to inform you is that you should really help me and gather my things for me. Take my radio cassette from Male2 and my dictionary [R1]. Ask male3 to give you my notes on constitutional law History and Civil law [R2]. Also go down with Male4 to our former landlord and collect some of the things there [R3]. I seriously need those things especially the distributor [R4]. Please I am really begging on you to gather these things for me [R5]. Some of the things are in Male6’s house I hope you know the place [R6]. I have along my travelling bag in which to put some of the things. You can even take them and keep in Male6’s house and when you see someone coming you can then give them to the person. The most essential thing is that the things should be gathered in one place so that I can direct anybody at any moment to collect them [R7].

Signed.



Theoretical Premise

4.3 Extrapolating relevant aspects for interpretation of results

Galtung’s portrayal of Gallic intellectual style as preoccupied with linguistic artistry is relevant in the interpretation of my results

E.g. - Flamboyant language or expressive style

- Preference for “big” words

Kaplan’s characterization of Semitic Thought Patterns as cyclical and repetitive is relevant in the interpretation of some of the results

E.g. - Tendency for repetition (as in text above)



5. Data and methodology

5.1 Data

A corpus of 7 articles of 44,458 words submitted for publication in the

Cameroonian-based journal, Review Syllabus, 2009-2010 (

http://ens.cm/spip.php?article337). A corpus of conference abstracts of 30,405 words submitted for the Younde

International conferences of 2005 and 2006

5.2 Method Hierarchy of text: which macro-proportions are dependent on which?

Text dynamics: how texts are developed (metadiscourse) and how

propositions are presented (hedging)



6. Findings

6.1 Grandiloquent style (discoural and lexical) Text 1. Ba’bila Mutia in Before This Time, Yesterday successfully sublimates

politics into the rigours of art. In the effort to recreate an aesthetic that has eternal appeal in man’s striving to overthrow what tyrannizes the spirit, the playwright construes that the erosion of state legitimacy is what might have compelled the authoritarian, neo-colonial regime to unleash a violent backlash against the forces that were advocating democratic changes in the Cameroonian society. Yet, in using theatre as a historical necessity, and seemingly abstracting from the historical dialectic to inform and authenticate the depiction of atavistic dysfunctionality, the pathological asymmetries of modern life are not placed in critical perspective, and character is consequently sacrificed for artistic pattern. Thus, in the attempt to pursue a vigorous criticism, the paper questions concepts of mimesis and production thereby emphasizing the dialectical relationship between the context of Mutia’s historical drama and its specific content and form. Of course the place of post-colonial pedagogy (Fanon, Said, Baol, Ngugi) is crucial in that it clarifies the philosophical underpinning of liberal humanist critical positions by removing emotive elements in the discourse in order to enable objective engagements.



Findings

Grandiloquent style (discoural and lexical)

Text 2. In analyzing the relativistic conception of the individual with regards to the larger and apparently homogenous society this paper will contemplate many questions: are knowledge and morality compatible? Is morality a subjective or an objective standardization of the mores of society? Can psychological self-exile help the individual from falling into moral depression and degeneration? Do the authors under study succeed in fathoming the moral rightness or wrongness of the situation they handle?

Text 3. It is within this context that this paper charts the argument that to these authors under study, knowledge instead of having the Promethean significance of freeing the individual from the chains of existential constraints, fails to negotiate the construction of their social and moral identity



Findings

6.2 Text architecture From General to specific about 70%

Text 4. That English is the most spoken language in the world is no longer subject to any debate. The language has spread its tentacles to almost all the corners of the globe assuming different functions and statuses. This is an unprecedented spread has raised a number of concerns prominent among which is the problem of the model that should be used in each English-speaking setting. The debate becomes even more serious when it comes to the question of the model to be used in Non-Native settings like India and Cameroon. While some researchers think that a native model should be imposed on Non-native users so as to guarantee international intelligibility, some of them think that each Non-Native English setting should use the local model developed there because it serves as a marker of the speaker’s cultural identity. There is equally a third school of thought which advocates the establishment of a neutral international model that can serve both Native and Non-Native users. As this debate goes on, the teacher and learner of English seem to be facing a serious challenge. This paper aims to examine this problem from a Non-Native English perspective, with Cameroon as a case study.



Findings

From specific to general (about 23%)

Text 5. This paper aims at charting a number of questions for instance, whether or not the intrusion of theory into the literary text influences the reader’s perception of the author’s intention? Does New Historicist readings of the plays of Butake, Besong, Tanyi-Tang and Nkemngong help in bringing to the forefront these playwrights or does it on the contrary efface their historical relevance? If these theories influence the perception of the meaning of the texts, and vice versa, then is it right to say that theory exists because the texts does or vice versa? Although this paper attempts a New Historicist reading of these texts, its overall aim would be to demonstrate the extent to which literary theory impacts on a deeper understanding of literary texts. Theory can lead and sometimes does leads to subjective apprehension of intention. It helps in capturing sometimes-unfathomable levels of meanings, and authorial reality. Were it is acutely lacking like in our Cameroonian institutions, the disservice it does to literary interpretation is enormous. This paper will argue that theory elevates the literary text from the banality of “all-goes” to more refined and focused ideological strains.



Findings

No obvious pattern; just round and round

Rare but occurs

Text 6. Cameroonian creative writers of English expression have adopted an imperial language, English, and the novelistic art form to serve the Cameroonian vision. Like many others, the four novels discussed in this article (The Disillusioned African (1995) by Francis B. Nyamnjoh, Across the Mongolo (2004) by J.N. Nkengasong, The Death Certificate (2004) by Alobwed’Epie and The Deadly Honey (2002) by Eugene J. Kongnyuy are exploring, dramatizing and exposing the mores, and critiquing the social ills that plague the Cameroonian/African society; in the process, they are entertaining, interpreting and educating the very society. The teaching, the instructional, dimension of this form of imaginative literature resides in the inspiring lessons drawn from the novels, the moral emerging from them or the subtle messages delivered by their authors, in a manner peculiar to literary art, all of this for the benefit of the socially deprived or oppressed. Herein lies the instructional value of the four texts



Findings

6.3 Textual strategies

6.3.1 Metadiscourse

Metadiscourse is generally understood as text about the text or discourse about the on-going discourse (Vande Kopple 1985; Mauranen 1993b; Rahman 2004)

Metadiscourse is ‘writing about writing, whatever does not refer to the subject matter being addressed’

Metadiscourse provides a way of talking to the reader and consists of several categories



Findings

Some examples of metadiscourse

“connectors” show the organization of the text and make the structure easier to perceive (e.g. therefore, in the first section, finally)

“code glosses” help the reader to understand intended textual by expanding on what is said through various ways (e.g. for example, in other words, namely, for instance)

“directives” direct the reader (e.g. let us, if we consider)

“inclusive pronouns” establishing connections with the reader (we, us, our)



Findings

Text-organizing metadiscourse

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Forms

Fre

q. Abstracts

Articles

World Englishes



Findings

Some examples of text-organizing metadiscourse

Cause, concessive Traditional African Religions, there is the proliferation of Western religious traditions

amongst which are Christianity and Islam. However, while the Africans accept religious co-existence as a multicultural reality, African writers on their part, especially contemporary African playwrights (Absts 05_06.txt)

Means, expectant 59…of Nigeria. Any extra profits were to be used for the benefit of the people of the

Trust territory (Konings 39). Thus presented, it was clear that the specific concerns of the Bakweri were not addressed while determining the future of ..(Syllabus 09_10.txt)

Addition, additive (very few cases, why?) 4 rank highest (17.1%). All these simply imply that most teachers and head teachers

do not have computers in their homes. Furthermore, teachers were asked to indicate how often they go to their school computer room per week. Responses collected indicate (Syllabus 09_10.txt)



Findings

Participant-oriented metadiscourse

0 20 40 60 80 100

we

us

our

Fo

rms

Freq.

World Englishes

Articles

Abstracts



Findings

Some examples of participant-oriented metadiscourse

Inclusive first person pronouns …30 comes a time when even the most compliant people must rise up in righteous

indignation and declare “ENOUGH IS ENOUGH”. Our silence in the face of persistent and systematic abuse and misuse of our patrimony by others has been mistaken for weak (Syllabus 09_10.txt)

…practices basing its focus on the relation between domination, resistance, centre and margin. This approach helps us to understand the colonial mind and to be able to see how education can be re-thought in the Caribbean. The paper will (Absts 05_06.txt)

..values and mores into the background. It seems before long, some traditions in Africa (Cameroon) would be forgotten. We have observed a lacuna of oral literature in contemporary Cameroonian education, just as a dearth of published works in.. (Absts 05_06.txt)



Findings

6.3.2 Hedging

• “Hedges”: interactive elements that serve as a bridge between the propositional information in the text and the writer’s factual interpretation

Communicative potential of any language Fact: This drug will help you recover quickly

Hedge: (distancing oneself from the statement) This drug may/could/might help you recover quickly



Findings

Four reasons for hedging:

1. Cover-up tactics: hedges as scientific imprecision

tone down one’s statement reduce risk of opposition signal distance minimize the “threat to face

(Kabui 1988; Fand 1989; Salager-Meyer 1994)



Findings

2. Ways of being more precise in reporting results : hedges as representation of writer’s true state of knowledge

they may be used to negotiate an accurate representation of the state of knowledge under discussion

(genuine uncertainty)

writer purposefully chooses to remain vague (purposeful obfuscation or real lack of confidence)



Findings

3. Positive or negative politeness startegies

present claims pending acceptance by the academic community to deny claims presented by others

4. Conventionalized writing style

“a certain degree of hedging has become conventionalized, i.e. the function of hedges is not necessarily to avoid face-threatening acts, but simply to conform to an established writing stale. A totally un-hedged style would not be considered serious by journal editors” (Bank 1994)



Findings

Modals

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

may

might

could

would

Fo

rms

Frequency

World Englishes

Articles

Abstracts



Findings

Epistemic adverbs

0 5 10 15 20

usually

probably

certainly

possibly

Fo

rms

Frequency

World Englishes

Articles

Abstracts



Findings

Epistemic adjectives

0 5 10 15 20 25

possible

likely

sure

obvious

evident

probable

certain

Fo

rms

Frequency

World Englishes

Articles

Abstracts



Findings

Evidential verbs

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

seem(s)

tend(s)

appear(s)

Fo

rms

Frequency

World Englishes

Articles

Abstracts



Findings

Judgement verbs

0 10 20 30 40

think

suggest(s)

indicate(s)

Forms

Fre

q.

World Englishes

Articles

Abstracts



Findings

Recapitulating hedging features

Overal hedges devices

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Modals Epistemicadverbs

Epistemicadjectives

Evidentialverbs

Judgementverbs

Forms

Ab

so

lute

Fre

q.

Abstracts

Articles

World Englishes



Findings

The bigger picture of hedging from other Cameroon English texts academic (Nkemleke forthcoming)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Hedge forms

Raw

fre

q.



7. Conclusion

Last word about academic writing in Cameroon English

How much of “culture”/” and/or specificity” is involved?

How much of THIS may be attributed to the role of instruction?



8. A word about ICE-CAM (2008-?)

Aim: ICE-CAM is intended to be a Cameroonian component of the International Corpus of English Project

University of Yaounde I/TU-Chemnitz joint venture, started Feb. 2008 Funded by Alexander von Humboldt Foundation

Preliminary results:

Written (Goal: 400,000 words envisaged, collected: 660,000 words) Spoken (Goal: 100,000 words envisaged, transcribed: 67,000 words)



Composition of ICE-CAM (written)

Students’ Essays 150,000 Skills and Hobbies 66,300

Examination Scripts 45,900 Editorials 28,800

Social Letters 77,700 Novels 66,800

Business Letters 11,400 Humanities (Academic) 68,000

Humanities (Popular) 53,700 Social Sciences (Academic) 65,000

Social Sciences (Popular) 40,000 Natural Science (Academic) 20,700

Natural Science (Popular) ? Technology (Academic) ?

Technology (Popular) 15,000 Press Reports 32,900

Administrative writing 65,000



Composition of ICE-CAM (spoken)

Conversations (Private) Collected

Broadcast Interviews (Public) Collected

Legal cross Examination (Public) ------------

Class Lessons (Public) Collected

Broadcast Discussion (Public) Collected

Commentaries (Unscripted) Collected

Unscripted Speech (Unscripted) -----------

Demonstrations (Unscripted) -----------

Legal presentations (Unscripted) -----------

Broadcast News (Scripted) Collected

Broadcast Talks (Scripted) Collected

Religions Sermons 26,000 words transcribed

Dissertation Defence 41,000 Words transcribed



Existing corpus of Cameroon English (1992-1994)

No. Text category No. Of texts

No. Of words

A Official Press (OP) 183 250,000

B Students‘ Essays (SE) 116 130,760

C Miscellaneous (MI) 32 122,569

D Novels & Short stories (NS) 21 104,458

E Private Press (PP) 50 48,362

F Gov‘t Memo (GM) 14 89,707

G Private letters (PL) 222 84,362

H Tourism (TR) 8 45,203

I Religion (RE) 121 30,854

J Official Letters (OL) 44 25,647

K Advertisement (AD) 10 19,562

Total 821 900,000



END

Academic writing practices in Cameroon English, culture and

variation

Daniel A. Nkemleke

[email protected]

Office: Reichenhainer 39/018



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